CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that that Vikram Amar has satisfactorily completed the Physics
Investigatory project on - Conversion of galvanometer into Voltmeter and calibration
Using Potentiometer - prescribed by CBSE for the AISSCE course for the year
2023-2024.

Date:

Signature of internal examiner

Signature of external examiner

Physics Investigatory Project 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am deeply grateful to my school Sindhi High School Hebbal, Bangalore, my

Principal, Mrs Rachna Sharma and teachers who have given me opportunity and
encouragement to do this project.
I take this opportunity to gratefully acknowledge my Physics teacher Mrs Diviya
K.M and our lab assistant Mrs Radhika G V for providing valid support, guidance and
advice on planing and executing on this project : Conversion of galvanometer into
Voltmeter and calibration Using Potentiometer. I also wish to thank my parents, friends
and above all the Almighty for the smooth completion of this project.

Date:__________________________

Signature:______________________

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 INDEX
Content Page number

Introduction 5-7

Aim 8

Apparatus 9

Theory 10-15

Procedure 16-17

Circuit Diagram 19

Observations 20

Graphs 21

Calculations 22-23

Result 24

Bibliography 25

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 INTRODUCTION

GALVANOMETER: A galvanometer is an instrument used for detecting

feeble electric currents in circuits.
In the laboratory, we commonly use a pivoted
coil pointer type moving coil galvanometer,
called a Weston galvanometer
It consists of a high, laminated, horse-shoe
magnet with concave pole faces to provide a
radial magnetic field. A coil of thin insulated
copper wire wrapped over a copper frame is
mounted on two jewelled pivots symmetrically
between the pole faces. The motion of the coil is
controlled by two attached hair springs, one
above and the other below the coil. These hair
springs also serve as lead and make contact with
two terminals (binding screws) provided at the
top of the bakelite frame. An aluminium pointer
is attached perpendicular to the coil. The free end
of the pointer moves over an arc like scale. The
scale has zero in the middle and an equal number
of divisions (one division = 10) on either side of
the central zero. The pointer end stays at zero
when there is no current in the circuit.

Moving coil galvanometer

The galvanometer is connected in series in the
circuit in which current is to be detected. The
current passes through the coil pivoted in the magnetic field. The coil experiences equal,
parallel and opposite forces on its arms which forms a force couple. The couple rotates the
coil, which makes the pointer move on the scale. The deflection (measured as number of
divisions) is proportional to the current passed. The galvanometer is quite sensitive and
gives full scale deflection even for a small current.

VOLTMETER: It is an instrument that measures the potential difference

between two points on a scale graduated in either volt, millivolt or kilovolt. The display of
the voltmeter can be digital or analogue form.
Analogue voltmeters are generally converted galvanometers. A large resistance is generally
connected in series to the galvanometer as it must draw a very small current in order for it

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not to disturb the original set up. It is
connected in parallel with the given section of
the current.
The credit for inventing the voltmeter mainly
goes to two scientists : Michael Faraday and
Edward Weston. However other scientists such
as E. B. Moullin and William Stanley also
made significant contributions to it
development.
A voltmeter can be used to measure an AC
current if it is connected to a rectifier so that
the coil deflects in only one direction.

Voltmeter
POTENTIOMETER : It
is a long wire of uniform cross section across
which a standard cell is connected. In the actual apparatus the wire is cut into smaller pieces
and connected by metal strips.
The potentiometer is used for measurement of unknown voltage by comparing it to a known
voltage. This can also be used to compare internal resistances and e.m.f of two different
cells and hence find the e.m.f of an unknown cell

Potentiometer

Potentiometer is based on the principle that the potential drop across any section of the wire
will be directly proportional to the length of the wire, provided the wire is of a uniform cross
sectional area and a uniform current flows through the wire.
The sensitivity of a potentiometer is the slightest change in the potential difference that a
potentiometer can measure. The sensitivity of the potentiometer can be increased by
decreasing potential gradient i.e increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.

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SOURCES OF ERROR IN A VOLTMETER : A
voltmeter may have potential measurement error due to any one of the following reasons.
• Radio frequency interference
• Thermal EMF errors
• Noise caused by magnetic fields
• Noise caused by ground loops
• Common mode rejection
• Noise caused by injected circuit
• Loading errors due to input adjustments

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 AIM

To calibrate the given voltmeter by using a potentiometer (i.e to check the

graduations of the voltmeter and to determine the corrections if any)

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 APPARATUS
Potentiometer, voltmeter, battery, galvanometer ,milliammeter, rheostat, plug key,
Daniell cell, jockey, high resistance, connecting wire , etc.

Potentiometer

Voltmeter

Daniell Cell Galvanometer

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 THEORY

GALVANOMETER:
Galvanometer is a sensitive device If I0 is the total current in the circuit for full scale

deflection, then the current (I 0– Ig) passes through S, where Ig is current that flows

through the galvanometer for full scale deflection. The instrument is calibrated so as to
read the current directly in ampere and then it can be used as an ammeter. Since G and S
are parallel to each other therefore, the potential difference across both are same, hence,

The figure of merit of the galvanometer is represented by the symbol k which

represents the current corresponding to one scale division; thus if N is the total number of
divisions (on either side) of the galvanometer scale, the value of current Ig is given by

if n represents the actual deflection in the converted galvanometer, then the total
current will be

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POTENTIOMETER

Potentiometer is a device used to measure the internal resistance of a cell to compare

the e.m.fs of two cells and potential difference across a resistor.

Principle:
It works on the principle that when a constant current flows through a wire of
uniform thickness and material potential difference between its two points is directly
proportional to the length of the wire between the two points. It is a device used to
measure the internal resistance of a cell to compare the e.m.f of two primary cells , etc.

Where k is the constant of proportionality. It is called potential gradient along the

potentiometer wire and is measured in volt Vm-1

Construction
A potentiometer consists of a long wire of uniform cross-sectional area, usually, 4 -
10 m long, of a material having high resistivity and low temperature coefficient such as
Constantine or Manganin. These wires are stretched parallel to each other on a broad
wooden block by the side at a meter’s scale. The wires are joined in series by thick copper
strips. A battery of constant e.m.f (battery eliminator) is connected to the ends P and Q of
the wire called driving or auxiliary cell. A jockey J with a sensitive galvanometer G is
made to slide on the wire PQ.

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 Working
A fully charged auxiliary battery B (battery eliminator) having a constant and high
e.m.f is connected between terminals P and Q through an ammeter A and a rheostat. This
provides an adjustable potential gradient along the potentiometer wire. Positive terminals
of a battery is connected to terminal P. Positive terminals of other cell/cells are also
connected to the same terminal P.

Potentiometer Circuit

VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is a high resistance device (instrument) used for measuring electric
potential difference between two points in a circuit. For this purpose it is put in parallel
with that branch of the circuit, at the ends of which the potential difference is to be
measured.
As a voltmeter has to be put in parallel in the circuit for measuring potential
difference, it must take very small current from the circuit and for which it must have a
very high resistance. A galvanometer is converted into a volt meter by connecting a

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suitable high resistance in series with its coil. The series high resistance (R) is connected
to the coil internally. Thus, a voltmeter is actually a high resistance galvanometer.

The scale of the voltmeter is graduated to read potential difference directly in volts. A
voltmeter measuring potential difference in milli volts (10-3 V or mV) is called a milli-
voltmeter. A micro-voltmeter measures potential difference in micro volts (10-6 V or µ V)

Voltmeter circuit diagram

Circuit containing
voltmeter

DANIELL CELL
Construction
1. Container : copper vessel
2. Electrolyte : dilute sulphuric acid (H2S04)(or acidulated zinc sulphate ZnSO4

solution)
3. Depolariser : saturated copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution.
4. Electrodes:
1. Negative electrode is amalgamated zinc rod immersed in electrolyte taken in a

porous pot.
2. Positive electrode is copper vessel itself containing depolariser.

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 Working
The reactions are
1. At negative electrode (in porous pot) : Zn -> Zn 2+ + 2e-
2. In electrolyte : Zn 2+ + H2SO4 -> ZnSO4 + 2 H+
3. In depolariser : 2 H+ + CuSO4 -> H2SO4 + Cu2+
4. At positive electrode : Cu2+ + 2e- -> Cu

The complete reaction after combining 1, 2, 3 and 4 is

Zn + CuSO4 -> ZnSO4 + 2 Cu
The electromotive force e.m.f of the cell is 1.08 V. It can supply an electric current of
0.1 ampere. Its internal resistance is rather high.

Merits
Since its e.m.f and internal resistance remain fairly constant the cell gives a fairly
constant current. Hence, it can be used in place of a standard cell where a weak, but
steady current is required.
Demerits
• It suffers from a defect called polarisation.
Though CuSO4 acts as a depolariser, its action is slow.
• The e.m.f of the cell is very small
• The cell has to be dismantled, when not in use,
otherwise Zn rod will be eaten by H2SO4 electrolyte.

Applications
Daniell Cell
The cell gives a weak, but steady current. Hence it
can be used in place of a standard cell.
In a lab, it is used in those circuits where a steady though weak current is required.

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PRINCIPLE OF THE EXPERIMENT

If “L” is the balancing length o the potentiometer wire balancing against the e.m.f 1.802 of
the Daniell cell then
P.d/cm = 1.08/L
If L is the balancing length which balances V0 volts in a voltmeter then the correct value of
potential difference is calculated as

The difference between the calculated Value V and the voltmeter reading V0 Gives the
correction of this voltmeter

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 PROCEDURE
Part 1: To standardise the potentiometer/To find the potential fall across 1
meter length of the potentiometer
1. A primary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of the battery to the
end A of the potentiometer and its negative terminal to the rheostat via a plug key
2. A secondary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of the Daniell
cell and its negative to the jockey through a high resistance (HR) and a sensitive
galvanometer.
3. The rheostat is adjusted to send a suitable current through the circuit
4. Since the accumulator has a constant e.m.f the potential drop across the
potentiometer wire remains steady
5. Next the jockey is moved along and pressed along the 10 meter potentiometer
wire, till the position for the null deflection is found in the galvanometer
6. Let the balancing length be l0 meter. Then the potential drop per unit length of
potentiometer wire 1.08/l0 is calculated. The rheostat should not be disturbed
thereafter.
Part 2: To calibrate the given voltmeter
1. The daniell cell, high resistance and the galvanometer are replaced by the given
low range voltmeter which is to be calibrated. The positive terminal of the voltmeter is
connected to A and its negative terminal to the jockey.
2. By trial the moved along the wire and by pressing it at different points the length l
(m) of the potentiometer which gives a reading of 0.1 V in the voltmeter is determined.
3. The experiment is repeated by finding similar balancing lengths for voltmeter
readings of 0.2 V, 0.3 V, 0.4 V … 1.0 V . Knowing the potential difference per meter
length of the wire (l0), the actual potential difference V’ corresponding to these
readings are calculated and the corrections in these readings are determined.

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 4. A graph between the voltmeter reading (V) along the X axis and the correction
(V’-V) along the Y axis is drawn.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Key
Battery ( V) Rheostat

A B

Daniell cell
High Galvanometer
resistance

Standardisation Of Potentiometer

Rheostat
Battery ( V)

J
A B

Voltmeter

Calibration of Voltmeter

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+
+
2
2
 OBSERVATIONS
Least count of potentiometer: 0.1 cm

Least count of Voltmeter: 0.1 V

Least count of Ammeter: 10 mA

Steady current I: 50 mA

Balancing length l0: 521.3 cm

TABLE
Sl No Voltmeter Balancing Calculated Correction
reading (V) length (m) Voltmeter (V’-V)
reading (V)
V’ = 1.08/l0
X l (V)
1 0.1 0.5 0.1015 0.0015
2 0.2 1.0 0.2030 0.0030
3 0.3 1.5 0.3045 0.0045
4 0.4 2.0 0.4060 0.0006
5 0.5 2.5 0.5075 0.0075
6 0.6 3.0 0.6090 0.0090
7 0.7 3.5 0.7105 0.0105
8 0.8 4.0 0.8120 0.0120
9 0.9 4.5 0.9135 0.0135
10 1.0 5.0 1.0150 0.0150

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 GRAPHS
1.2
X axis: 1 Unit = 0.1V
Y axis: 1 Unit = 0.3V
0.9
V’(volt)

0.6

0.3

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
V (volt)

V vs V’

0.016
X axis: 1 Unit = 0.1V
Y axis: 1 Unit = 0.004V
0.012
(V’-V) volt

0.008

0.004

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
V (volt)

V vs (V’-V)
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 CALCULATIONS

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 RESULT
The calibration of the given voltmeter is shown in the graph between observed
reading and the corresponding error.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://www.gopracticals.com/physics/physics-calibrate-voltmeter-potentiometer/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltmeter
http://www.edisontc.org/ui/home/course/unit-i/inventors-of-the-voltmeter/
https://www.studocu.com/in/document/university-of-calicut/general-physics-
practical-i-ii/potentiometer-calibration-of-low-range-voltmeter/29178889
https://byjus.com/jee/potentiometer/
https://www.testunlimited.com/pdf/an/5988-5511EN.pdf
Comprehensive Practical Physics class XII page 21,22,34,35,67,68
https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publication/sciencelaboratorymanuals/classXII/physics/
lelm306.pdf
NCERT class 12 physics textbook ,part 1 , Chapter 4, Moving Charges and
Magnetism, pages 163, 164,165

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