A Theological synthesis of the Gospel according to Mark

(τὸ κατὰ Μᾶρκον εὐαγγέλιον)

Mark 1:1

Ἀρχὴ τοῦ εὐαγγελίου Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ υἱοῦ θεοῦ.

Initium evangelii Iesu Christi Filii Dei.
The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of
God
El principio del evangelio de Jesucristo, el Hijo de Dios

Outline:
1. Introduction
2. General Questions:
a. Author
b. Date of Composition
c. Place of composition
d. Audience
3. General Structure of the Book
4. Literary Questions
5. Theological Questions in the Gospel of Mark
6. Conclusion
2. Introduction
For centuries, the Church paid little attention to the Gospel of Mark because it was considered
as merely an abbreviated version of Matthew, with little value of its own. 1 Some other biases
against Mark included: Mark is an indirect witness, and therefore, less important than Matthew
and John; It has little material of its own; It is the shortest of the gospels; does not show any
theological development (Luke deepens in mercy, Matthew in the expected Messiah, John in
Christology). These views changed radically in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries when Mark
came to be viewed as the first Gospel written and so of significant historical value. Mark was now
considered the oldest of the Gospels with few interpretations of the editor and would
subsequently turn into a historical source closer to the facts. In recent years, scholars have come

1
Cf. Augustine of Hippo, Harmony of the Gospels, Book 1, Chapter 2. Augustine, who greatly influences later theology,
considered Mark a summary of Matthew.

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to appreciate Mark’s Gospel as a unique literary work with its own narrative structure, theological
themes, and Christological purpose. The Gospel reveals a fascinating and unique portrait of Jesus,
an important contribution to the Church’s understanding of Jesus the Messiah and the Son of
God.
In what follows we shall attempt a summary of the basic historical, literary and theological
questions around the Gospel according to Mark.
3. General Questions
a. Author/Authorship
The earliest extant statement about the Authorship of the Gospel according to St Mark is a
quotation in Eusebius Ecclesiastical History III.39.15 from a lost exposition of the Lord's sayings
written by Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, about A.D. 140. It may be translated as follows:
And the Elder said this also: Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down
accurately all that he remembered of the things said and done by the Lord, but not
however in order. For neither did he hear the Lord, nor did he follow Him, but
afterwards, as I said, Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs (of the hearers),
but not as though he were drawing up a connected account of the Lord's oracles. So
then Mark made no mistake in thus recording some things just as he remembered
them, for he made it his one care to omit nothing that he had heard and to make no
false statement therein.'2

The 'Anti-Marcionite Prologue' to Mark perhaps dated as early as 160-80 is another testimony. It
states:
...Marcus adseruit, qui colobodactylus est nominatus, ideo quod ad ceteram corporis
proceritatem digitos minores habuisset. isle interpres fuit Petri, post excessionem
ipsius Petri descripsit idem hoc in partibus Italiae evangelium.

“…Mark declared, who is called "stump-fingered", because he had rather small fingers
in comparison with the stature of the rest of his body. He was the interpreter of Peter.
After the death of Peter himself he wrote down this same gospel in the regions of
Italy.”3

The unanimous tradition of the early Church that the author of the gospel was Mark, the
associate of Peter, is not open to serious doubt.4 While the gospel provides no direct internal
evidence in support of the tradition, it contains nothing which is incompatible with it and a good

2
Quoted in TAYLOR, V., The Gospel According to St. Mark, New York: Macmillan and Company Limited, 1966, p. 2.
3
Ibid., p. 3.
4
There are also evidences from Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, The Muratorian Canon, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and
Jerome. In sum, we may say that, from the beginning of the second century, the external evidence agrees in ascribing
the authorship of the Gospel to Mark, 'the interpreter of Peter', and, despite later opinions which fixed on
Alexandria, in assigning its place of composition to Rome.

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deal that points to a connection with Peter. But is this Mark, who is presumably also the person
referred to in 1Pet 5: 13, further to be identified with the Mark of Acts 12: 12, 25, (13:13), 15: 37-
9, Col. 4. 10, 2Tim. 4. 11 and Philem. 24?
Objections have been raised to this identification, but they are unconvincing. The objection that
the gospel contains blunders concerning Palestinian conditions which would hardly have been
made by someone who had grown up in Jerusalem loses its impressiveness when it is realized
that the most significant of these alleged blunders, the Markan dating of the Passion in relation
to the Passover, is probably not a blunder at all. The explanation of the failure of writers earlier
than Jerome to make this identification explicitly is probably that they took it for granted and
assumed that their readers would do so too.
It is virtually certain that the Mark who is the associate of Peter and the author of the gospel and
the Mark of Acts and the Pauline epistles are one and the same person.
Although the patristic tradition is unanimous in asserting that Mark wrote this Gospel, many
modern authors have pointed that the problems with Papias´s witness suggest caution in
regarding Mark as the “Gospel of Peter”. Peter appears in many incidents in the Gospel and could
have been the source of the information about sayings and deeds of Jesus. However, today
scholars accept that even though Mark could have been Peter´s “interpreter,” Mark had other
sources from which he composed his gospel.
b. Date of Composition
That Mark wrote his gospel after Peter's death is stated in the 'Anti-Marcionite Prologue' and by
Irenaeus and is probably implied by Papias. It is confirmed by the internal evidence of the gospel,
the relentlessness with which the apostle's failures are recorded being most easily
understandable on the assumption that he had already died a martyr's death by the time Mark
was writing: Mark's frankness, which earlier would have seemed malicious, would after Peter's
martyrdom be welcomed as underlining the encouragement it afforded to weak disciples. This
gives us A.D. 65 as our terminus a quo, for it is certain that Peter died in the Neronian persecution
of 64-5. The use of Mark by the later Synoptics makes a date later than A.D. 70 unlikely. As such
Mark could be dated between 65 and 70, and probably, since chapter 13 is not coloured by any
awareness of the actual events of the Jewish War of 66-70 (contrast Lk 21: 20-24), it is
conveniently dated before the later stages of the war, that is 65-67.
c. Place of composition
The fact that Mark supplies translations of Aramaic expressions (3: 17, 5: 41, 7: 11, 34, 15: 22)
and explanations of Jewish customs (7:3ff; 15: 42) suggests that he wrote for Gentiles. The “Anti-
Marcionite Prologue” states that he wrote the gospel in Italy. Clement of Alexandria implies that
he wrote it in Rome. Some support for Rome is afforded by 1Pet 5: 13; for, if the epistle is Petrine,

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the verse is direct evidence that Mark was in Rome5 shortly before Peter's martyrdom, and, even
if the epistle is pseudonymous and to be dated as late as 112, it is evidence of the existence of a
tradition to that effect at the beginning of the second century. It is possible that Mk 15: 21 also
points to Rome; for the fact that Simon's sons are mentioned by name suggests that they were
known to the church for which Mark was writing, and it is reasonably likely that Simon's son Rufus
is to be identified with the Rufus named by Paul (Rom 16: 13) in a series of greetings which were
probably addressed to the church in Rome.
The rapid and wide dissemination of the gospel, of which the use made of it by the later Synoptics
and probably also the Fourth Evangelist is evidence, suggests that it had behind it the authority
of an important church: such a church the one in Rome certainly was—though of course there
were others. The prominence given by Mark to sayings about persecution and martyrdom (e.g.
8: 34-8, 13: 9-13) might perhaps be regarded as a pointer to Rome: at least it would be very
understandable, if the gospel was written there soon after the Neronian persecution.
The arguments in favour of Rome are not conclusive, but they are much stronger than those put
forward in support of any other place. Antioch, which has been preferred by a few modern
scholars, has perhaps the next best claim; but the explanation of the two mites as equivalent to
a quadrans, a coin that was not in circulation in the east, in 12: 42 and the presence of a
considerable number of other Latin loanwords and of some possible Latinisms of idiom tell in
favour of a western rather than an eastern origin. The statement of Chrysostom that Mark wrote
the gospel in Egypt is doubtless a mistake: it probably rests on a misunderstanding of a statement
in Eusebius' History (11. 16). Many scholars today believe Mark’s Gospel was written in Rome to
the persecuted church there.
d. Purpose, Occasion and Audience
What specific life situation prompted Mark to write? Mark wrote his Gospel to deepen the faith
of the members of his community. By showing them how the traditions about Jesus related to
their belief in the saving significance of the cross and resurrection, the evangelist equipped them
to face persecution and resist the temptations of their world. Many theories about Mark´s
purpose has been outlined: to preserve the reminiscences of Peter and other eyewitnesses, to
combat a false Christology or some other heresy, to provide a lectionary for Christian worship, or
to provide material for Christian baptismal or Easter liturgies.
These many theories could be summarized in three directions: (1) The first is historical. As the
original apostles began to pass from the scene, Mark sought to record for posterity the apostolic
witness concerning Jesus. The church fathers repeatedly stress Mark’s intention to record Peter’s
teaching.
(2) The second suggested purpose is Christological, meaning that Mark wrote to correct a false
or inadequate view of Jesus being promoted by some in the church. Some scholars have claimed

5
“Babylon” clearly stands for Rome

4
that Mark wrote to combat a “divine man” Christology, which identified Jesus as a kind of first-
century magician and miracle worker. In response, Mark stresses Jesus’ sacrificial death. Others
have suggested that Mark’s very human portrait of Jesus was intended to correct the heresy of
Docetism, which denied Jesus’ true humanity.
(3) A third view is that Mark makes a practical call to cross-bearing discipleship. He wrote to
challenge his readers that true discipleship means following the path of Jesus through suffering
to glory. This view is often linked to the persecution of the church in Rome instigated by the
Roman emperor Nero. This began in AD 64 after a terrible fire destroyed more than half the city
of Rome. When rumors began circulating that the emperor had ordered the fire as a means of
“urban renewal,” Nero shifted the blame to the Christians. Already viewed with suspicion,
Christians were persecuted with terrible cruelty. The Roman historian Tacitus notes how some
were crucified; others were sewn in animal skins and hunted by dogs; still others were covered
with pitch and burned at night as torches. Mark’s emphasis on the need to suffer for Christ would
fit this period of intense persecution. Another possibility is that the allusions to persecution
reflect an earlier period and are linked to riots between Jews and Jewish Christians in AD 49 – 50.
These disputes prompted the emperor Claudius to expel the Jewish population from Rome (Acts
18:2). The theme of suffering could then fit either the earlier or later dates suggested for the
Gospel. In the overall, Mark wrote to strengthen the faith of persecuted Christians in Rome.
4. General Structure of the Book
It could be rather surprising to note that scholars and commentators are yet to agree on a basic
question like the general structure of the Gospel of Mark. As such many authors pick up and use
different structures.6 Before proposing any one for study, we will be justified in sampling the
prevailing views and structures as follows:
Outline 1
Felix Just presents a 7-part structure as follows:7
Introduction: John the Baptist & Jesus (1:1-15) - incl. the theme of Jesus' preaching (v. 15)
Early Ministry: Jesus heals, preaches and teaches, in Galilee and beyond (1:16-6:6)
Expanded Ministry: Jesus continues preaching, healing, and encountering opposition (6:7-
8:21)
Central Section: Jesus and his disciples´ journey "On the Way" to Jerusalem (8:22-10:52)
(incl. three passion predictions, framed by two healings of blind men)
Final Ministry: Jesus confronts the authorities in Jerusalem; apocalyptic discourse (11:1-
13:37)
6
DELORME holds that proposing a structure is always a delicate operation because Mark like any other New
Testament book presents various organizations. So that even after following due criteria the commentator´s
carefulness and attention must be optimally exercised. Cf. DELORME, Jean, Evangelio según san Marcos. Cuadernos
Bíblicos 15-16. Estella, Verbo Divino, 18, 2004, p. 33.
7
Felix Just, “The Gospel According to Mark” in http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Synoptic_Outlines.htm last
accessed 24.09.2018 21.12PM

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 Passion Narrative: Jesus' Last Supper, arrest, trials, crucifixion, death, burial (14:1-15:47)
Conclusion: the women find Jesus' tomb empty (16:1-8) - vv. 9-20 are not original, but added
later

Outline 2
Joachim Gnilka8 presents a six-part (6) structure with an introduction and an epilogue as follows:
El comienzo (1:1-15)
I. Jesús actua con plenos poderes ante todo el pueblo (1:16- 3:12)
II. Doctrina y milagros de Jesús (3:13-6: 6a)
III. En viaje continuo (6:6b – 8:26)
IV. La invitación de seguimiento de la cruz (8:27-10:45)
V. La actuación de Jesús en Jerusalén (10:46-13:37)
VI. Pasión y muerte de Jesús. La tumba vacía (14:1-16:8)
Apéndice: Las conclusiones secundarias de Marcos (16:9-20)

Outline 3
For Cranfield9, the gospel of Mark falls naturally into two parts spread into eight (8) sections as
follows:
I. The Beginning, 1: 1-13.
II. Beginnings of the Galilean Ministry, 1: 14 - 3: 6.
III. Later stages of the Galilean Ministry, 3: 7-6: 13.
IV. Jesus goes outside Galilee, 6: 14-8: 26.
V. The way to Jerusalem, 8.:27-10: 52.
VI. Ministry in Jerusalem, 11: 1-13: 37.
VII. The Passion, 14: 1-15: 47.
VIII. The Resurrection, 16: 1-8 (9-20).

Outline 4
Taylor10 presents a 7-part structure as follows:
I. INTRODUCTION. 1: 1-13·
II. THE GALILEAN MINISTRY. 1: 14-3: 6.
III. THE HEIGHT OF THE GALILEAN MINISTRY. 3: 7-6: 13
IV. THE MINISTRY BEYOND GALILEE. 6: 14-8: 26.
v. CAESAREA PHILIPPI: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM. 8: 27 – 10: 52.
VI. THE MINISTRY IN JERUSALEM. 11: 1-13: 37·
VII. THE PASSION AND RESURRECTION NARRATIVE. 14: 1 – 16: 8 (9-20)

8
GNILKA, J., El Evangelio según San Marcos, vols. I-II, Salamanca: Ediciones Sigueme, 1986.
9
CRANFIELD, C., The Gospel According to Saint Mark: An Introduction and Commentary, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1959, p. 14.
10
TAYLOR, V., The Gospel According to St. Mark, New York: Macmillan and Company Limited, 1966, p. 108ff.

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Outline 5
Mark Strauss presents a three-part structure as follows:
1. The Preparation of the Son of God (1:1-13)
2. The Authoritative Ministry of the Son of God in and around Galilee (1:14-8:26)
A. The Kingdom-Authority of the Son of God (1:14-3:12)
B. The “Disciple-Family” of the Son of God and Those “Outside” (3:13-6:6)
C. The Mission of the Son of God (6:7-8:26)
3. The Suffering of the Son of God as Servant of the LORD (8:27-16:8)
A. The Confession of Peter and Jesus’ Role as Servant Messiah (8:27-10:52)
B. The Son of God Confronts Jerusalem (10:46-13:37)
C. Climax: The Death of the Son of God (14:1-15:47)
D. Resolution: The Resurrection of the Son of God (16:1-8)

Outline 6
The Navarre Bible11 presents a six-part (6) structure of Mark as follows:
1. Prelude to the public ministry of Jesus (1:1-13)
2. Jesus´ Galilean ministry (1:14-6:6)
3. Jesus journeys with his Apostles (6:6-9:50)
4. Making for Judea and Jerusalem (10:1-12:44)
5. Eschatological Discourse (13:1-37)
6. Passion, death and resurrection of Jesus (14:1-16:20)

Outline 7
Vincente Balaguer12 gives a two-part structure of Mark as follows:
Primera parte: Ministerio de Jesús en Galilea (Mk 1,14-8,30)
Segunda Parte: Ministerio camino de Jerusalén y en Jerusalén (Mk 8,31-16,20)

Summary of the Gospel using one of the outlines:

A close examination of the above samples of the structure of the Gospel of Mark by different
commentators clearly show a wide range of variance with little or no agreement. So, what are
we to make of these variant presentations and which one do we adopt?
While not discrediting other outlines, BALAGUER´s structure is very simple to follow. Moreover,
his structure seems to agree with that of Joachim Gnilka, C. Cranfield and Mark Strauss for the

11
UNAV, The Navarre Bible: St Mark, Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1985, pp. 61-62.
12
BALAGUER, V., Comprender los Evangelios, Pamplona: EUNSA, 2015, pp. 130-131. This looks like the geographical
structure proposed by Daniel HARRINGTON which features a movement from Galilee to Jerusalem.

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simple fact they uphold the Caesarea Philippi Episode (Mk 8:27-30) as the turning point of the
entire Gospel. Thus, the key turning point in Mark’s Gospel is Peter’s confession, and it launches
the second half of the Gospel which portrays Jesus as the Messiah of suffering and sacrifice.
According to BALAGUER´s presentation, the significant markers of this structure is indicated by
key three points: Mk1:1; Mk8:29 and Mk 15:39. The first functions as a summary statement
placed at the beginning of the Gospel: “The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of
God.” The second functions as the mid-point of the plot and divides the story into two equal
parts: Peter answered him, “You are the Christ.” The third marks the resolution of the trajectory
and brings the storyline to its natural conclusion: “And when the centurion … saw … he said, “Truly
this man was the Son of God.” This two-part division using these three key markers show that the
Markan Gospel is organized around one central question: “Who is Jesus”.
Following this narrative plot. Mk 1:1 the first verse condenses the Gospel. There Mark affirms
who Jesus is: he is the Messiah and the Son of God. But this reality has two dimensions: the
manifestation of Jesus as such and the discovery of that reality by men. From this perspective,
the Gospel has two parts clearly differentiated by the confession of Peter in Caesarea Philippi
(Mk 8:29). Until then, Jesus, with his words, addressed to the people, often to the crowd, and
with his works, manifests his condition, but neither the disciples nor the people succeed in
discovering their identity (cf. 27; 2.7.12; 3.32; 4.41; 6.2.14-16, etc.). In Caesarea Philippi, Peter
confesses him as Messiah, and, immediately after, Jesus begins to teach a particular teaching-
directed especially to the disciples-in which he instructs them in what sense they should
understand him as Messiah: not as a political liberator, but as the Son of man who must suffer
the insults of the Servant of the Lord, until he dies, and then resurrects. Near the end of the
Gospel, at the foot of the cross, a Gentile, the Roman centurion, proclaims that Jesus is the Son
of God. Thus, the recognition by men of the two titles that the evangelist had announced at the
beginning of his writing is fulfilled.
Pablo M. Edo recently takes over and confirms this two-part structure of Mark. According to him,
this two-part structure with the three key markers introduces a kind of harmony between the
narrative plot and the theological schema.13 He presents the diagram as follows:

Mk1:1 8:29 15:39

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

13
EDO, P., Evangelios Sinópticos y Hecho de los Apóstoles, Manuales ISCR 8, Pamplona: EUNSA: 2016, pp. 70-72.

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The three key markers are converted into three theological moments: Mk1:1 “the beginning of
the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God; Mk 8:29 Peter, a Jew, confesses Jesus as the Christ:
“You are the Christ”; Mk 15:39 a Roman Centurion, a pagan, converts and confesses Jesus as the
Son of God: “Truly this man was the Son of God.” Pablo Edo concludes that this schema shows
that the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God is destined to all nations, Jews and Gentiles alike.
There is also a theological structure articulated around the revelation of Jesus as Messiah. In this
structure each section is marked by a human confession confirmed by a divine intervention:
A. Announcement of John the Baptist. Theophany of the Baptism of Jesus. Only demons know the
dignity of Christ. Miracles of Jesus.
B. Peter's confession in Caesarea. Transfiguration. Concentration on the theme of the sufferings
of the Messiah and the exhortation to listen to Christ.
C. Centurion confession. Angels announcement. The disciples will learn, through this way, that
Jesus is the Messiah and that they must follow him until they identify with him in his glorious
death and resurrection.
Summarily, Jesus is first announced as the messiah and then later as the Son of God; he is
baptized by John and a heavenly voice announces him as the Son of God; he is tested in the
wilderness by Satan; John is arrested, and Jesus begins to preach the good news of the kingdom
of God.
Jesus gathers his disciples; he begins teaching, driving out demons, healing the sick, cleansing
lepers, raising the dead, feeding the hungry, and giving sight to the blind; he delivers a long
discourse in parables to the crowd, intended for the disciples, but they fail to understand; he
performs mighty works, calming the storm and walking on water, but while God and demons
recognise him, neither the crowds nor the disciples grasp his identity. He also has several run-ins
with Jewish law keepers especially in chapters 2-3.
Jesus asks the disciples who people say he is, and then, "but you, who do you say I am?" Peter
answers that he is the Christ, and Jesus commands him to silence; Jesus explains that the Son of
Man must go to Jerusalem and be killed but will rise again; Moses and Elijah appear with Jesus
and God tells the disciples, "This is my son," but they remain uncomprehending.
Jesus goes to Jerusalem, where he is hailed as one who "comes in the name of the Lord" and will
inaugurate the "kingdom of David"; he drives those who buy and sell animals from the Temple
and debates with the Jewish authorities; on the Mount of Olives he announces the coming
destruction of the Temple, the persecution of his followers, and the coming of the Son of Man in
power and glory.
A woman perfumes Jesus' head with oil, and Jesus explains that this is a sign of his coming death;
Jesus celebrates Passover with the disciples, declares the bread and wine to be his body and
blood, and goes with them to Gethsemane to pray; there Judas betrays him to the Jews;

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interrogated by the high priest, he says that he is the Christ, the Son of God, and will return as
Son of Man at God's right hand; the Jewish leaders turn him over to Pilate, who has him crucified
as one who claims to be "king of the Jews"; Jesus, abandoned by the disciples, is buried in a rock
tomb by a friendly member of the Jewish council.
The women who have followed Jesus come to the tomb on Sunday morning; they find it empty
and are told by a young man in a white robe to go and tell the others that Jesus has risen and has
gone before them to Galilee; "but they said nothing to anyone, for they were afraid ...."

5. Literary Questions: Language, Style and Framework

The type of Greek found in Mark has been assessed as the language of the lower classes. It is not
a well-refined Greek. It is described sometimes as a Jewish Greek like that spoken by translators
of the Septuagint (LXX) or as a “ghetto” Greek.14 The many “Semitisms” (Hebrew or Aramaic
idioms awkwardly expressed in Greek) which according to Marius Riesner were already a
common trait in Greek popular literature makes it convenient to describe the style of Mark as a
popular literary style even-though it does not rise to the literary standards of the highly
educated.15 What are the characteristic traits of this popular literary style?
Many authors will recognize these characteristics to include among others: 1) Paratactic Style &
Immediacy 2) Thematic Groupings in Literary Blocks 3) Three-fold Patterns, often with
progressive heightening 4) Inclusios & Intercalations (many “literary sandwiches” – ABA)16 These
literary devices drive the powerful rhetoric of Mark’s Gospel.
1. Paratactic Style & Immediacy
Parataxis is a stringing together (lit. “placing next to”) of short loosely connected episodes, like
pearls on a string. An amazing 410 of the 678 verses in the original Greek version of Mark’s Gospel
begin with the word “And” (Gk. καὶ)!

Mark’s Gospel has a fast-moving narrative style.17 The narrator is fond of the Greek word εὐθὺς,
an adverb often translated “immediately.” It appears forty-two times, whereas in Matthew it
appears five times, and in Luke, only once. While the word does not always mean “just then,” its
effect is to propel the narrative forward. One could feel exhausted after reading Mark’s Gospel,
so quickly does the action seem to occur.

14
This means the Greek of the street.
15
AUNE, D., The New Testament in its Literary Environment, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1987, p. 47.
16
Felix Just, “History & Theology in Mark's Gospel” in http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Synoptic_Outlines.htm
last accessed 24.09.2018 21.12PM
17
STRAUSS, M., Four Portraits, One Jesus, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007.

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The narrator also uses present-tense verbs to describe past actions, a Greek idiom known as the
historical present (151 times; Matthew 93 times; Luke 11 times). While characteristic of a
rougher, less-refined Greek, the historical present gives the narrative a vivid and realistic feel,
like a newscaster giving an on-the-spot report. Translated literally, the account of Jesus’ calming
of the sea reads, “Leaving the crowd, they are taking him along with them in the boat… There is
arising a fierce gale of wind . . . and they are waking him and saying to him . . .” (Mark 4:36-38).
2. Thematic Groupings in Literary Blocks (Topical Ordering of Events) & summaries
Mark groups events for rhetorical effect. For example, Jesus’ ministry begins with a collection of
healings and exorcisms which demonstrate his authority (1:21-28, 29-31, 32-39, 40-45). This is
followed by a series of controversy stories, the beginning of conflict with the religious leaders
(2:1-12, 13-17, 18-22, 23-27; 3:1-6). Jesus’ parables are similarly brought together to teach about
the nature of the kingdom (4:1-34). Chapter 12 presents a series of challenges and controversies
brought by the religious leaders to trap Jesus. By grouping events, the narrator structures the
story and highlights narrative themes.
Table of illustration 1.1

Several miracle stories interconnecting Jesus’ preaching and healing activity are in the first
chapter (1:21-45)
Five controversy stories involving various opponents are in a connected block (2:1-3:6)
Three parables and further teachings about Jesus’ parables are in one chapter (4:1-34)
Four more miracles stories (of different types) are found together (4:35-5:43)
Three “passion predictions” are near the middle of the Gospel (8:31-10:45)
Seven controversy dialogues with or about Jesus’ opponents in Jerusalem (11:35-12:44)
Many of Jesus’ eschatological teachings are collected in one chapter (13:1-37

Mark also periodically encapsulates or summarizes the action, in contrast to telling individual
stories:

1:14-15 - Jesus’ initial preaching about the Kingdom/Reign of God

1:32-34 - Jesus heals many different people one evening
1:39 - Jesus goes throughout Galilee preaching and exorcizing
3:7-12 - Great crowds acknowledge Jesus’ power
6:6b - Jesus goes throughout the villages of Galilee teaching
6:12-13 - Jesus’ disciples go out preaching, exorcizing, and healing
6:53-56 - Mark summarizes Jesus’ healing activity

3. Inclusios and Intercalation or “Sandwiching”18

18
STRAUSS, M., Four Portraits, One Jesus, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007.

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Inclusio is a bracketing or “enclosing” a story or section by using the same or similar words,
phrases, or themes at the beginning and the end. Intercalation is enclosing or “sandwiching” one
story in the middle of a different story (forming an A1, B, A2 pattern), so that each affects the
interpretation of the other.
One of the most distinctive features of Mark’s rhetoric is the use of these literary devices. Mark
is fond of “sandwiching” of one event between the beginning and end of another. The events are
related to the same theme and serve to interpret one another. For example, Mark sandwiches
Jesus’ cleansing of the temple between his cursing of a fig tree and the disciples’ later discovery
of the withered tree (11:12-25). The intercalation suggests that the withering, like the temple
clearing, represents God’s judgment against Israel for her unbelief. Similarly, Mark intercalates
the Beelzebub controversy in the middle of an episode relating to Jesus and his family (3:20-35).
The rejection of Jesus by his own family mirrors the rejection of Jesus by his own people, the
leaders of Israel. A third example is the raising of Jairus’s daughter, which frames the healing of
the woman with a blood disease. Both episodes stress the importance of faith (5:21-43). The
execution of John the Baptist is framed by Jesus’ commissioning of the Twelve and their later
return (6:7–30). The point seems to be that John’s death illustrates the willingness of a true
disciple to lay down his life for the kingdom.
Sometimes intercalation is used to contrast episodes. Jesus’ confession before the Sanhedrin is
framed by Peter’s denial (14:53-72) so that Jesus’ faithfulness is set in contrast to Peter’s
unfaithfulness. Similarly, the plot against Jesus by the chief priests and scribes sandwiches the
faithful devotion of the woman who anoints him with costly perfume (14:1-11).
Table of Illustration 1.2

The Table below shows in a tabular form some examples of inclusios and intercalations in Mark,
some of which involve larger blocks of material:

A1) 3:20-21 – Jesus’ family goes out to restrain

A1) 2:1-5 – A paralytic is brought to Jesus
him
B) 2:6-10 – Dispute over Jesus’ authority
B) 3:22-30 – the Beelzebul controversy
to forgive sins
A2) 3:31-35 – Jesus’ family arrives; who is his
A2) 2:11-12 – Jesus heals the paralytic
“true family”?
A1) 4:3-8 – Jesus tells parable of the sower A1) 5:21-24 – Jairus asks Jesus to heal his dying
and the seed daughter
B) 4:10-12 – Why does Jesus speak in B) 5:25-34 – a hemorrhaging woman touches
parables? Jesus’ clothes
A2) 4:13-20 – Jesus explains parable of the A2) 5:35-43 – Jesus raises the daughter of Jairus
sower and the seed to life
A1) 6:7-13 – Jesus sends out the twelve A1) 8:22-26 – Jesus gives sight to a blind man
apostles on a mission near Bethsaida

12
 B) 6:14-29 – the death of John the Baptist B) 8:28—10:45 – three passion predictions;
is recalled discipleship teachings
A2) 6:30-31 – the apostles return, reporting A2) 10:46-52 – Jesus gives sight to blind
what they had done Bartimaeus near Jericho
A1) 11:12-14 – Jesus curses a fig tree outside of
A1) 9:1 – the coming of the Kingdom of God
Bethany
in power
B) 11:15-19 – Jesus expels sellers and buyers
B) 9:2-8 – the Transfiguration of Jesus
from the Temple
A2) 9:9-13 – the coming of Elijah and of the
A2) 11:20-25 – the fig tree is withered; the
Son of Man
importance of faith
A1) 14:1-2 – chief priests want to arrest and A1) 14:54 – Peter enters the courtyard of the
kill Jesus high priest, and sits by a fire
B) 14:3-9 – a woman anoints Jesus at B) 14:55-65 – Jesus is interrogated by the
Bethany council of the chief priests
A2) 14:10-11 – Judas arranges to betray A2) 14:66-72 – in the courtyard, Peter denies
Jesus to the chief priests knowing Jesus three times

4. Triads or Sets of Threes and a progressive heightening

Mark is fond of patterns of three, or triads, using them especially in relation to the passion
narrative. Three boat scenes illustrate the disciples’ lack of faith and comprehension (4:35-41;
6:45-52; 8:14-21). In three cycles of events, Jesus predicts his death and then teaches his disciples
about servant leadership (8:31-38; 9:31-37; 10:32-45). In his eschatological sermon on the Mount
of Olives, Jesus three times calls his disciples to alertness (13:33, 35, 37) and then three times
finds them sleeping in Gethsemane (14:37, 40, 41). Peter denies Jesus three times (14:68, 70, 71),
and three three-hour intervals are mentioned during the crucifixion (15:25, 33, 34). Like a good
preacher, the narrator uses repetition to drive his point home.
Below is a comprehensive list of threes in Mark:
Table of Illustration 1.3

1 Three reactions to the baptism of Jesus: heaven opens, spirit descends, voice is heard
(1:10-11)
2 Three times Jesus calls his core disciples to follow him: four fishers, Levi, the Twelve
(1:16-20; 2:14-17; 3:13-19)
3 Three times Mark emphasizes Jesus as a teacher teaching (4:1, 2a, 2b)
4 Three times Jesus says he must suffer, die, and rise again after three days (8:31; 9:31;
10:32-34)
5 Three times Jesus warns, “If your hand/foot/eye causes you to stumble…” (9:43, 45, 47)
6 Three times Jesus returns and speaks to the sleeping disciples in Gethsemane (14:32-42)

13
 7 Three times Peter denies knowing Jesus or being his disciple (14:66-72; as Jesus predicted
in 14:30)
8 Three specific times are mentioned as Jesus is crucified: the third, sixth, and ninth hours
(15:25, 33, 34)
9 Three groups of people deride Jesus as he is hanging and dying on the cross (15:29-30,
31-32a, 32b)
10 Three witnesses react to the death of Jesus: temple curtain, Roman centurion, Galilean
women (15:38, 39, 40)
11 Other groups of three:
Peter, James, and John (9:2; 14:33)
Jesus, Moses, and Elijah (9:4-5)
chief priests, scribes, and elders (11:27; 14:43)
Mary Magdalene and two other women (15:40; 16:1)
12 Periods of three days are also mentioned in 8:2; 14:58; and 15:29

5. Other literary devices

I. Irony
Because Mark’s central theological theme — the Messiah who suffers — is itself paradoxical,
irony plays a major role in the narrative. Much of this is situational irony. Jesus’ opponents
inadvertently speak ironically. They accuse Jesus of being in league with Satan, when in fact they
are opposing God’s kingdom (3:22). Seeking to trap him through flattery, they call him a man of
truth who teaches the true way of God (12:13-14). While they do not believe this, ironically the
reader knows that it is true. These same leaders mock Jesus on the cross, saying, “He saved
others… but he can’t save himself… this Christ, this King of Israel” (15:31-32). Their sarcastic
comments are in fact true. Jesus is both saviour and king. Though the religious elite of Israel reject
Jesus as the Son of God, a Gentile centurion recognizes him (15:39). Throughout the Gospel, the
spiritual insiders of Israel — the religious leaders — become the outsiders in the kingdom of God,
and the spiritual outsiders — sinners, tax collectors, Gentiles — become the insiders. Jesus’
teaching in parables enforces this ironic reversal. Down-to-earth parables, stories from everyday
life, conceal the message of the kingdom from the spiritually elite whose hearts are hard. It is
ironic that blind Bartimaeus “sees” that Jesus is the Son of David, but his religious opponents are
spiritually blind (10:46-52). It is ironic that while Jesus is standing before the Sanhedrin faithfully
confessing that he is the Messiah, Peter is outside in the courtyard denying that he knows him
(14:53-72).
There is also much verbal irony in the Gospel. Jesus quotes an ironic proverb that “only in his
hometown… is a prophet without honour” (6:4) Ironic sarcasm is evident as he congratulates the
religious leaders for setting aside the commandments of God in favour of their own traditions
(7:9) He nicknames Peter “the rock” (3:16), even though Peter turns out to be anything but stable.

II. Use of “Literary Echoes” for retrospectives or foreshadowing

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Literary Echoes within the Gospel narrative include:

1:7 – someone will come who is “more powerful” than John the Baptist (see 1:21-28; 3:27)
1:14 – “after John is arrested” (imprisonment narrated more fully in 6:14-27)
2:20 – “the bridegroom will be taken away” (cf. Passion narrative, 14:43-16:3)
3:6 – Pharisees and Herodians plot to destroy Jesus (cf. 8:15; 11:18; 12:13; 14:1)
8:19-20 – Jesus recalls previously feeding the 5000 & 4000 (cf. 6:30-44; 8:1-10)
8:27-28 – a discussion of Jesus’ identity recalls previous opinions of his being a prophet (6:14-
16)
8:31; 9:31; 10:32-33 – Jesus predicts his upcoming passion (cf. 14:43-16:3)
9:7 – a voice from heaven again declares that Jesus is God’s beloved Son (cf. 1:11)
14:17-21 – Jesus foretells his betrayal by Judas (cf. 14:10-11; 14:43-50)
14:26-31 – Jesus foretells the disciples’ desertion and Peter’s denial (cf. 14:50-52; 66-72)

Foreshadowing of events beyond the narrative:

1:8 – “He will baptize with the Holy Spirit”

1:16-20 – “I will make you fish for people”
10:38-39 – the deaths of James and John
13:2 – the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple
14:25 – “until that day… in the Kingdom of God”

III. Repetition of Key Words and Phrases

Key Words used throughout Mark’s Gospel:

Gospel / Good News – 1:1, 14-15; 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; [16:15]
Christ – 1:1; 8:29; 9:41; 12:35; 13:21; 14:61; 15:32
Son of God – 1:1; 3:11; 5:7; 15:39; cf. 1:11; 9:7; 13:32; 14:61
Teacher / Teaching – 1:21, 22, 27; 2:13; 4:1, 2, 38; 5:35; 6:2, 6, 30, 34; 8:31; 9:5, 17, 31, 38;
10:1, 17, 20, 35; 11:17, 18, 21; 12:14, 19, 32, 35, 38; 13:1; 14:14, 45, 49
Authority / Power – 1:22, 27; 2:10; 3:15; 6:7; 11:28-33; 13:34
Kingdom of God – 1:15; 4:11; 4:26, 30; 9:1; 9:47; 10:14-15; 10:23-25; 12:34; 14:25; 15:43
Believe/Faith – 1:15; 2:5; 4:40; 5:34, 36; 9:23, 24, 42; 10:52; 11:22, 23, 24, 31; 13:21; 15:32;
16:13, 14, 16, 17
Follow/Behind – 1:17, 18, 20; 2:14, 15; 3:7; 5:24; 6:1; 8:33, 34; 9:38; 10:21, 28, 32, 52; 11:9;
14:13, 54; 15:41
The Way/Road – 1:2-3; 2:23; 6:8; 8:3, 27; 9:33-34; 10:17, 32; 10:46, 52; 11:8; 12:14

Phrases repeated in close proximity:

“rise, take up your mat, and walk/go” (2:9, 11, 12)

“he appointed twelve” (3:14, 16)
“healed of her disease” (5:29, 34)

15
“the head of John the Baptist... on a platter” (6:24, 25, 28)
“Don’t you understand?” (8:17, 21)
“If your [hand/foot/eye] causes you to stumble…” (9:43, 45, 47)
“How hard it is... to enter the Kingdom of God” (10:23, 24, 25)
“Son of David, have mercy on me” (10:47, 48)
“Call him... They called him... He is calling you” (10:49)
“their testimony did not agree” (14:56, 59)

IV. Use of Aramaisms and Latinisms

Aramaisms:
Mark often includes Aramaic and/or Hebrew words and phrases, which makes the narratives and
dialogues more vivid. Given in Greek transliteration and often (but not always) followed by a
translation, most of these words are omitted or replaced by Matthew and/or Luke, although a
few are retained in the later Synoptic Gospels:

Boanerges - “sons of thunder” (Mark 3:17; omitted in Matt 10:2 and Luke 6:14)
Beelzebul - (not translated in Mark 3.22; also used in Matt 12:24, 27, and Luke 11:15, 18-19)
Talitha cum - “Little girl, get up” (Mark 5:41; omitted in Matt 9:25 and Luke 8:54)
Corban - “an offering to God” (Mark 7:11; omitted in Matt 15:5; no parallel story in Luke)
Ephphatha - “be opened” (Mark 7:34; omitted in Matt 15:29-31; no parallel in Luke)
Rabbi - (not translated in Mark 9:5; replaced by “Lord” in Matt 17:4; replaced by “master” in
Luke 9:33)
Bartimaeus - “son of Timaeus” (Mark 10:46; omitted in Matt 20:30 and Luke 18:35)
Rabbouni - (not translated in Mark 10:51; replaced by “Lord” in Matt 20:33 and Luke 18:41)
Hosanna - (not translated in Mark 11:9-10; used in Matt 21:9; omitted in Luke 19:38)
Rabbi - (not translated in Mark 11:21; omitted in Matt 21:20; no parallel in Luke)
Abba - “father” (Mark 14:36; omitted in Matt 26:39, 42 and Luke 22:42)
Rabbi - (not translated in Mark 14:45; used in Matt 26:49; omitted in Luke 22:47)
Golgotha - “the place of a skull” (Mark 15:22; used in Matt 27:33; omitted in Luke 23:33)
Eloi eloi lema sabachthani - “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Mark 15:34; used
in Matt 27:46, omitted in Luke 23:45-46)

Latinisms:
Mark's Greek contains many words and phrases that seem to be borrowed from or influenced
by Latin; this clearly supports the early Christian tradition that Mark's Gospel was closely
connected with the city of Rome. Individual Words borrowed from Latin:

μοδιον = modius = bushel basket, bowl, tub (4:21)

χορτος = herba = blade, shoot, stalk (4:28)
λεγιων = legio = legion (5:9, 15)
σπεκουλατωρ = speculator = soldier, executioner (6:27)
δηναριον = denarius = coin of daily wage (6:37; 12:15; 14:5)
ξεστης = sextarius = pot, jug, pitcher (7:4)

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κηνσος = census = census tax (12:14)
κοδραντης = quadrans = penny, small coin (12:42)
φραγελλοω = fragello = to scourge, flog (15:15)
πραιτωριον = praetorium = palace, governor’s headquarters (15:16)
κεντυρίων = centurio = centurion, officer (15:39, 44, 45)

Expressions influenced by Latin:

οδον ποιειν = iter facere = to make one’s way (2:23)
συμβουλιον εδιδουν = consilium dederunt = to deliberate, give counsel (3:6)
εσχατως εχει = in extremis esse = to be at the point of death (5:23)
ειχον... οτι = habere = to think, lit. “to have/hold that” (11:32)
ραπισμασιν… ελαβον = verberibus acceperunt = to strike/beat, lit. “to receive with blows”
(14:65)
συμβουλιον ποιησαντες = consilium capere = to deliberate, lit. “to make counsel” (15:1)
το ικανον ποιησαι = satisfacere = to satisfy, lit. “to make enough” (15:15)
τιθεντες τα γονατα = genua ponentes = to kneel down, lit. “to place the knees” (15:19)

The foregoing excursus makes us to agree with Mark Strauss19 summary of the basic
characteristics of Mark´s Gospel as follows:

• Fast-moving narrative; use of immediately (εὐθὺς) and Greek historical

present tense.
• Vivid descriptions of persons and events.
• Prominence of Galilee as the locus of Jesus’ early ministry.
• Strong emphasis on Jesus’ authority in teaching and in miracles.
• Amazed reaction by others to Jesus’ authority.
• Emphasis on challenges to Jesus by the forces of Satan and his defeat of them.
• Jesus portrayed as the authoritative Messiah and Son of God.
• Jesus portrayed as the suffering Son of Man, who will die as a sacrifice of
atonement for the sins of his people.
• Outsiders become insiders by faith; hints of Gentile salvation.
• Negative portrait of the disciples; models of how not to follow Jesus.
• Lengthy passion narrative; emphasis on Jesus’ death.
• Brief and enigmatic resurrection narrative.

19
STRAUSS, M., Four Portraits, One Jesus, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007. Pablo M. Edo will totally agree with this
summary following his own summary presentation of Mark Literary characteristics in his work: Evangelios Sinópticos
y Hecho de los Apóstoles, 2016, p.70.

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6. Theological Questions in the Gospel of Mark
Basically, the Theology of Mark´s Gospel is enclosed within a narrative plot from its banner
headline “the gospel of Jesus, the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mk1:1) to its conclusion “Truly this
man was the son of God” (Mk 15:39).
While it is natural that many commentators will propose differing theological framework for the
Gospel of Mark, it is important to pay close attention to the text itself before one superimposes
on the text. While one could accept Balaguer´s double theological framework: Jesus and the
disciples, this is far too limited and restricted.20
As in the other gospels, the teaching of Mark covers many fields. As such in addition to the theme
of Jesus and the disciples, other themes could be deciphered as well for instance: The Kingdom
of God, Salvation, Faith, Prayer, etc. Theological questions around Mark are the ones on: The
Gospel as a literary genre, The Messianic secret, the Priority of Mark and the ending of Mark. One
can also talk about more complex theological themes like Christology and eschatology. Let´s now
consider some of the teachings of Mark and the theological questions.
Jesus, the Messiah
In perfect harmony with the other three gospels, Mark shows that Jesus is the Messiah. The first
sentence of the Gospel proclaims it that way, and the confession of that truth earned Jesus the
condemnation to death. In the manifestation of his messiahship, Jesus nevertheless followed a
divine pedagogy to avoid false interpretations, in a special way to prevent him from being
mistaken for a political and nationalist liberator in the face of the domination of the Roman
Empire. A sample of this pedagogy is that Jesus preferred to call himself "the Son of Man" before
the multitudes. The expression is synonymous with the word “man,” but its relation to the
prophecy of Dan7:13-14 did not give rise to any nationalist interpretation but pointed to a more
transcendent religious value. Other messianic titles, such as "Son of David" or "Messiah", could
give rise, in those circumstances, to understanding the mission of Jesus as a predominantly
earthly messianism. With this way of proceeding, Jesus Christ revealed himself more and more
clearly and prepared his disciples to recognize him as the Savior who would redeem men and
reconcile them to God, not through the power of armies or political force, but through his
sacrifice on Calvary, "For the Son of man also came not to be served but to serve, and to give his
life as a ransom for many" (Mk 10:45). Many authors including Mark Strauss consider Mk 10:45
as the key verse of the Gospel.21
Jesus, the Son of God
It can be said with certainty that the affirmation that Jesus is the Son of God, as Mark expresses
it in his first words, is a summary of the whole gospel. Summary in the sense that the evangelist
presents in its opening verse a necessary key to understand what the reader will find later: if one

20
BALAGUER, V., Comprender los evangelios, pp.132-137.
21
STRAUSS, M, Four Portraits, One Gospel, 2007.

18
does not believe that Jesus is the Messiah and the Son of God, one will not understand the rest
of the Gospel.
However, while he confesses the divinity, Mark also points out the true humanity of Jesus. The
evangelist evokes with pleasure the feelings of Jesus as a man, who is angry with the hypocrites,
gets angry with the Apostles, becomes sad in Nazareth, embraces and blesses the children, is
anguished in Gethsemane, etc. But this same Jesus, who is true man, has the power of God, and
on two occasions, in Baptism and in the Transfiguration, a voice from heaven declares him the
Son of God. Readers of the Gospel necessarily must perceive both: the true humanity of the Lord,
and the force of their gestures that invites us to confess the same as the centurion at the foot of
the cross: "Truly this man was the Son of God"
Discipleship
Mark shows that the mystery of Christ is only understood "from within": Many people receive
the miracles but only the disciples know their true meaning (Messiahship of Jesus). Many listen
to his teachings but only the disciples receive an explanation. There are facts that are only known
by those who follow Jesus closely (prayer in the garden, the Transfiguration). Only those who are
close to Christ can understand that they embody the figure of the Suffering Servant. Discipleship
becomes a key theological theme and teaching in Mark. This is clear from the fact that Mark
records many calls to discipleship stories: Peter, Andrew, The Twelve, the rich young man, Levi
etc. Mark emphasizes that only disciples can access the mystery of Christ.
Unfortunately, the disciples in Mark represent a primarily negative model; it is Jesus himself who
represents the correct role of a true disciple. Of the four Gospels, Mark’s portrait of the disciples
is the most negative. They repeatedly fail to understand Jesus’ teaching (4:13; 7:18) and to
recognize his authoritative power (6:37, 52; 8:4). They cannot comprehend the true nature of his
messiahship (8:32; 9:32). They act with pride and from self-interest (9:38; 10:13, 37, 41). Jesus
repeatedly rebukes them for their failure to understand his teaching and for their lack of faith
(4:13, 40; 7:18; 9:19). It is argued that the narrator’s purpose is to set the example of Jesus in
contrast to the disciples. While he remains faithful, they are faithless. While he perseveres, they
collapse and run. In this sense, Mark’s disciples function almost as anti-disciples, revealing to the
reader how followers of Jesus should not behave. Jesus himself becomes the model of true
discipleship, doing the Father’s will even through suffering and death.22
Thus, Mark’s Gospel is a call to authentic discipleship. True followers of Jesus must be willing to
take up their crosses and follow him, even to suffering and death. The disciples in Mark serve
primarily as negative models. They, like many of Jesus’ would-be followers, are seeking power
and position, yet shrink back in fear in the face of opposition. Jesus, in contrast, serves as the
model disciple. He came to serve, not to be served, and to faithfully follow God’s will. True
disciples must have in mind God’s values, not human values (8:33).

22
STRAUSS, M., Four Portraits, One Gospel, 2007.

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Kingdom of God
Another important and arguably the central message in Mark concerns the coming of the
kingdom of God (1:15). But what is the nature of this kingdom? The Old Testament concept of
God’s kingdom was dynamic and multidimensional rather than static and one-dimensional. It
could refer to God’s sovereign authority over the cosmos in the present, or the consummation
of that reign in the future. It could refer to a dynamic reign, God’s spiritual authority in the lives
of his people, or a static realm, a messianic kingdom centered in Jerusalem. In short, the kingdom
could be conceived as present and future, a reign and a realm. The apocalyptic Judaism of Jesus’
day acknowledged the present reality of God’s sovereign authority but placed greatest emphasis
on the future and eschatological dimensions of the kingdom. The persecuted people of God
longed for the day when God would intervene in human history to actualize his reign and
establish his kingdom on earth.
In Mark, Jesus’ kingdom teaching contains both present and future elements. Jesus speaks of
those who in the future will see the kingdom of God come with power (9:1) and refers to a future
time when he will drink wine again in the kingdom of God (14:25). Joseph of Arimathea is longing
for the kingdom of God (15:43), and at the triumphal entry, the people express their hope in “the
coming kingdom of our father David!” (11:10). While this latter passage could reflect a
misapprehension on the part of the people, the future establishment of the kingdom is implied
in Jesus’ teaching concerning the coming of the Son of Man “with great power and glory” to
“gather his elect” (13:26-32; cf. 8:38; 13:33-34; 14:62). This teaching of the future establishment
of God’s reign is in line with the expectations of apocalyptic Judaism.
At the same time, there are present dimensions to the kingdom. Jesus speaks of “receiving” the
kingdom of God like a little child (10:15) and the difficulty of entering for those who are rich
(10:23-25; cf. 9:47). The parable of the growing seed describes the kingdom as the slow growth
from seed to plant until the day of harvest (4:26-29). Similarly, the parable of the mustard seed
represents the kingdom as a tiny seed which grows into a great tree (4:30-32). In both parables,
the kingdom is something which begins with Jesus’ ministry and is consummated at his return.
Jesus’ central message, “the kingdom of God has come near,” itself suggests this ambiguity
between present and future aspects of the kingdom. The Greek verb ἤγγικεν (eìngiken) used in
Mk 1:15 could be translated either “has arrived” or “has come near.” It could denote either
present or future and may be intentionally ambiguous.
This ambiguity is best explained by seeing the kingdom as intimately related to the person of
Jesus. The kingdom has come near because the king is present. God’s reign is evident in his
healings, exorcisms, and nature miracles. His disciples experience the power of the kingdom —
casting out demons and healing the sick — through his authority (5:7, 13). If the kingdom is
directly related to the person of Jesus, then it is ultimately achieved through his death on the
cross, the ransom for sins. The kingdom is inaugurated not through conquest but through
sacrifice. It will be consummated when he returns in power and glory.

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Gospel
The author introduces his work as "gospel", meaning "good news", a literal translation of the
Greek “εὐαγγέλιον”23 Mark uses the word more often than any other New Testament writer
besides Paul.24 Outside Mark in secular usage its noun form depicted a reward given to the bearer
of good omens. As a verb: to announce good news (registration of Priene announcing the birth
of Augustus in 9 BC) In LXX: announcement of the messianic times (Is 52,1-7. 61,1-2)
In Paul it became the announcement of the person and work of Jesus Christ. That is "the good
news (of the saving significance of the death and resurrection) of Christ." Mark extends the term
to the career of Christ as well as his death and resurrection. Like the other gospels, Mark was
written to confirm the identity of Jesus as eschatological deliverer as such the purpose of terms:
"messiah" and "son of God". As in all the gospels, the messianic identity of Jesus is supported by
several themes, including: (1) the depiction of his disciples as obtuse, fearful and
uncomprehending; (2) the refutation of the charge made by Jesus' enemies that he was a
magician; (3) secrecy surrounding his true identity (this last is missing from John).

εὐαγγέλιον appears in Mk 1,14-15; 8:35 and 10:29. It depicts an identification of the “gospel”
with the preaching of Christ. But the preaching of Christ is the revelation of God in the Person
of Jesus. Therefore the 'gospel' is also the person of Christ (Mk 1,1). Mark pretends to "preach
the Gospel": that is, to show the person and the work of Christ. Therefore, it has been called
'the gospel of the catechumen.'
It has been argued that using literary genre of 'gospel', Mark gives unity to his two main narrative
blocks namely: the story of the miracles and story of the Passion coming from apparently two
independent sources. For instance, the miracle stories show Jesus who insistently asks that his
identity not be revealed, while the story of the Passion shows a knowledge of the people and the
detailed account of the place for everything points to locate its origin in Jerusalem. These clearly
indicate popular stories that run orally in the early Christian community.

The “Messianic Secret”

In Mark’s Gospel, Jesus frequently tells people not to tell others about his healings or exorcisms:
After performing exorcisms, he silences the demons and forbids them from speaking (1:23, 34;
3:11-12); He warns a leper not to speak publicly about his cleansing (1:43-45); He tells the family
of Jairus not to tell of their daughter’s raising (5:43); After healing a deaf man, he orders the
witness to tell no one (7:36); He tells a blind man to go home, rather than going into his village
(8:26); One exception: Jesus tells the Gerasene demoniac (a Gentile!) to tell his relatives (5:19).
The Markan Jesus also admonishes his disciples not to tell others that he is the Messiah: after
Peter’s “Confession of Faith” at Caesarea (8:30) and after coming down from the Mount of the
Transfiguration (9:9). Somewhat related is the distinction Jesus makes between his disciples and

23
AUNE, D., The New Testament in its literary environment, Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987, p.17.
24
MORRIS, L., New Testament Theology, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990, p. 95.

21
“outsiders”: “To you has been given the secret (or mystery) of the Kingdom of God, but for those
outside everything comes in parables...” (4:10-12). Similarly, while Jesus is teaching his disciples
inside a house, his family remains “outside” (3:31-32).

In 1901, William Wrede identified the "Messianic secret" – Jesus' secrecy about his identity as
the messiah – as one of Mark's central themes. Wrede argued that the elements of the secret –
Jesus' silencing of the demons, the obtuseness of the disciples regarding his identity, and the
concealment of the truth inside parables, were fictions, and arose from the tension between the
Church's post-resurrection messianic belief and the historical reality of Jesus. Even-though many
scholars no longer align with Wrede´s theory, it created an awareness in Mark as authentic
author and theologian sui generis more than was earlier thought. There remains continuing
debate over how far the "secret" originated with Mark and how far he got it from tradition, and
how far, if at all, it represents the self-understanding and practices of the historical Jesus.25

The Synoptic problem and the priority of Mark

Any genuine treatment of Mark cannot ignore the question of the priority of Mark. As such even
if briefly it is important to insert it in this study. The gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke bear a
striking resemblance to each other, so much so that their contents can easily be set side by side
in parallel columns. The fact that they share so much material verbatim and yet also exhibit
important differences has led to several hypotheses explaining their interdependence, a
phenomenon termed “the Synoptic Problem.” Traditionally, Mark was thought to be an epitome
(summary) of Matthew: for example, Augustine of Hippo believed they were written in order,
"first Matthew, then Mark, thirdly Luke, lastly John" and that Mark followed Matthew as "his
attendant and epitomizer".26 Today, the most widely accepted hypothesis is that Mark was the
first gospel (Marcan Priority) and was used as a source by both Matthew and Luke, together with
considerable additional material. The strongest argument for this is the fact that Matthew and
Luke agree with each other in their sequence of stories and events only when they also agree
with Mark.27
The 19th century recognition of Mark as the earliest gospel led to the belief that it must therefore
be the most reliable.28 This conclusion was shaken by two works published in the early decades
of the 20th century: in 1901 William Wrede argued strongly that the "Messianic secret" motif in
Mark was a creation of the early church rather than a reflection of the historical Jesus; and in
1919 Karl Ludwig Schmidt showed how the links between the episodes are the invention of the
writer, thus undermining the claim that the gospel is a reliable guide to the chronology of Jesus'

25
CROSS, F., "Messianic Secret" in Livingstone, Elizabeth A., (eds) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3
ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 1083.
26
Augustine of Hippo, Harmony of the Gospels, Book 1, Chapter 2.
27
KOESTER, H., Introduction to the New Testament: History and literature of early Christianity (2 ed.), Berlin: Walter
de Gruyter, 2000, pp.44-45.
28
WILLIAMSON, L., Mark. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983, p.17.

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mission.29 The modern consensus is that Mark's purpose was to present a theological message
rather than to write history,30 but this gospel is nevertheless still seen as the most reliable of the
four in terms of its overall description of Jesus's life and ministry.31
Mark´s Ending
The earliest and most reliable manuscripts of Mark end at Mark 16:8, with the women fleeing in
fear from the empty tomb: most recent scholars believe this to be the original ending,32 and this
is supported by statements from the early Church Fathers Eusebius and Jerome.33 Two attempts
were made to provide a more satisfactory conclusion. A minority of later manuscripts have what
is called the "shorter ending", an addition to Mark 16:8 telling how the women told "those around
Peter" all that the angel had commanded and how the message of eternal life (or "proclamation
of eternal salvation") was then sent out by Jesus himself. This addition differs from the rest of
Mark both in style and in its understanding of Jesus. Most manuscripts have the "longer ending",
Mark 16:9–20, with accounts of the resurrected Jesus, the commissioning of the disciples to
proclaim the gospel, and Christ's ascension. This ending was possibly written in the early 2nd
century and added later in the same century.
Modern scholars have proposed many explanations for the abrupt original ending, though none
with universal acceptance. It could indicate a connection to the theme of the "Messianic Secret".
Whatever the case, Mark’s Jesus looks forward to a post-death meeting in Galilee, and it is likely
that at that meeting, like the final meeting in Galilee that Matthew depicts, Mark's Jesus would
command the disciples to take his message to the nations.34
Mark in the New Testament & Liturgical context
All four gospels tell a story in which Jesus' death and resurrection are the crucial redemptive
events. There are, however, important differences between the four: Unlike John, Mark never
calls Jesus "God", or claims that Jesus existed prior to his earthly life; unlike Matthew and Luke,
the author does not mention a virgin birth, and apparently believes that Jesus had a normal
human parentage and birth; unlike Matthew and Luke, he makes no attempt to trace Jesus'
ancestry back to King David or Adam with a genealogy.
Christians of Mark's time expected Jesus to return as Messiah in their own lifetime – Mark, like
the other gospels, attributes the promise to Jesus himself (Mark 9:1 and 13:30), and it is reflected

29
JOEL, M., Gospel of Mark in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000, p.859.
30
Op. Cit., Williamson, L., Mark, p.17
31
POWELL, M., Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee, Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing, 1998, p.37.
32
EDWARDS, J., The Gospel According to Mark, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 2002, pp.500-501.
33
SCHRÖTER, J., "The Gospel of Mark" in Aune, David E. The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, New Jersey:
Wiley–Blackwell, 2010, pp. 272–295.
34
HORSELY, R., "Mark" In Coogan, M., Brettler, M., & Newsom, C., (eds), The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the
Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books: New Revised Standard Version, 2007, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 56–
92.

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in the letters of Paul, in the epistle of James, in Hebrews, and in Revelation. When return failed,
the early Christians revised their understanding. Some acknowledged that the parousia had been
delayed, but still expected it; others redefined the focus of the promise, the Gospel of John, for
example, speaking of "eternal life" as something available in the present; while still others
concluded that Jesus would not return at all (2 Peter argues against those who held this view).
Mark's despairing death of Jesus was changed to a more victorious one in subsequent gospels.
Mark's Christ dies with the cry, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"; Matthew, the
next gospel to be written, repeats this word for word but manages to make clear that Jesus's
death is the beginning of the resurrection of Israel; Luke has a still more positive picture, replacing
Mark's (and Matthew's) cry of despair with one of submission to God's will ("Father, into your
hands I commend my spirit"); while John, the last gospel, has Jesus dying without apparent
suffering in fulfilment of the divine plan.
Since all its narrative content - or almost - is found in the other Gospels, the story of Mark was
little used in earlier times in the liturgy. It attracted less interest than those of Matthew, Luke or
John for the Fathers of the Church, the doctors of the Middle Ages and the preachers of the
classical period. Today the situation has changed radically. The Lectionary, arising from the
liturgical reform of the Second Vatican Council and put into effect in 1969, has chosen for the
ordinary Sundays of Year B a "semi-continuous" reading of the second Gospel. So, Mark together
with the other gospels and the New Testament continually nourish the faith of the Church.35
7. Conclusion
The foregoing excursus has shown clearly the rich literary structure and theological themes in
Mark and one that was ignored prior to the 19th century. In effect no one single structure nor
theological theme can sufficiently capture nor exhaust the richness embedded in Mark. However,
Mark´s literary style is unique and helps us to understand the person and the mission of Jesus.
The on-the spot report of Mark about the things Jesus did and said and his ability to weave
together the themes of Jesus´ messianic identity and the call to discipleship in one flow of
narrative plot is a sheer mark of ingenuity. Jesus is the Messiah and the Son of God, he came to
serve and not be served and to give his life as a ransom for men. His true disciples are those who
respond to his kingdom call through sacrifice and service following His example.

1. Selected Bibliography36
BALAGUER, V., Comprender los Evangelios, Pamplona: EUNSA, 2015.

35
LÉONARD, Philippe, Evangelio de Jesucristo según san Marcos, Cuadernos Bíblicos 133, p. 4.
36
Since interest in Mark´s Gospel was awoken thanks to the so-called Quest for the Historical Jesus and as such the
rising relevance of Mark´s Gospel a wealth of literature now accrues to its concern. It is the work of the researcher
to pick and choose the work that he considers relevant to his study. The underlisted bibliography is what the
presenter considers basic and important to the recent studies in Mark.

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CRANFIELD, C., The Gospel According to Saint Mark: An Introduction and Commentary,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959.
DELORME J., Evangelio según san Marcos, Estella: Verbo Divino, 2004.
EDO, P., Evangelios Sinópticos y Hecho de los Apóstoles, Manuales ISCR 8, Pamplona: EUNSA:
2016.
GNILKA, J., El Evangelio según San Marcos, Vols I-II, Salamanca: Ediciones Sigueme, 1986.
HARRINGTON, D., “The Gospel According to Mark,” In BROWN, R., FITZYMYER, J., & MURPHY, R.,
(eds), The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. 1990, pp. 596-629.
JUEL, D., The Gospel of Mark, Nashville: Abingdon press, 1999.
LÉONARD, P., Evangelio de Jesucristo según san Marcos, Cuadernos Bíblicos 133.
MANN, C., Mark, in The Anchor Bible, New York: Doubleday, 1986.
ORTON, D., The Composition of St. Mark´s Gospel, Leiden: Brill, 1999.
STRAUSS, M., Four Portraits, One Jesus, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007.
TAYLOR, V., The Gospel According to St. Mark, New York: Macmillan and Company Limited, 1966.
TELFORD, W. R., The Theology of the Gospel of Mark, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999.
UNAV, The Navarre Bible: St Mark, Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1985.

Valentine Anthony Umoh

Universidad de Navarra
Facultad de Teología
Teología Bíblica
E-31080 Pamplona
[email protected]
[email protected]

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