7 Alternating Current Circuits ikola Tesla_roposed the alternating current (ac) system as a etter alternative to the direct current (do) system, His idea was initially met with erce resistance from Thomas Edison as explained in ‘hapler 1. Eventually the ac was selected for ower systems worldwide essentially ecause of three 1. The voltage of the ac system cane adjusted y transformers, which are relatively simple devices, ‘The voltage of the ong transmission ines can increase to high evels; thus reducing the current of the ine, reducing the transmission ine osses, and reducing the cross section of the conductors of the transmission ines, ‘The ac systems roduce rotating magnetic elds that spin electric motors, ep in mind that electric motors represent the majority of electrical oads. Nomenclature In this chapter, the following nomenclatures are used: Instantaneous current i Instantaneous voltage y Average current ow Average voltage ae Maximum (peak) current ue Maximum (peak) voltage oe (Current magnitude in root mean square oltage magnitude in root mean square Phasor current in complex form 1 Phasor voltage in complex form - Impedance in complex form Apparent ower in complex form - Magnitude of impedance “Magnitude of apparent power Instantancous power p Real power Reactive power 7.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT WAVEFORM “The ideal ac circuit has its voltage and current in sinusoidal forms. A voltage waveform is shown in igure land can c expressed mathematically y v= Vag sine a where ‘isthe instantancous voltage cnn is the cak (maximum) value ofthe voltage is the angular frequency ris the time The unit of @ is radian/second (rad/s) and is expressed. y on 72) 21324 Electric Energy: An Introduction FIGURE 7.1 Sinusoidal waveform of ac voltage where fis the frequency of the ac waveform. n laces suchas orth, entral, and South America, South, orea, Taiwan, The Philippines, Saudi Arabia, and estern pan, the frequency of ower supply is ceyclels or Hz, or the rest of the world, including Eastern apan, the supply Frequency is Hz, During the nineteenth century Hz was chosen by estinghouse in the United States Meanwhile, in Germany, the giant power equipment manufacturers AEG and Siemens chose Hz. ‘These companies had a virtual monopoly in Europe, and their Hz standard spread to the rest of Europe and most of the world. 7.2 ROOT MEAN SQUARE ‘The waveform in Figure 7.1 has its magnitude changing with time. or Hz systems, the waveform. is repeated times every second. Quantilying the value of this sinusoidal voltage is rather tricky. If We quantily the sinusoidal waveform by its maximum value, it would be unreliable since the peak is often skewed by the transients and harmonics that exist in power networks. Using the average value is not a good idea either as the average value is always zero because of the symmetry of the waveform around the time axis. To address this problem, engineers developed an effective method. called root mean square (ms) to quantify ac waveforms. The concept of this method is shown in Figure 7.2 where the mms value is computed in three steps: tep 1 ompute the square of the wavel Step 2. ompute the average value of step 1 Step 3 ompute the square root of step ‘The idea behind step 1 (squaring the waveform) is to create another waveform that is always posi tive so that its average value in step is nonzero, The square root in step is imposed to somehow compensate for the inital squaring in step 1. Today, all ac waveforms in power circuits are quantified by their rms values. Averageof v2 po Average of FIGURE 7.2 oncept of MS.Alternating Current Circuits 15 ‘The rms value cane computed y following the three steps mentioned earlier. Let us consider the waveform in Equation 1. The rst step is to square this waveform: Van 8 (695 2 13) = (1-cos2et) 73) Viiux ‘The second step is to nd the average value Ave of Equation 3: 1 Ave a5 [BE c05200) dont 74) The nal step is to nd therms voltage _y computing the square root of Equation 4: (7s) “The rms voltage for households in orth Americais 1. or Hurope and most of the idle East, the rms voltage is 20-240. There are a few exceptions such as_apan where the voltage is | Asmentioned in hapter itappears that 1 was chosen somewhat arbitrarily. Actually, Thomas Edison came u with a high-resistance amp lament that operated well at 1. Since then, 1 has eenused in the nited States, ther nations chose higher voltage, 20-240 toreduce the cur rent in the electric wires, and therefore use ess expensive wires with smaller cross sections, Example 7.1 ‘The outlet voltage measured y anrms voltmeter is 1. ompute the maximum value of the voltage waveform, Solution me = V2 = v2 x 120 = 169.7 tice that the voltage of a household equipment is iven in rms, not the maximum valve. Example 72 Compute the rms voltage of the waveform in igure 3. Solution ‘The eneral equation of the rms value of vis216 Electric Energy: An Introduction “wh ~ 1 Fe) FIGURE 7.3. iscrete voltage waveform, where is the eriod. Since the waveform in igure .3 is discrete, the rms vollage can & expressed. y 7.3 HASE SHIFT “The ideal waveforms for currents and voltages in ac circuits are sinusoidal. or a urely resistive oad the current waveform i is in hase with the voltage waveform as. iven in Equation 6 and shown in igure 4: Vig SiM(@t) = ig R a6) Ves sin(e in = “3 sinton If the circuit has a purely inductive load (no resistance or capacitance), the voltagecurrent relationship is v= Vax sin(or) = LAE an ai FIGURE 7.4 oltage and curzent of urely resistive oad.Alternating Current Circuits 27 FIGURE 7.5 tage and current of urely inductive oad. where is the inductance of the oad. The current in this urely inductive oad # cane obtained from Equation (77) 1 ¥, ¥, ipo L fo dr Ye frinwnrat =~ 28) Tf tT foment ‘ where © is the magnitude of the inductive reactance of the oad. As seen in Equation 8, the current ofa urely inductive oad is a negative cosine waveform which is shown in igure 5, The sitive cak of the current occurs after the voltage reaches its own sitive cak. n this case, the current is said toe lagging the voltage y 0”. Fora urely capacitive oad, the voltage~current relationship is ven y fice = Vous sin(w!) 79) where is the oad capacitance. The curtent i cane computed as fox CA [Vag sin(wn)] = 0 C Vu c0s(01) = G10) where Xe = 1/wC is the magnitude of the capacitive reactance of the oad. As scen in Equation .10, the current ofa urely capacitive oad is a cosine waveform, igure. .6 shows the voltage across the capacitor and the current. ote that the ositive eak of the current waveform occurred fore the voltage eak. Hence, the current is said toe leading the voltage y 0° FIGURE 7.6 oltage and current of rely capacitive oad218 Electric Energy: An Introduction FIGURE 77 Lagging current £the oad is composed of a mix of elements such as resistances, capacitances, and inductances, the hase shift angle @ of the current can cany value etween and 90°. igure Tshows the current and voltage waveforms of an inductive oad that is composed of a resistance and inductance. The current waveform in igue 7can ¢ expressed mathematically y F=Lny,sin(oot 8) aay 7.4 ONCEPT OF PHASORS Phasors are handy raphical representations for ac circuit analysis, They ive ick information on the magnitude and ase shift of any waveform, onsider igure .8;the eft side of the gure shows a sinusoidal waveform without any hase shift. The waveform can e represented y the hasor on the right side ofthe gure. The ength of the hasoris. roportional to the rms value of the waveform and its hase angle with respect to the x axis represents the hase shift of the sinusoidal waveform, Since the waveform has no. hase shill, the hasor of the voltage is aligned with the x axis, Consider the circuit in igure 9 for a urely resistive oad. Since the resistance does not cause any hase shift in the current as shown in igure 4, the current hasor is in phase with the voltage as shown on the right side of igure 9. For a urely inductive oad, the current ags the vollage y as iven in Equation 8 and shown in igure .S. The hasor diagram in this case is depicted on the right side of igure 10, The agging angles are always in the clockwise direction, te—— FIGURE 7.8 Phasor representation ofa sinusoidal waveform, FIGURE 7.9. Phasor epresentation of current and ¥ tage of urely resistive oad.Alternating Current Circuits 29 v(y X FIGURE 7.10. Phasor representation of current and voltage of urely inductive oad ‘®) FIGURE 7.11 Phasor representation of current and voltage of ely capacitive oad. v Reference FIGURE 7.12 Phasor representation of the current and voltage in igure 7 or a urely capacitive oad, the current eads the vollage y as. iven in Equation .10 and shown in igure .6. The hasor diagram in this case is iven on the right side of igure 11. The ceading angles ate always in the counterclockwise direction. ‘Now let us consider the waveforms in Figure 7.7. As seen in the figure, the current is lagging the voltage by an angle @. These waveforms can be represented by the phasor diagram in Figure 7.12. “The voltage is considered as the reference with no phase shift, so it is aligned with the x-axis. Since the current lags the voltage by © the phasor for the current lags the reference by 0 in the clockwise irection. 7.5 OMPLEX NUMBER ANALYSIS is inconvenient to numerically analyze electric circuits y the rapbieal method of hasor dia grams, An alternative method is to use the complex number analysis, where any hasor is repre sented yamagnitude and an angle. or example, the voltage and current in igures 7 or 12 can ce represented y the following complex variable equations: “Ze «72 2 as) Where “is the hasor representation of the voltage. thas a ar on the top indicating thatthe vari able is a complex number. is the magnitude of the voltage inrms, The symbol Zs followed y the angle of the hasor, which is ero for voltage and @ for the agging current.220 Electric Energy: An Introduction ‘The complex forms in Equations 12 and .13 are called polar forms (also nown as trigonomet ric forms). The mathematics of the olar forms is very simple for multiplication and division. Let us assume that we have two complex numbers Ke Azo, an) “= 28 (71s) The multiplication and division of these two complex numbers are as follows: A B= A20, B20; = AB £0,403) a6) A_ Aly A - 2-8) a7) BBL, B ‘The addition and subtraction of complex numbers in polar forms are harder to implement. However, if we switch the polar form to the rectangular form (also known as cartesian form), we can perform these operations very quickly. To convert from polar to rectangular forms, consider the phasor A in Figure 7.13. The reference in the figure represents the «axis, The component of A projected on the reference is Acos@ and the vertical projection is Asin 8, These two components can be represented by Equation 7.18. = ALO = Alcos0+ jsin0] = Acos0+ jAsinO= X+ jY 1s) The first component along the x-axis is known as the real component. The second component preceded by an operator is known as the imaginary component. eep in mind that there is nothing imaginary about the quantity Asin @ we simply use the label to distinguish between the directions of the real and imaginary vectors. The operator is used to represent the counterclockwise rotation. of avector by any quantity preceded by is shifted in the counterclockwise direction by 90°. ‘The basic relations of the operator are summarized in Equation 7.19: = 1.290" 1 Z180°= 2270 = 1-90 =~ oy) fe Zo 51 290" = te. Imaginary ais Acost Reali, FIGURE 7.13 and components of PhasorAlternating Current Circuits aa The mathematical expressions in Equation 7.19 can also be achieved by defining the operator = V-1. By using Figure 7.13, the conversion of A from the rectangular form to the polar form is, Hea X+jv-A2o tay? (7.20) ‘The addition or subtraction of complex numbers in rectangular forms is done y adding or subtracting the real and imaginary components independently A+B=A (cos, + jsin0,) +B(cos0; + jsindy (cost + jsinB,) + BG sin.) an = (Acos®, + Beos8,) + j(Asin®, + Bsin®,) A (cos6, + jsin0,) ~B(cos®, + jsin®, ( jsin0,) ~B(cos8; + jsin0,) a) = (Acos0, — Beos0,)+ j(Asin®, ~Bsin0;) (One of the convenient operations used in complex number analyses isthe conjugate of a vector: Two complex numbers are conjugates if ‘Their veal components are equal and their imaginary components are equal in magnitude ‘Their imaginary components have different signs If Ais a complex vector, and Ais it conjugate, then Taxejy Veer 26 2 tay? 2-6 -j¥= ‘The conjugate is useful in complex operations such as inverting a hasor. Let us assume that the hhasor A isin rectangular form. To compute 1/A use the following rocess: (724)222 Electric Energy: An Introduction Example 73 AssumeA 1 Z — and~ 24 compute the following: L ~ AB : Seton ear ee es A 10660" 19 (60° 40°) = 2.220" saa" 5 “sA+B 1 Z 24 1 (os sin (eos 4 sind Se 868) 40884 AaH=bE4j1L87 THF ce aa esas 4 ~ A-B1Z 24 1 (os sin (cos 4 sind 5+ j8.66)-G.83+ j9.20 114 55.45 557 £7788" (aa aa cw (S48 7.6 OMPLEX IMPEDANCE “The impedance in ac cigcuits cane composed of any combination of resistances, inductances and capacitances. These elements are also complex. uantities and cane computed as_iven in Equations .25 through .27 YY py 125) Te hhe x2 Y p90 x, 290° 726) 7, .2-90 1 KenL YO LV gore x. 2-90" azn [eL90" ~ Te where the magnitudes @ and Xe =MaC as ivenin Equations 8 and 10.Alternating Current Circuits 223 6.1. Series IMPEDANCE hen the oad is composed of different elements, the total ohmic value of the oad is called imped ance. n igure 14, a xesistance is connected in series with an inductive reactance. Each of these components is a complex arameter with a magnitude and hase angle as iven in Equations .25 and 26. The impedance ~ of this oad is ZaRs¥,-RL0+X,L90" = R+j X, 728) ‘The hasor diagram of the impedance is shown on the right side of igure .14, ote that the imped ance angle @ is sitive and is equal in magnitude to the hase angle of the current in igure 12. ‘Similarly, the capacitive oad in igure 15 is composed of a resistor and a capacitor connected in series, The impedance of this oad cane expressed y Equation 29: + Ree RL04 Kel 90° = R=] Xe a2) The hasor diagram of the capacitive impedance is shown on the right side of igure 15, ote that the capacitive reactance —_ags the resistance y 0" Now et us assume a eneral case where a resistor is in series with a capacitor and an inductor, The circuit is shown in igure .16. The impedance of the oad can c expressed y Z = RX, + Ko-RLO+X,L90°+ XcL.—90° = K+ j (Xr ~ Xe) (730) FIGURE 7.14. Series impedance of inductive oad Hi Sh ies impedance of capacitive oad. Rox Xe Xe Ne, . R ~ Zz He 3 HsoXe =X Xi, ur objective is to_ nd its equivalent wye oad shown in igure 8.27. The oad impedance ofthe equivalent wye is Zs, ut how do we nd the value of Zy that makes the two circuits equivalent? The simplest way isto treat oth circuits as an impedance ox with three terminals, The two cit cuits are equivalent ifthe voltage applied etween any two terminals in oth circuits reduces the same terminal curents, This means the impedance etween any two terminals in the delta circuit is equal othe impedance tween the same terminals in the wye cireit, or example, the impedance measured etween terminals «and b Z must e the same for oth circuits. % Zs FIGURE 8.26 —_clta oad,266 Electric Energy: An Introduction zy FIGURE 8.27 An equivalent wye oad to the delta oadin i 2,| t % poof ‘ FIGURE 8.28 Terminal impedance of delta oad. w of the delta-connected oad can ¢ uickly computed y rearranging the impeda igure 8.26 as shown in igure 8.28. Cis easy to see that the impedance measured etween termi nals a and bis a arallel combination of ~, and jas _iven in Equation 8.24, cep in mind that the third terminal cis. oating (unconnected). (8.24) Now etus do the same with the equivalent wye oad. earrangethe wye oadasshownin igure 8.29, ‘Since the third terminal cis oating, the impedance etween terminals a and b is a series combina tion of two Zy as_iven in Equation 8.25. (8.28)‘Three-Phase Systems 267 4 FIGURE 8.29 Terminal impedance of wye oad To make the wye oad equivalent to the original delta oad, the terminal impedances of oth circuits rust ¢ equal, that is, Equations 8.24 and 8.25 are equal. Hence, 8.26) The relationship in Equation 8.26 is valid for wansforming either wye into delta or delta into wye. Example 8.7 Repeat Example 8.6 y using the wye-delta transformation, Solution Convert the delta oad in igure 8.23 t0 wye, 152.-30° 3 =52-30°0 After the delta is converted into wye, we have two wye-connected oads in arallel as shown in igure 8.30. These two oads can e replaced y one equivalent wye oad as shown in igure 8.31, The new value of the equivalent oad impedance is ZZ _ (5e~30°)(10220°) Za, (§Z~307) + (102207 63432 -13.84°O FIGURE 8.30 Equivalent circuit ofthe system in. igure 8.28,268 Electric Energy: An Introduction @ Y ORO ISO ‘ > he » FIGURE 8.31 Equivalent wye oa. cow, the ine current cane directly computed as 7, = Me 1204033 84° 36332-1384 ‘This rocess is obviously much simpler than that in Example 8.6, 8.3 QWER CALCULATIONS OF BALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS The ower in a three-phase oad is the sum of the owers of each oad. The voltage, current, and. cower of any of the three oad in three-phace system are called hase uantities. Puy = Vola C088 . 627) Ops = Vp Fyn sin where Py is the real ower consumed y one oad (phase real_ ower) Q,. is the reactive ower consumed y one oad (phase reactive ower) Vy isthe voltage across the oad (phase voltage) Ty is the current of the oad (phase current) Gis the ower factor angle (Ihe angle etween the oad voltage and the oad current); @ is then the impedance angle Since the system is balanced, the three-phase ower ( is ust three times the ower of a single-phase: P32 = 3Vp. 0088 828) AAsimilar equation cane obtained for three-phase reactive ower ( 2-30 = 4 Tyysin8 (8.29)‘Three-Phase Systems 269 8.3.1 Ture Puase Power oF BataNcrd W £ Loans: hen the oad is connected in wye, the curren in the transmission ine curzent (isthe same asthe oad current yy, Also, the ine-to-line voltage ofthe transmission ine ( , is eter than the oad wollage 4 Yafactorof Y .Hence, the ower of the three-phase oad is Pel = Vp fn c088 = 53E cond 630) Rewriting Equation 8.30 yields P= V3Vjhicos0 @ap Similarly, the reactive ower is = V3 Vi hsind (8.32) Keep in mind that @ is the impedance angle (angle tween the oad voltage and the oad current), 8.3.2. Turee PHase Power oF BALANCED Detta Loans The voltage across the delta-connected oad is the same as the ine-to-line voltage of the transmission ine. Also, the current in the transmission ine is eater than the oad.current y afactor of y/ Hence, P= 32 = 3V 550080 = 3V4 Foo 639) Equation 8,33 cane rewritten as P= V3Vj f,0088 634) Similarly, the three-phase reactive ower is 0 = VV; hsin8 635) Note that Equations 8.31 and 8.34 are identical. Also Equations 8.32 and 8.35 are identical. ‘Therefore, the ower of a three-phase circuit can e computed y the same transmission ine uan Lilies regardless of the oad connection. cep in mind that @ is the angle etween the oad voltage and the oad current in oth cases. other words, @ is the angle of the oad impedance. Example 8.8 A. connected three-phase source of V,,=12020°V is owering a delta-connected oad of ~ =15220°, ompute the real and reactive ower consumed y the oad,270 Electric Energy: An Introduction Solution Compute the magnitude of the ine-to-line voltage Vj VV Vy 07.84V ‘ow compute the ine current, ut rst calculate the magnitude of the oad current I, Vou, Va _ 207.84 La Z = 13.858 [= VBI = V313.85 = 244 ‘The hase angle of the oad is iven as 0°. Hence, the real and reactive owers ate P= Y3Vj 1; cos = V3 «207.84 x24 xc0520° = 8.12 kW Q = V3Vy 1; sin = V3 «207.84 x 24 x sin 20° = 2.95 kVAr Example 8.9 A three-phase source of ¥,, =12020°V delivers 1 and VArtoa wye-connected ad compute the oad impedance. Solution Compute the ower factor angle @ ‘ompute the ine-to-line voltage: fy = V3Vq = 207.84V se the ower equation to compute the ine current: P= ViVi h,cos8 10,000 = V3 x 207.84 x 1, x0s26.56* 1) = 31.054. ‘The ine current is the same as the oad current in wye connection, ow compute the magnitude of the oad impedance:‘Three-Phase Systems at ‘The complex value of the oad impedance is Z = Z(c0s0+ jsin®) = 386(c0526.56 + jsin2656) = 3454/1732 EXERCISES 81 82 83 84 ‘A. connected alanced three-phase source is feeding a alanced three-phase oad. The voltage and current of the source coil are (= 340sin(3774 40.5236) V (9) = 100sin(3771 +0.87266) A alculate the following a, Therms hase voltage 'b, The rms. ine-to-line voltage. . The rms current in the source, 4. The rms current in the transmission ine. ‘e. The frequency of the supply. £ The ower factor a the source side, state eading or aging. ‘&. The three-phase real ower delivered to the oad, hh. The three-phase reactive ower delivered to the oad, i. fthe oad is connected in delta configuration, calculate the oad impedance. = 4802 -60°V 7, = 202120°A ‘The current and voltage of a connected oad are a. ompute V. compute T, © ompute the ower factor angle. 4. ompute the real ower of the oad. A three-phase, 480 system is connected to a alanced three-phase oad. The transmission ine current ,is 1 Andis in hase with the ine-to-line voltage... alculate the imped ance of the oad for the following cases: a. fthe oad is wye-connected bb. Fthe oad is delts-connected “The waveforms of the ine-to-line voltage and ine current of a three-phase transmission ine connected toa deltaload are vy = Veusinor aa Sin(ent ~ 50°) alculate the ower factor angle. ‘A alancedwye-connected oad of (4 is connected across a three-phase source of 1 (ine-to-tine) a, ind the transmission ine current ind the ower factor, the complex ower, the real ower, and the reactive ower of the oad, c. ith 4 as the reference, sketch the hasor diagram that shows a voltages and currents.272 Electric Energy: An Introduction 8.6 ‘Two three-phase wye-connected oads are in aallel aross a three-phase supply. The 1st oaddraws acurrent of At 9 ower factor eading, and the second oad draws a curtent of Aal $8 ower factor agging, alculae the following a. The transmission ine current bb. The ower factor ofthe oad © The real ower supplied the source if the ine-o-ne vollage ofthe transmission ine 8.7 The ine-to-line voltage ofa three-phase transmission ine is ¥, = 44020°V. 4 aleulate the hase voltage Py fawye oadimpedance of = 10260° is connected tothe transmission in the transmission ine curent J «alee the current in the neutral ine 7, A three-phase motors rated st Ohp. hati the ower of the motor er hase in The following ae the voltage and current measured for a connected oad. calculate 88 89 = 20050° 102140" 4. aleulate the ower factor angle. blouse the real ower consumed y the oad 8.10 A delt-connected source is energizing two arallel oads. ne of the oads is connected in delta and the other in wye, The sne-torine voltage of the transmission ine is O8 . The delta oad has impedance ~, = 104 -25°Q. The wye oad has impedance Zy = 5240°Q. ‘mpute the current in transinission ine B11 Athroe-phase connected source is energizing adelts-connected oad. The hase voltage of the transmission inc is Vy =12020°V and the oad impedance is 9230", ompute T. and the ower consumed the delta oad