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 Methods of Control Surveying
• Control Surveying is the surveying which is carried out to establish
a network of control points
• In surveying there are two types of control networks
• Horizontal control
• Vertical control
• Horizontal Control Survey is used to measure the position of the
points in the horizontal plane.
• Vertical Control Survey is used to measure the elevation of the
points in the survey area.
• If the survey area is in global scale or covers very large extent we
conduct geodetic control survey
• If the extent of survey is small or is in local scale we conduct
ordinary (plain) control survey.
 Importance of control survey
• Both horizontal and vertical control surveys are essential for
accurate mapping activities.
• The two types of surveys provide the framework for other surveys,
such as topographic surveys, and are essential for the establishment
of coordinate systems.
• Without the use of control surveys, it would be impossible to
accurately map the features of the earth’s surface.
• Control surveys establish precise reference points, ensuring that
every subsequent measurement is accurate.
• That is what we call “working from whole to the part”
 Importance control survey…
• They provide the spatial framework for mapping and construction
projects.
• Control surveys provide a common reference, ensuring that various
surveys seamlessly integrate.
• They serve as checkpoints, allowing surveyors to validate their
measurements.
• For mega projects like highways, dams, or urban planning, control
surveys are the backbone. They help manage the vastness of these
endeavors and keep everything in proportion.
• In the world of GIS and mapping, control surveys are indispensable.
They contribute to the accuracy of spatial databases, which, in turn,
influence decisions in fields like urban planning and environmental
management.
 Leveling: Geodetic and Ordinary Leveling
• Leveling is the method and procedures by which the elevation of
different points on the surface of the Earth are measured.
• It is usually done by sighting through a leveling instrument at a
leveling staff held vertically and in an orderly sequence from one
point to another
• It refers to the process of determining the elevation or height of
points on the Earth's surface relative to a reference point or a
reference surface usually the MSL.
• On the basis of the accuracy and extent of coverage we categorize
leveling as Geodetic and Ordinary Leveling
 Geodetic Leveling
• Geodetic leveling is a high-precision technique designed for large-scale
surveys covering extensive areas, often on a regional or national scale.
• It takes into account the curvature of the Earth and uses a geoid as the
reference surface. Geoid undulations and gravity anomalies are
considered in geodetic leveling to ensure accurate measurements.
• Sophisticated leveling instruments and precise methods are used to
achieve high accuracy.
• It is also known as Precise levelling because it is a accurate method of
differential levelling which uses highly accurate levels and with a more
rigorous observing procedure than general engineering leveling and it
aims to achieve high orders of accuracy
• Geodetic leveling is essential for projects such as establishing precise
elevation networks, monitoring tectonic movements, and contributing to
the definition of accurate geoid models.
 Ordinary Leveling
• Ordinary leveling is a more straightforward and commonly used
technique for local surveys and engineering projects, covering
relatively smaller areas.
• It assumes a flat Earth surface (ignoring the Earth's curvature) and
does not account for long-distance effects of gravity or geoid
undulations. It uses a local or assumed reference plane.
• Conventional leveling instruments, such as levels or theodolites, are
employed. GPS or GNSS may be used for horizontal control, but
vertical control is typically based on local benchmarks.
• Ordinary leveling is suitable for construction projects, road surveys,
building layout, and other applications where the accuracy
requirements are not as stringent as in geodetic surveys.
 Terms used in Levelling
1. Level surface: A level surface is a curved surface, which at all
points is normal to the direction of force of gravity as defined by a
freely suspended plumb bob.
2. A level line: A level line is a line lying on a level surface. It is normal
to the plumb line at all points.
3. A horizontal plane: A horizontal plane through a point is a plane
tangential to the level surface at that point.
4. A horizontal line: A horizontal line is any line lying in the
horizontal plane.
5. A vertical line: A line defined by a freely suspended plumb bob is
vertical line. It is a line at any point which normal to the level surface
through that point.
 Terms used in Levelling…
6. Vertical plane: The plane surface on which the vertical line lies is called
vertical plane.
6. Datum Surface: Datum surface is any arbitrarily assumed level surface to
which elevations of the points are referred.
7. Elevation (height): The elevation of a particular point is the vertical distance
above or below a reference (Datum surface) surface. Usually, the mean sea level is
used as a reference.
8. Mean sea level (MSL): Mean sea level is obtained from the average height of
the sea’s surface for all the stages of the tide, over a period of 19 years.
9. Reduced level (RL): The reduced level of a place is its elevation or vertical
distance above or below the datum or any fixed point.
10. Line of sight: It is the imaginary line joining the intersection of the crosshairs
of the diaphragm to the optical center of the object glass and its continuation of
the telescope of a level instrument.
• It is also called the line of collimation.
• It coincides with the axis of telescope in a perfectly adjusted instrument
 Terms used in Levelling…
11. Backsight (BS): A backsight is the first staff reading taken after
setting up the instrument at any position.
• This will always be reading on a point of known elevation.
• It ascertains the amount by which the line of sight is above or below (in case
of inverted staff) the elevation of the point.
• Backsight enables the surveyor to obtain the height of the instrument.
• Another term for backsight is plus sight.
12. Foresight (FS): A foresight is the last staff reading taken before
shifting the instrument.
• This will always be reading on a point whose elevation is to be determined.
• This reading indicates the shifting of the instrument.
• It is also generally known as minus sight as the fore sight-reading is always
subtracted from the height of the instrument (except when the staff is held
inverted) to obtain the elevation.
 Terms used in Levelling…
13. Intermediate sight (IS): An intermediate sight is any staff reading,
taken on a point of unknown elevation, after the back sight and before the
foresight.
• This is necessary when more than two staff readings are to be taken from the same
position of the instrument.
• It may be noted that for one set of a level there will be only a backsight and
foresight but there can be any number of intermediate sights.
14. Changepoint (CP): Changepoint is a staff position to which both a
Foresight and a Backsight are taken.
• Great care is necessary for taking readings at the change point since an error in
reading affects every succeeding point of observation (elevation).
15. Benchmark (BM): A benchmark is the common expression used for any
kind of monumented reference mark of any material of which the height
above the selected datum (Mean sea level) has been determined by the
process of levelling.
 Terms used in Levelling…
16. Levelling: Leveling is an operation for the determination of the relative
difference of height between any two points on the Earth’s surface.
17. Alignment (Al): A sequence of coherent roads considered in one line for
leveling purpose is called alignment.
e.g. The road Birganj - Pathlaiya - Hetauda - Naubise - Kathmandu is considered as
one alignment.
18. Datum Stations (DS): Datum Stations are such BMs from which the
height above Mean Sea Level for Nepal is deriVed. They are usually
established as Special-monumentations and are situated close to the
boundaries of Nepal.
19. Base Points (BP): Base Points are such BMs which are established in
geologically stable areas to serve always for the Control and maintenance
of the levelling network. They are also established as special
monumentations.
 Terms used in Levelling…
20. Line (Ln): The route followed by the method of levelling from
point A to point B is is called Line .
21. Loop (Lp): The closed system of a certain number of lines is
called the Loop.
22. Junction Point (JP): The intersection of a line or the point where
two lines cross together is called Junction Point. At such- points triple
or quadruple groups of BMs are established.
23. Section: A line between any two permanent Bench Marks is called
a Section.
24. Sub-Section: the distance within a line of such length that can be
levelled with 6 to 8 instrument set-ups. i. e. sub-section is the
subdivision of a section.
 Terms used in Levelling…
25. Link (Lk): A line which is levelled for purposes other than for the
establishment of a coherent levelling-network. Links depart and end
always at PBMs. e. g. Heights of Trigonometrical Stations are derived from
a PBM by means of a link.
26. 14-days section (14-ds): A 14-days section consists of such numbers of
sections that its length can be levelled Within 14 days, by one team forward
and at the same time, by the other team backward. Observations of 14-ds
must always begin and end on a triple or quadruple group of PBMs.
27. Temporary Bench Mark (TBM): A monumentation (usually With an
iron rivet) which must outlast at least during the observation period. TBMs
serve to check the accuracy of the sections as one compares immediately
after finishing a 14-days section, the two differences of height between two
consecutive TBMs resulting from Forward and Backward Levelling.
 Terms used in Levelling…
• 28. Permanent Bench Mark (PBM): A monumentation which outlasts at
least the next 50 years without changing its relative position neither
vertically nor horizontally. Such monumentations are established with a
single BM or as a triple or quadruple group.
• 29. Destroyed BM: A BM, which can no more be found after its height
was observed and computed. BMs which are discovered to be unstable or
lost at the time of the first determination of their height, are not
considered to be destroyed ones as they can be reestablished and then
treated as if nothing had happened.
• 30. Forward Levelling: The levelling carried out in the direction of the
increment of the Bench Mark numbering (1. e. the forward direction.)
• 31. Backward Levelling: The levelling carried out in the direction of the
descending order of Bench Mark numbering. (i. e. in opposite direction).
 The principle of leveling
• The principle of leveling in surveying is based on the fundamental
concept that a horizontal line of sight is perpendicular to the
direction of gravity. This principle allows surveyors to determine
height differences between points on the Earth's surface and
establish horizontal reference planes.
 Methods of Levelling
Levelling

Geodetic Levelling Ordinary Levelling

or
Precise Levelling

Direct (sprit) Levelling Indirect Levelling

Differential Leveling Simple Leveling Trigonometric Leveling

Check Leveling Profile Leveling Barometric Leveling

Fly Leveling Cross-section Leveling Hypsometric Leveling

Reciprocal Leveling
 Direct (sprit) Levelling
• Simple Leveling: Basic surveying method to measure height
differences between points using a leveled line of sight and a single
setup of the leveling instrument.
• Differential Leveling: Technique comparing height differences
between successive setups, ensuring accurate elevation
measurements over longer distances.
• Check Leveling: Additional surveying to verify and validate
previous leveling work, ensuring consistency and accuracy.
 Direct (sprit) Levelling
• Fly Leveling: Rapid leveling technique using a leveled line of sight
without meticulous attention to precision, suitable for quick
assessments. It is conducted to carry height from BM to project site.
• Profile Leveling: Surveying method to determine elevations along a
specific line or route, providing a profile of the terrain or structure.
• Cross-section Leveling: Extension of profile leveling, involving
measurements perpendicular to the main survey line to create a
comprehensive cross-sectional view.
• Reciprocal Leveling: Technique involving two setups of the leveling
instrument, with measurements taken in both directions to enhance
accuracy by minimizing instrument errors.
 Indirect Levelling
• Trigonometric Leveling: In this method the difference in
elevation is determined using trigonometry by measuring
horizontal/slope distances and vertical/zenithal angles
between two points.
If  vertical angle and Dh horizontal distance then the height
difference is determined as follows:
h = Dh tan  , Ds h
If  vertical angle and Ds slope distance then the height difference
is determined as follows:
h = Ds sin  Z
If Z Zenithal angle and Dh horizontal distance then the height  Dh
difference is determined as follows:
h = Dh cot Z ,
If Z vertical angle and Ds slope distance then the height difference
is determined as follows:
h = Ds cos Z
 Indirect Levelling
• Barometric Leveling: The barometric levelling is based on the fact that
the atmospheric pressure varies inversely with the height. As air is a
compressible fluid, strata at low level will have a greater density than
those at a higher altitude. The higher the place of observation the lesser
will be the atmospheric pressure.

• Where:
• H: difference in elevation between two points
• h1, h2: barometric readings in cm hg at lower, higher points respectively
• T1, T2: temperature in °C of the air at lower and higher points respectively.
• Mercurial and aneroid are the two types of barometers used in in barometric
leveling.
• Accuracy of elevation up to 3m can be achieved in favorable condition while
carefully levelling by barometric leveling.
• An error of 0.1 mm Pressure observation leads to an error of 1 m in elevation.
• An error of 1°C in temperature observation leads to an error of 2 m in elevation.
 Indirect Levelling
• Hypsometric Leveling: In this method, the difference
of elevations is determined by noting down the
temperature at which water starts boiling. As the
altitude of the place increases the boiling point of
water decreases. Atmospheric pressure h1 and h2 of
both the points are calculated first by using the
formula

• On the basis of these pressures difference in elevation

(H) is calculated by using formula
 Geodetic or Precise Levelling
• The principles of Precise or geodetic Levelling are the same as ordinary
spirit levelling. The only differences in the methods of levelling are the
following conditions imposed on Precise Levelling to eliminate all the
possible sources of errors.
• Instrument refinement:
• The use of high precision instruments and more accurate invar staves
• Field Procedure refinement:
• The application of more rigorous observing techniques under restricted climatic and
environmental conditions.
• Refinement in booking and reduction of readings
• Applications of High Precision Levelling
• Establishment of the basic levelling network of a country
• Geodetic research, tectonic, crustal movement, mean sea level studies etc.
• Frame work of vertical control for major engineering works, dams, bridges and
canals etc.
 Nepal Standards of Geodetic levelling
• The following tolerances are specified as the maximum acceptable misclosure
between Forward and Backward Levelling on any section of1evelling.
ORDER TOLERANCE
High Precision/First 1.1K mm
Second 2.0K mm
Third 5.0K mm, where k is distance in km

• In running the H.P./First Order Levelling the following requirements are

fu1filled.
• High Precision/Geodetic Levels instruments with parallel plate micrometers are used.
• A pair of 3 m invar staves with circular bubble are used
• Maximum line of sight is kept 25 m and Backsight Distance and Foresight Distance are
kept equal
• Staff reading below O.5 m and above 2.5 m are not to be used.
• Observation sequence should be followed strictly.
• Forward and Backward Levelling are to be carried out by different equipment and
observers.
• All the Possible sources of errors must be minimized and subsequent corrections are to be
applied.
 Nepal Standards of Geodetic levelling
Details 1st order 2nd order 3rd order
Level Instrument Wild – N3 or equivalent Wild –N3 NA2 with parallel Wild –N2 NA2 with parallel
plate micrometer or plate micrometer or
equivalent equivalent
Staff 3m invar staff with double 3m invar staff with double Invar staff or equivalent
graduation graduation
Max m length of sight 25m 30m 35m
Double Levelling Yes Yes Yes
Forward & Backward Different instrument and Different instrument and Different/same instrument
Levelling carried by different observer different observer Different/same observer
Observation time Sunrise to 10 AM, 2 PM to Sunrise to 10 AM, 2 PM to Whole day
sun set sun set
Tolerance for Back and fore  1.1 K mm  2.0 K mm  5.0 K mm
leveling
No. of setups between Even Even Even
BMs.
Alignment No starts from 1 2 3
 Things to be considered in precise levelling
• PBM to PBM distance 2 km ( as per site situation 1.5-2.5 km)
• PBM should be monumented at the offset of 50-100 m from the road
• There should be 2m horizontal and 3m vertical clearance around
the PBM
• Steel and brass marks should be used for PBM whereas iron rivet
should be used for TBM
• First order PBMs are established alternately as single points and as
group of three to four, the distance between a group and single
being approximately 2 km
 Things to be considered in precise levelling
• From the sketch, it can be seen that over a distance of 4 km an
average 4.5 PBMs are required, for a distance of 1 km an average
(4.5/4) are required. For a distance of L km the total number T of
PBMs required is
T = (4.5/4) x L = (9/8)L
• Thus, for a distance of 200 km, the total number of First Order
PBMs required are:-
T= 200 x 9/8 = 225
 Things to be considered in precise levelling
• While giving level alignment number for the first order alignment, a
3 digit number starting from 1 should be given. Thus the first order
alignment number ranges from 100 to 199.
• While giving level alignment number for the second order
alignment, a 3/4 digit number starting from 2 should be given. Thus
the second order alignment number ranges from 200 to 299 or 2000
to 2999.
• While giving level alignment number for the third order alignment,
a 3/4 digit number starting from 3 should be given. Thus the third
order alignment number ranges from 300 to 399 or 3000 to 3999.
 Things to be considered in precise levelling
• A number is attached to the alignment number placing a dash (-) on
it to write the number of the PBMs of that alignment. As for
example, 101-005 represents PBM number five of 101 alignment.
• A number(1,2,3,4...) is attached for destroyed or additional bench
mark numbering by placing a dot (.) to the old PBM Number. As for
example 205-112.1, 205-112.2, 205-112.3 etc. represent the additional
PBMs between 205-112 and 205-113
• A number(1,2,3,4...) is attached for temporary bench mark
numbering by placing a slash (/) to the PBM Number. As for
example 121-222/1, 121-222/2, 121-222/3 etc. represent the TBMs
between 121-222 and 121-223
 Things to be considered in precise levelling
• A number(a,b,c,d...) is attached for staff position numbering by placing a
slash (/) to the PBM Number and without placing slash(/) to the TBM
number. As for example 121-222/a, 121-222/b, 121-222/c etc. represent the
staff position between PBM 121-222 and the next BM. Similarly 121-
222/1a, 121-222/1b, 121-222/1c etc. represent the staff positions between
TBM 121-222/1 and the next BM.
• In a triple or quadruple group of PBMs the highest number is taken for
the further numbering of additional PBMs or TBMs or staff positions.
• Link lines are always connected from PBMs. The link line number is
given by attaching /L to the PBM number. To denote TBMs in the link
1,2,3,4... are attached and to denote staff positions in the link a,b,c,d,...
are attached. As for example
• 121-227/L1 : TBM 1 in the link after PBM 121-227
• 121-227/La : staff position in the link after PBM 121-227
• 121-227/L1a : staff position in the link after TBM 121-227/L1
 Reducing the levels
• Two methods are in general use:
• rise and fall method
• height of instrument/collimation method
• Rise and Fall Method
• Compute Rise or Fall (if Backsight-Foresight is +ve Rise, is –ve Fall)
• Add Rise or Fall (with +ve or –ve sign) to the RL of previous station to get
the RL of next station.
• Check: ∑BS - ∑FS = ∑Rise - ∑Fall = Last RL – First RL.
• Height of collimation/instrument method
• Compute HI (add BS reading to the RL of back station)
• Compute RL of next station (deduct FS/IS reading to HI)
• Check: Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. -First R.L.
 Errors and elimination/adjustment
• Three different kinds of errors
• Gross errors (Mistakes/Blunders)
• Random errors
• Systematic errors
• Gross errors
• caused by carelessness, can be avoided by careful work,
• discoverable by repeating the measurements or by check-computations
• Random errors
• They have different algebraic signs (+ or -).
• In a large number of observations there will be the same number of errors with a positive
sign as there are errors with a negative sign.
• Compensating in nature
• Also the magnitude of a random error is different for most observations.
• They are a result of the imperfections of the human senses and of the instruments.
• Even after adjustments the instrument will not be free of all errors.
• In contrast to gross errors and systematic errors, the random errors cannot be avoided.
• Least square adjustment is the best remedy of this error
• Systematic errors
• occurs always with the same sign, and often with a similar
magnitude in a number of consecutive observations
• cumulative in nature
• caused by:
• poor measurement e.g. staff not on stable ground
• badly adjusted instruments (collimation, non-verticality of the
instrument's vertical axis errors; non-verticality, graduation and zero
errors of the staff)
• errors due to natural phenomena (refraction and curvature etc.)
• errors due to personal biasness
 Errors and elimination/adjustment
Errors Remedy
equalized for backsight and foresight
collimation error
Permanent adjustment
Defective Level Tube Permanent adjustment
Repair before field observation
Shaky Tripod
Quick measurements between rods
Incorrect Graduations of the Staff Correct before field
Zero error of the Staff Even number of set ups
non-verticality of the vertical axis Permanent adjustment
Quick measurements between rods
Settlement of Level and Staff
Avoid muddy or thawing ground/ use panja
equalized for backsight and foresight
refraction error Apply cor.(True staff reading = observed staff reading + 0.0112 x D^2)
staff readings should be kept at least 0.5 m above the ground
Apply cor. (True staff reading = observed staff reading - 0.0785D^2)
curvature error
equalized for backsight and foresight