CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The quality of drinking water is a powerful environmental determinant of health (WHO, 2010).
Water plays an indispensable role in sustenance of life and it is a key pillar of health determinant,
since 80% of diseases in developing countries are due to lack of good quality water (Cheesbrough,
2006). Drinking water quality management has been a key pillar of primary prevention of disease
for over one and half centuries and it continues to be the foundation for the prevention and control
of water borne diseases (WHO, 2010). Contaminated water is a global public health threat placing
people at risk of a host of diarrhea and other illness as well as chemical intoxication (Okonko et al.,
2009).

Many years of neglect by the government and inadequate investment has left the public
drinking water supply in Nigeria in an unreliable state. The society has therefore taken several
adaptive measures of alleviating this stress. One of these is dependent on sachet water, popularly
referred to as „pure water‟ (Dada, 2009). The quality of sachet water has been questioned based on
research findings (FAO, 1997; Adekunle et al. 2004 and Dada, 2009), and NAFDAC has been
monitoring the production and quality of sachet water. However, most manufacturing factories
abandon NAFDAC‟s guidelines on quality soon after they get registered. (Waziri & Bomai, 2012).
Increase in human population pose a great pressure on provision of safe drinking water especially in
developing countries (Okonko et al., 2009).

The study of environmentally polluted water in particular has been of considerable importance
not only to analytical chemist, but also to engineers, hydrologists and pathologists. Since most of
these contaminants pose great threat to man‟s life due to lack of proper water quality monitoring
and evaluation, analysis of natural water for physical and chemical properties therefore becomes
important for public health studies (Kot et al., 2000; Soylak et al., 2002). Portable water supply is
the responsibility of government; unfortunately this is not always met especially in developing
countries like Nigeria where this is characterized by low productivity and inefficient service
delivery compounded by limited technology, insufficient technical inputs and poor maintenance
culture (Amoo and Amuho, 2005).
 The physicochemical characteristics measured in this study are those that affect the rainwater
body’s health which includes; pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids and
metals.

The pH of water determines the solubility, biological availability of chemical constituents such
as nutrients and heavy metals. Unpolluted rain water has a pH of about 5.6 while alkaline dust can
raise the pH to above 7.0. However, during precipitation, rain water dissolves CO2 and O2 while
CO and SOx emitted by industries also dissolves in rain water leading to fall in pH to a value of 4
or below resulting in acid rain. Fog, snow, mist and dew also trap and deposit atmospheric
contaminants. Furthermore, environmentalist have reported high acid deposition resulting from
fallout of dry SO4 2- ,NO3 - and Clparticles which are converted to acids when they dissolve in
surface water (Saigo and Dunningham, 1997).

During the rainy season, soil, rocks, roads, construction sites, dumps runoffs pick up a lot of
dissolved and particulate materials referred as the total dissolved solids (TDS) which determines the
conductivity of the water. Rain water has high conductivity than distilled water due to its ability to
dissolve airborne dust and gasses while it is in the air. High levels of dissolved solids in drinking
water can make the water to have an unpleasant taste or odour.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Water is a very crucial and essential substance for living. But human activities generally have been
observed to have influence the quality of water adversely. These activities include: splashing of
runoff into wells if left open, flooding at bore site, leachate from old burned waste pit or latrine into
holes through the cracks in aquifer. Careless use of water fetching bucket that are also used for
toilet, waste and sewage deposition near boreholes. Therefore, there is need to ascertain the quality
of drinking water in these residential areas.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to determine the physicochemical quality of selected drinking

water sources in Maiduguri.

The specific objectives are to:

i. analyze the levels of chemical parameters in the water.

ii. compare the values of the parameters with WHO/FAO. Permissible limits.
 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study is not limited to the people of Borno state but to the entire people of
world. This study will help the Maiduguri metropolitan council to know the important of access to
good quality water. In addition, the study will help to provide the information on the quality of
drinking water sourced from these arears.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This project is limited to the physiochemical analysis of drinking water in some IDP CAMPS
within Maiduguri, Borno state.
 CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Conceptual Framework

The basic and essential requirement is to ensure the safety of drinking water in the implementation
of framework for safe drinking water. This framework provides a preventive risk based approach to
managing water quality it would be composed of health based target. The framework for safe
drinking water is a preventive management approach comprising three key components:

1. Health based target on an evaluation of health risk.

2. Water safety plans comprising:

i) A system assessment to determine whether the water supply can deliver water of
quality that meets the health based targets.

¡i) Operational monitoring of the control measure in the drinking water supply that are of
particularly importance in securing drinking water safety.

¡ii) Management plans documenting the system assessment and monitoring plans
describing action to be taken in normal operation and incident condition including upgrade
and improvement, documentation and communication.

3. A system of independent surveillance that verifies the above are operating properly.
A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER

HEALTH BASE TARGET

WATER SAFETY PLANS

SYSTEM ASSESSMENT

CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY

IDENTIFYING PRIORITY CONCERN

SURVEILANCE

DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS AND SUPPORTING POLICIES AND PROGRAMS

FIGURE 1. (SOURCE: NAFDAC 2015)

2.1.1 HEALTH BASE TARGET

Health-based targets are an essential component of the drinking-water safety

framework. They should be established by a high-level authority responsible for health in
consultation with others, including water suppliers and affected communities. They should
take account of the overall public health situation and contribution of drinking-water
quality to disease due to waterborne microbes and chemicals, as a part of overall water and
health policy. They should also take account of the importance of ensuring access to water
for all consumers. Health-based targets provide the basis for the application of the
Guidelines to all types of drinking-water suppliers. Some constituents of drinking-water
may cause adverse health effects from single exposures (e.g. pathogenic microorganisms)
or long-term exposures (e.g. many chemicals). Because of the range of constituents in
water, their mode of action and the nature of fluctuations in their concentrations, there are
four principal types of health-based targets used as a basis for identifying safety
requirements:

2.1.2 WATER SAFETY PLAN (WSP)

Overall control of the chemical quality of drinking water requires the development of
management plans that when implemented provide the basis for system protection and to
ensure that number of concentration chemicals present a negligible risk to public health and
that water is acceptable to consumers. The management plans developed by water supplies
are WSPs. A water safety plans comprises system assessment and design, operational
monitoring and management plans including documentation and communication. The
element of WSPs builds on the multiple barrier principle of hazard analysis and critical
control points and other systematic management approaches. The plans should address all
aspect of drinking water supply and focus on the control of the abstraction treatment and
delivery of drinking water.

2.1.3 SYSTEM ASSESSMENT AND DESIGN

Assessment of drinking water system is applicable with suitable modification to larger

utilities with piped distribution system, piped and non-piped community supplies including
hand pumps, and individual domestic supplies including rain water. The complexity of
WSPs varies with circumstances. Assessment can be of existing infrastructure or of plans
for new supplies or for upgrading existing supplies. As drinking water varies through the
system the assessment should aim to determine whether the final quality of water delivered
to the consumers will routinely meet established health based targets. Understanding
sources quality and changes throughout the system require expert input.

The system assessment needs to takes into consideration the behavior of selected
constituents or groups of constituents may influence water quality. After actual and
potential hazards include events and scenarios' that may affects water quality have been
identified and documented the level risk of each hazard can be estimated and ranked based
on livelihood and severity of the consequences.

2.1.4 CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY

Assessment of the adequacy of the chemical quality of drinking water relies on comparism
of the results of water quality analysis with guidelines values. These projects provide
guideline, value for many chemical contaminants that will actually affect any particular
water supply, so judicious choices for monitoring and surveillance should be made prior to
initiating chemical assessment.

Most chemicals are concern only following long term exposure; however, some
hazardous chemicals that occur in drinking water are of concern because of effect arising
from sequences of exposure over a short period. Where the concentration chemical of
interest (e.g. nitrate which is associated with matheamoglobinaemia in bottle-fed infant)
varies widely even a series of analytical results may fail to fully identify and describe the
public health risk. In controlling such hazards, attention must be given to both knowledge
of casual factors such as fertilizer use in agriculture and trend in selected concentration.
These will indicate whether a significant problem may arise in the future.

2.1.5 IDENTIFYING PRIORITY CONCERNS

These reports cover a large number of potential constituents in drinking water in order
to meets the varied needs of countries worldwide. Generally, however a few constituent
will be of public concern under regulatory agency and local water any given circumstances.
It is essential that the national authorities identify and respond to the constituent of
relevance to the local circumstances. This will ensure that effect and investment can be
directed to those constituents that have the great risk or public health significance.

Health based target are establish for potentially hazardous constituents and provide the

basis for assessing drinking water quality. Different parameters may require different
prioritic for management to improve and protect public health. In general, the priorities in
decreasing order are to:
 I. Ensure an adequate supply of microbial safe water and maintain acceptability to
discourage consumers from using potentially high microbial safe water.
II. Manage key chemical hazards, particularly those affect the acceptability of
drinking water in terms of its taste, odor and appearance.
III. Apply appropriate technologies to reduce contaminants concentration in the
source to below the guidelines and regulated values.

Chemical constituents of drinking water can potentially cause adverse human health effects.
The detection of these constituents in both raw water and water is delivered to consumers is
often slow, complex and costly, which limit carly warning capability and affordability.
Reliance on water quality determination alone is insufficient to protect health. The use of
monitoring and resources should be carefully planned and directed at significant or key
characteristics.

2.1.6 SURVEILANCE

Surveillance agencies are responsible for an independent (external) and periodic review
of all aspects of quality and public health safety and should have the power to investigate
and to compel action to respond to and rectify incidents of contamination- caused outbreaks
of waterborne disease or other threats to public health. The act of surveillance includes
identifying potential drinking-water contamination and waterborne illness events and, more
proactively, assessing compliance with WSPs and promoting improvement of the quality,
quantity, accessibility, coverage, affordability and continuity of drinking-water supplics.

Surveillance of drinking-water requires a systematic programmed of data collection

and surveys that may include auditing of WSPs, analysis, sanitary inspection and
institutional and community aspects. It should cover the whole of the drinking-water
system, including sources and activities in the catchment, transmission infrastructure,
whether piped or unpiped, treatment plants, storage reservoirs and distribution systems

2.1.7 DRINKING WATER REGULATION AND SUPPORTING POLICIES.

The incorporation of preventive risk management and prioritization approach to drinking

water quality regulations, policies, and programmers will;
 I. Ensure that regulations support the priorization of drinking water quality
parameters to be tested.
II. Ensure implementation of appropriate sanitation measures at community and
household level.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Ygendra et al. (2008) have studied on determination of water quality index and
suitability of an urban water body in shimoga town, in their study they determined water
quality of an urban water body on the basis of different physiochemical parameters. The
analyses revealed that water bodies have low DO, high COD and a high nitrate
concentration. And it shows that, for domestic purpose that water was unsuitable.

Ramakrishna et al. (2009) Studied on assessment of water quality for the ground water
in Tumuruk Taluk; in their study they calculated WQI for 12 parameters and WQI for those
269 samples ranges from 89.21 to 660.56. Many water samples were poor in quality; the
analysis Shows that area required some treatment before utility.

Zulum et al. (2016) have studied physicochemical analysis of drinking water from
selected boreholes in Maiduguri; the seven samples collected from different areas within
Maiduguri were analyzed for physicochemical parameters. With the exception of S4, None
of the sample met the standard requirement set by WHO. It is recommended in their study,
to create awareness among the resident of the studied area about the need to purify water
from boreholes.

Sonloye et al. (2009) have studied on assessment of groundwater quality in Damboa

town, northern caster Nigeria. In their study the result of analysis and interpretation of
ground water from Damboa town showed that the major contaminants of groundwater in
Damboa town are manganese,mn and nitrate. While the reports of adverse neurological
effects following extended exposure to high level of manganese in drinking water have not
been Establish in human. Also the duration and rate of consumption of high concentration
of nitrate in drinking Water that will be detrimental to human health is unknown. In their
study the ground water in the area studied was suitable for agricultural purpose and other
culinary purpose.

Nagami et al. (2015) Studied on 'physicochemical analysis of water samples' in their

study they carried out quality of water blocks of Bangalore with the help of various
physicochemical parameters. And after analysis obtained results were compared with
W.H.O standard. Results shows that all parameters were below the permissible limit.

kolekar, (2017) studied on physicochemical analysis of ground water quality

parameters' A review; In their study they focused on reviews of different research paper
which are related to physicochemical analysis of ground water for drinking purpose. After
the study, they concluded that when results obtained were not within permissible limit,
therefore the water need pretreatment before use.

2.3 WATER QUALITY

Water quality is a term used here to express the suitability of water to sustain various uses
or processes. Any particular uses will certain requirement for physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of water. For example limit on the concentration of toxic
substances for drinking water uses or restriction on temperature and PH ranges for water
supporting invertebrate's communities.

Peace Corps, (1984) pointed out that absolute water is never found in nature. Water
contains various impurities ranging from dissolve gasses and chemical substance to
suspended matter; as well as disease organism. Some of these impurities can be seen by the
naked eye and other can be detected by taste or odor, while most of them can be detected
only in the laboratory.

Consequently, water quality can be defined by a range of variable which limit water
use. Although many uses have some common requirements for certain variables; cach use
will have it own demands and influences on water quality. Quantity and quality demands of
different users will always be compatible and the activities of one user’s may restricts the
activities of another; either by demanding water of quality outside the range required by the
other user or by lowering quality during use of the water. Efforts to improve or maintain a
certain water quality often comprise between the quality and quantity demands of different
users. There is increasing recognition that natural ecosystem have a legitimate place in the
consideration options of water quality management. This is both for their intrinsic value
and because they are sensitive indicators of changes and deterioration in overall water
quality, providing a useful addition to physical, chemical and other information.

2.3.1 WATER POLLUTION

As earlier pointed out, water is hardly found in its pure state. It contains a variety of
contaminants. At times relatively good water is rendered bad due to contamination for
example; spring water may be contaminated by decayed plant material, bacteria, silt, clay,
sewage. Borehole is contaminated by rusts from the water pipes. Oti, (1987) and George,
(1977) therefore defines water pollution as a change in physical, chemical, biological and
radiological quality of water that is injurious to existing, intended or its potential uses. This
definition shows that some levels of contaminations may not render the water completely
useless. Water that is unfit for drinking may be suitable for irrigation purposes or industrial
processes.

2.3.2 SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

According to krantz et al. (2002) two sources of water pollutant exist- point source
pollutant and non-point source pollutant. Point source pollutant occurs when harmful
substances are emitted directly into the water. A pipe spewing toxic chemicals directly into
a river is an example. While non-point source deliver pollutant indirectly through
environmental changes. An example of this type of water pollution is when fertilizer from a
field is carried into a stem by runoff water. Krantz et al. (2002) further classified major
sources of pollution as municipal, industrial, and agricultural. Municipal water pollution
consists of waste water from homes and commercial establishment. Generally, water
pollution comes from various sources such as garbage dumps, runoff from fertilizer farms
gardens, market places, industrial effluents, pesticides, and other chemical in urbanized and
industrialized zones.

2.4 HEALTH EFFECT OF CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

Though water plays an essential role in supporting human life, it must be pointed out that,
if contaminated it has great variety of diseases and illness. potential for transmitting a wide
The concern about the safety of drinking water is on the increase. As people hear about the
possibility of contaminants in their drinking water, they worry about the potential of health
effects. However, it 1S worthy to note that the presence of any contaminants in water does
not necessarily results in serious health consequences. It is only when it has reached unsafe
level of contamination that it would become polluted zaslow et al. (1996) the levels of
contaminants in drinking water are seldom high enough to cause acute health effects.
Shelton et al. (1998) Contaminants are more likely to cause chronic effect- effects that
occur long after repeated liver, and exposure to small amount of chemical. Example chronic
health effects includes cancer, kidney damage, disorders of the nervous system, damage to
the immune system and birds defects. (Zaslow et al., 1996).
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIAL AND METHOD

III.1 STUDY AREA

The study area will be in some of the IDP CAMPS, Maiduguri metropolitan, Borno state,
Nigeria. It is located in northern eastern geopolitical zone of Nigeria known as the home of
peace. The maps below show some of the IDP’S within Maiduguri.

FIGURE 2. (SOURCE: SATELLITE IMAGE)

 3.1.1 POPULATION

Maiduguri has a population of 621,492 with a density of 1145 persons per square km which
make it the most densely populated city in north castern Nigeria (waziri, 2009). It is located
between latitudes 11° 46' 18° N-11° 33' 21° N and 13° 02' 23° E- 13° 14° 190 E. increase in
population has resulted in increase in anthropogenic activities including; uncontrolled or
improper waste disposal, proliferation of pit latrines and agricultural activities (Bakari,
2014).

3.1.2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Human activities generally within some of the IDP CAMPS have been observed to have
influence the quality of water adversely. These activities include; splashing of runoff into
wells if left open, flooding at bore side, careless used of water fetching bucket that are also
used for toilet, waste and sewage deposition near borehole. These are some sources of
human activities that influence the quality of drinking water in some IDP’S

3.2 METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION

Water samples will be collected from five different drinking water sources within the
geographical zones of some IDP’S using a sterile 500ml air tight container for each sample.
To avoid contamination of the sample, the borehole taps was decontaminated by using heat
(lighter), after which the tap were open to flow up to 10 to 20 min. Then, the container were
filled with water up to 300ml leaving some space to allow shaking before analysis as
described by Isa et al. (2013) and Bello ct al. (2013).

3.2.2 PHYSIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

The collected samples were used to determine the PH, total dissolve solid, electric
conductivity, nitrite, sulphate, and chloride.
 3.3 SAMPLE ANALYSES

The physiochemical parameters were determined in accordance with the method of

APHA (1998) the PH was measured using a veneer PH meter. The PH was determined
using

the procedure described by APHA (1998).

The total dissolved solid was determined using conductivity meter, the programmed
menu of the conductivity meter was switched to total dissolved solid, 100ml' of the sample
was measured into the beaker and the electrode was introduced into the sample. The results
of total dissolved solid was displayed and recorded (APIIA, 1998).

Chloride was determined using spectrophotometer. A square sample was filled with 10
ml of water sample and content of 4 powder pills reagent was added swirl vigorously to
dissolve the reagents.

Conductivity measurement was done using a digital conductivity meter model NATOP
PB5. Standardization of the meter was performed using 0. IN KCL at 25°C.

Sulphate was determined using spectrophotometer, a square sample cell was filled with
10 ml of water sample and content of one sulfa Ver 4 Reagent powder pillow was added
swirl vigorously to dissolve powder. A white turbidity will form if sulphate is present.

The nitrite was determined using a spectrophotometer, nitrate react with

phenoldisulphonic to produce a nitrate derivative, which is alkaline solution develops
yellow color due to rearrangement of its structure. The intensity of the color produced is
directly proportional to the concentration of nitrate present in the sample.
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT

The mean values of all parameters are presented in table 1 below and indicated that the PH
of the water samples at the time of analysis ranged from 8.1 to 7.9, with water sample from
GUBIO CAMP S1 having the highest PH of 8.1, while BAKASI CAMP S2 has the lowest
PH of 7.9. The TDS of the water samples ranged from 123 to 36 (ppm), with the sample of
GUBIO CAMP S1 having the highest TDS content of 123 (ppm) and that of BAKASI
CAMP S2 having the lowest TDS content of 36 ppm. Also the E.C of all of the water
samples ranged from 290 to 130 (us/cm), with water sample from GUBIO CAMP S1
having the highest E.C of 290 (us/cm) and that of BAKASI CAMP S2 having the lowest
E.C of 130 (us/cm). Similarly, the PO3 of the water samples at the time of analyses ranged
from 0.86 to 0.71 (mg/1), with sample from BAKASI CAMP S2 having the highest PO 3 of
0.86 (mg/1), while GUBIO S1 having the lowest PO 3 of 0.71 (mg/l). The NO3 of the water
samples ranged from 1.3 to 1.2, with water sample from GUBIO CAMP $1 having the
highest NO3 of 1.3 (mg/l), while BAKASI CAMP S2 have the total value of 1.2 (mg/l). The
copper of the water samples at the time of analysis ranged from 0.03 to 0.00 (mg/1), with
water sample from BAKASI CAMP S2 having the highest COPPER of 0.03 (mg/l), while
GUBIO CAMP S1 having no indication of COPPER. The Cr of the water samples ranged
from 0.004 to 0.002, with water sample from GUBIO CAMP having the highest Cr of
0.004, while BAKASI CAMP have the lowest Cr of 0.002.

TABLE 1: physico-chemical parameters of the sample (GUBIO CAMP (S1) and BAKASI
CAMP (S2))

S/N Sample I.D NUMBER PH EC TDS PO3 NO3 Cr Cu

1 GUBIO CAMP (S1) 8.1 290 123 0.71 1.3 0.004 0.00
2 BAKASI CAMP (S2) 7.9 130 36 0.86 1.2 0.002 0.02
4.2 DISCUSSION
The result of the physicochemical analysis of water samples were collected from two
different locations which is GUBIO CAMP (S1) and BAKASI CAMP (S2). The result
obtained shows that the PH of the water samples from all the locations met the standard
requirement recommended by Nigerian standard for drinking water quality (NSDWQ) 6.5-
8.8 and WHO (7.0-8.5).

The PH of drinking water has a great impact on human health; drinking water with an
elevated PH above 11 can cause skin, eye and mucous membranc irritation. On the opposite
end of the scale, PH values below 4 also cause irritation due to the corrosive effects of low
PH levels (NSDWQ, 2007).

Also the TDS of all water samples used in this study is in agreement with both NSDQW
(500) and WHO (500). The presence of TDS in water may affect its taste (WHO, 1996). It
has been reported that drinking water with extremely low concentration of TDS may be
unacceptable because of its flat insipid taste (WHO, 1996, Bruvold and Ongeilt, 1969). The
electric conductivity of the water samples used in this study met the standard requirement
recommended by both NSDWQ (1000) and WHO (1000).

Electric conductivity is an index of the total ionic content of water (Obgeiba and Victor
1995). Higher conductivity is mineralization of organic matter attributed to the
concentrations of ions coupled with increased (Petri, 1983). It therefore becomes necessary
that E.C should be measured to give a good estimate of the dissolve solids content of the
water. The heavy metal of all the water samples used in this study met the standard
requirement recommended by both NSDWQ (0.2) and WHO (0.2).

Water having highest concentration of heavy metal can developed symptoms like shortness
of breath and blue baby disease especially in children less than six months.
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The major aim of physicochemical analysis is to prevent physical changes as well as

chemical contamination of drinking water, SO as to protect the life of people in a society.
In this study, two water samples were collected from two different locations within
BAKASI CAMP and GUBIO CAMP, and analyzed for physicochemical parameters: These
include BAKASI (S1) AND GUBIO (S2). The results obtained were compared with the
standard set by World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigeria Standard of Drinking
Water Quality (NSDWQ). During the study it was found that the entire water sample meet
the standard requirement recommended by (WHO) and (NSDWQ). Hence this report
explains that the water in BAKASI and GUBIO is suitable for drinking.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that;

(1) Water sanitation should be strictly observed around the vicinity of the drinking water
source. Especially around GUBIO CAMP.

(2) Proper water quality monitoring should be a continuous process that should be
encouraged.

(3) Further analysis should be carried out on microbial analysis like; E.Coli, coliform and
other toxic element such as: mercury, cadmium and arsenic.
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