BUNDELKHAND INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

JHANSI, UP, INDIA 284128

MECHANICALENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Elective III Tribology (KME 063) Lecture Notes

Program : B Tech
Department: Mechanical Engineering
(2020-21 onward)
Year: Third Semester: VI
Course : KME 063 Elective III Tribology 3 0 0 3

Unit-I
Lubrication and Lubricants

Dr Aditya Kumar Padap

Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
BIET Jhansi
[email protected]
 Lubricants And Their Compositions
• How, can one differentiate between various oils?

• What are the differences between mineral and synthetic oils?

• What are the typical additives used in oils?

• What is their purpose and mechanism of action?

• What is the composition and properties of grease lubricants?

• In what applications are greases usually used?

An engineer, as a potential user of lubricants, should know

the answers to these questions
 Lubricants And Their Compositions
 Oils can be of two different origins,
(i) biological and
(ii) non-biological,
and this provides a vast array of hydrocarbon compounds.

 These substances are usually present as complex mixtures and can be used for
many other purposes besides lubrication, that is, the control of wear and friction.

 Lubricants made from natural or mineral oils are partly refined and partly
impure.

 The balance between impurity and purity is critical to the oxidation stability of
the oil and it varies depending on the application of the lubricant.

 Chemicals which are deliberately added to an oil in order to improve its

properties are called additives.
Additives can radically change the properties of a lubricant and are essential to its
overall performance.

They also dictate specific characteristics of the lubricant such as corrosion tendency,
foaming, clotting, oxidation, wear, friction and other properties.

A typical lubricating oil is composed of 95% base stock and 5% additives.

Base stock is the term used to describe plain mineral oil.

The physical properties of an oil depend on its base stock.

In most cases it is chemically inert.

There are three sources of base stock:

i. biological,
ii. mineral and
iii. synthetic.
The oils manufactured from these sources exhibit different properties and they are
suitable for different applications.
For example:

(i) biological oils are suitable in applications where the risk of contamination must be
reduced to a minimum, for example, in the food or pharmaceutical industry.
•They are usually applied to lubricate kilns, bakery ovens, etc.
•There can be two sources of this type of oil: vegetable and animal.
•Examples of vegetable oils are castor, palm oils while the examples of animal oils are,
fish and wool oils from sheep.

(ii) mineral oils are the most commonly used lubricants throughout industry.
• They are petroleum based and are used in applications where temperature
requirements are moderate.
•Typical applications of mineral oils are to gears, bearings, engines, turbines, etc.

(iii) synthetic oils are artificially developed substitutes for mineral oils.
• They are specifically developed to provide lubricants with superior properties to
mineral oils.
• For example, temperature resistant synthetic oils are used in high performance
machinery operating at high temperatures.
•Synthetic oils for very low temperature applications are also available.
Greases
Greases are not fundamentally different from oils.

They consist of mineral or synthetic oil, but the oil is trapped in minute pockets formed
by soap fibres which constitute the internal structure of the grease.

Hence a grease is classified according to the base stock used in its production as
(i) 'mineral' or
(ii) 'synthetic'.

Greases have been developed especially to provide semi permanent lubrication since
the oil trapped in the fibrous structure is unable to flow away from the contacting
surfaces.
MINERAL OILS

Mineral oils are the most commonly used lubricants.

They are manufactured from crude oil which is mined in various parts of the
world.

There are certain advantages and disadvantages of applying mineral oil to

lubricate specific machinery, and these must be carefully considered when
selecting a lubricant and designing a lubrication system.

Sources of Mineral Oils

The commonly accepted hypothesis about the origins of mineral oils is the fossil
fuel theory.

The theory states that the mineral oils are the result of decomposition of
animal and plant matter in salt water
There is another hypothesis about the origin of mineral oils suggested by Gold.

It has been known for some time that many hydrocarbons are present in meteorites and
that these hydrocarbons cannot possibly originate from any plant or animal life.

The new hypothesis suggested that, although some oil and gas may originate from
biological sources, hydrocarbons on Earth originated from non-biological sources in the
same way as on most of the other planets

If the material from which the Earth was formed resembled some of the meteorites, then
the Earth would release hydrocarbons when heated.

The hydrocarbons would then accumulate under layers of rock and would generate very
high pressures.
This would lead to the migration of hydrocarbons through cracks and fissures in the
Earth's crust.
Types of Mineral Oils

The structure of mineral oils is very complex.

The major part of mineral oils consists of hydrocarbons with approximately 30

carbon atoms in each molecule.

The structure of each molecule is composed of several aliphatic (straight) chains

and cyclic carbon chains bonded together.

The mineral oils are also impure.

The impure nature of mineral oils results in a range of useful and harmful
properties e.g., trace compounds provide anti-oxidants and boundary lubrication
properties but they also cause deposits which can impede lubrication.

There are also many other compounds present in mineral oils such as waxes
which are virtually useless and can easily be oxidized to form harmful organic
acids.

Special additives are needed to neutralize these waxes and related compounds..
Mineral oils differ from each other depending on the source of crude oil and refining
process.

The fundamental differences between mineral oils are based on:

i. chemical forms,
ii. sulphur content,
iii. viscosity.

Chemical Forms

There are three basic chemical forms of mineral oil:

i. Paraffinic: paraffinic implies straight chain hydrocarbons

ii. Naphthenic: Compounds naphthenic means cyclic carbon molecules with no

unsaturated bonds

iii. Aromatic: aromatic oils contain benzene type

Sulphur content

Sulphur content in mineral oils varies, depending on the source of the crude oil and the
refining process.

Small amounts of sulphur in the oil are desirable to give good lubrication and oxidation
properties.

It has been demonstrated, for example, that between 0.1% and 1% of natural sulphur
content ensures reduced wear.

On the other hand, too much sulphur is detrimental to the performance of the
machinery, e.g., it may accelerate the corrosion of seals.

Excess sulphur can be removed from oil by refining, but this can be expensive.

The sulphur content varies with the source of crude oil and the range of concentration
lies between 0% and 8%.

For example, sulphur content of Pennsylvanian oil is <0.25%, Venezuelan ~2%, Middle
East ~1%, Mexican 5%, etc.
Viscosity

Mineral oils can also be classified by viscosity, which depends on the degree of refining.

For commonly used mineral oils, viscosity varies from about 5 [cS] to 700 [cS].

For example, the viscosity of a typical spindle oil is about 20 [cS], engine oil between 30
and 300 [cS], bright stock about 600 [cS], etc.
SYNTHETIC OILS

Synthetic lubricants were originally developed early this century by countries lacking a
reliable supply of mineral oil.

These lubricants were expensive and initially did not gain general acceptance.

synthetic lubricants were developed to withstand high temperatures without

decomposing and at the same time will provide a reduced fire hazard

Synthetic lubricants can generally be divided into two groups:

(i) fluids intended to provide superior lubrication at ambient or elevated temperatures

(ii) lubricants for extremes of temperature or chemical attack

There are three basic types of synthetic lubricant currently in use:

(i) synthetic hydrocarbon lubricants - which provide a lubricant that is similar

in price to mineral oil but has superior performance

(ii) silicon analogues of hydrocarbons- which are resistant to extremes of

temperature and vacuum but do not provide good adsorption or extreme
pressure lubrication
and are expensive,

(iii)organohalogens: which can offer effective lubrication by adsorption and

extreme
pressure lubrication mechanisms and resist extremes of temperature or
chemical
attack, but are also expensive
Manufacturing of Synthetic Oils
In most cases synthetic hydrocarbon lubricants are produced from low molecular weight
hydrocarbons which are derived from the 'cracking' of petroleum [1].

The process of cracking is performed in order to reduce the range of molecules present in
the oil.

Through the application of high pressures and catalysts large complex molecules present
in the oil are decomposed to more simple, smaller and more uniform molecules.

The low molecular weight hydrocarbons are then polymerized under carefully controlled
conditions to produce fluids with the required low volatility and high viscosity.

The polymerization is carefully limited otherwise a solid polymer results and, in strict
technical terms, an oligomer as opposed to a polymer is produced.

Halogenated lubricants are made from ethylene and halogen compounds in a process of
simultaneous halogenation and polymerization within a solvent
Organohalogens and silicones are produced using catalysts.

Organohalogens are manufactured by reacting hydrocarbon gas, i.e., methane and

hydrogen chloride, under pressure and temperatures of about 250 deg C or more in the
presence of a catalyst such as alumina gel or zinc chloride.

During the process low molecular weight organohalogens (i.e., methyl-chloride) are
formed which can later be polymerized, resulting in high molecular weight
organohalogens.

Silicones, on the other hand, are produced from methyl chloride (CH3CI) which is
reacted with silicon in the presence of copper catalysts at 380~ to form
dimethyl-silicon-chloride ((2CH3)2SICl2).

Secondary treatment with hydrochloric acid causes the removal of the chloride radicals
to form a silicone.

After neutralizing and dewatering the original stock the polymerization of silicones is
then induced by alkali, resulting in the finished product.
 EMULSIONS AND AQUEOUS LUBRICANTS
Water is an attractive extender of lubricating oils; cheap, good heat transfer characteristics
and non-flammability are all useful attributes.

Water by itself is a very poor lubricant but when mixed with oils to form n or when mixed
with water-soluble hydrocarbons to produce an aqueous solution, some useful lubricants can
be developed.

These liquids are used as coolants in metalworking where the combination of the lubricity
of oil, high conductivity and the latent heat of water provide the optimum fluid for this
application.
Mining machinery is also lubricated by water-based fluids to minimize the risk of fire from
leakage of lubricants.
It has been observed that during the lubrication process by emulsions, water is excluded
from the loaded contacts and as a result the performance of an emulsion is close to that of a
pure mineral oil.

 The most severe limitation of these lubricants is the temperature range at which they can
successfully be applied.

They are limited to the temperature range of water, which lies between the melting point of
ice and the boiling point of water. This excludes these lubricants from many applications, for
example, engine oils.
Manufacturing of Emulsions

Emulsions are produced by mixing water and oil with an emulsifier.

An example of this relatively simple process, which usually occurs inadvertently, is when
water contaminates a lubricating oil sump (most lubricating oils contain natural
emulsifiers).

The mixing must be sufficiently intense to disperse one of the liquids as a series of small
droplets within the other liquid.

About 1 - 10% by weight of emulsifier is added to stabilize the dispersed droplets and
stop their coagulation.

A 'water in oil' emulsion, commonly abbreviated to 'W/O', is a suspension of water

droplets in oil.

The converse, oil in water, contains oil droplets dispersed in water and is usually referred
to as an 'O/W' emulsion

The 'W/O' emulsions are used as fire resistant hydraulic fluids, while the 'O/W‘
emulsions are suitable as metalworking coolants
 Characteristics
The apparent viscosity of emulsions declines with increasing shear stress, and their
viscosity index is usually high.

'W/O' emulsions have a high viscosity, several times that of the base oil.

Apart from a limited temperature range emulsions exhibit poor storage capability and they
may not only be degraded by oil oxidation but also by bacterial contamination of water

Applications
Emulsions and aqueous solutions are mostly used as cutting fluids in the metal working
industry and as fire resistant lubricants in the mining industry.

Aqueous solutions of polyglycols are often used as fire resistant hydraulic oils with the
added advantage of low viscosity and low pour points, e.g., -40 deg C
GREASES
Greases are not simply very viscous lubricating oils.

They are in fact mixtures of lubricating oils and thickeners.

 The thickeners are dispersed in lubricating oils in order to produce a stable colloidal
structure or gel.

 Thus, a grease consists of oil constrained by minute thickener fibres.

 Since the oil is constrained and unable to flow it provides semi-permanent lubrication.

 For this reason, greases are widely used, despite certain limitations in performance.

 The most widespread application of greases is as low-maintenance, semipermanent

lubricants in rolling contact bearings and some gears.

 The grease may be packed into a bearing or gear set and left for a period of several
months or longer before being replaced.

 Inaccessible wearing contacts, such as are found on caterpillar track assemblies or in

agricultural machinery, are conveniently lubricated by this means.
 Low maintenance items are also suitable candidates for grease lubrication.

 The lubricating performance of greases is inferior to mineral oils except at low

sliding speeds where some greases may be superior.

Greases have to meet the same requirements as lubricating oils but with one
extra condition, the grease must remain as a semi-solid mass despite high service
temperatures.

 If the grease liquefies and flows away from the contact then the likelihood of
lubrication failure rapidly increases.

 Furthermore, grease is unable to remove heat by convection as oil does, so

unlike oil, it is not effective as a cooling agent.

It also cannot be used at speeds as high as oil because frictional drag would
cause overheating.

 The lifetime of a grease in service is often determined by the eventual loss of

the semi-solid consistency to become either a liquid or a hard deposit.
Manufacturing of Greases
Greases are manufactured by adding alkali and fatty acid to a quantity of oil: The
mixture is then heated and soap is formed from the alkali and fatty acid.

After the reaction, the water necessary for soap formation is removed and the soap
crystallizes.

The final stages of manufacture involve mechanical working of the grease to

homogenize the composition and allow blending in of additives and the remaining oil.

 Careful control of process variables is necessary to produce a grease of the correct

consistency.

 Several cycles of mixing and 'maturing' are often needed to obtain the required grease
properties.

 Most greases are made by a batch process in large pots or reactors, but continuous
production is gaining acceptance.
Composition of Greases

Greases always contain three basic active ingredients:

(i) a base mineral, (e.g Naphthenic oils) or synthetic oil (synthetic esters,
phosphate esters, silicones and fluorocarbons.)
(ii) additives and (The most common additives include anti-oxidants, rust and
corrosion inhibitors, tackiness, anti-wear and extreme pressure (EP) additives.)
(iii) Thickener (e.g metal soaps and clays)

In most cases the mineral oil plays the most important role in determining the
grease performance, but in some instances the additives and the thickener can be
critical.

The type and amount of thickener (typically 5- 20%) have a critical effect on grease
properties.

Very often additives which are similar to those in lubricating oils are used.

Sometimes fillers, such as metal oxides, carbon black, molybdenum disulphide,

polytetrafluoroethylene, etc., are also added.
Additives used in grease

The additives improve the oil characteristics in grease .

The most common additives include anti-oxidants, rust and corrosion inhibitors,
tackiness, anti-wear and extreme pressure (EP) additives

Anti-oxidants must be selected to match the individual grease.

Their primary function is to protect the grease during storage and extend the service
life, especially in high temperature applications.

Rust and corrosion inhibitors are added to make the grease non-corrosive to bearings
operating in machinery.
The function of corrosion inhibitors is to protect the non-ferrous metals against
corrosion whereas the function of rust inhibitors is to protect ferrous metals.

Tackiness additives are sometimes added to impart a stringy texture and to increase the
cohesion and adhesion of the grease to the surface

Anti-wear and extreme pressure (EP) additives improve, in general, the load-carrying
ability in most rolling contact bearings and gears.

Extreme pressure additives react with the surface to form protective films which prevent
metal to metal contact and the consequent scoring or welding of the surfaces.
Fillers

Fillers are sometimes used as fine solids in grease formulations to improve

grease performance.

Typical fillers are graphite, molybdenum disulphide, metal oxides and flakes,
carbon black, talc and others.
e.g
i. Graphite, can minimize wear in sliding bearing surfaces, while molybdenum
disulphide minimizes wear in gears.

ii. Zinc and magnesium oxide are used in the food processing industry since
they neutralize acid.

iii. Metal flakes and powdered metals such as lead, zinc, tin and aluminium
are used as anti-seize compounds in lubricants for pipe threads.

iv. Talc is used in die and drawing lubricants.

Books and References:
1. Fundamentals of Engineering Tribology with Applications by Harish Hirani, Cambridge
English (2017)
2. Applied Tribology (Bearing Design and Lubrication), by Michael M Khonsari, John Wiley &
Sons (2001).
3. Principles of Tribology, by J Halling, The Macmillan Press Ltd,London, (1975).

4. Friction, Wear, Lubrication:A textbook in Tribology, by Ludema K C, CRC Press, (2010).

5. Fundamentals of Machine Elements, B.J. Hamrock, B.O. Jacobson & S.R. Schmid,
McGraw-Hill Inc., (1998).

6. Fundamentals of Mechanical Component Design, by K.S. Edwards & R.B. McKee,

McGraw-Hill Inc., (1991).

7. Mechanical Engineering Design by J.E. Shigley and C R Mischke, Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing Company Limited, (2003).

8. Tribophysics, by N.P. Suh Prentice-Hall, (1986).

9. Friction, Wear, Lubrication: A Textbook in Tribology, by Kenneth C Ludema, LayoAjayi,

CRC Press (2019).