JEE MAIN 2024

Important Formulas
For Maths

(As per Latest NTA Syllabus)

 Content
About 3

Sets, Relations And Functions 5

Complex Numbers And Quadratic Equations 26

Matrices And Determinants 44

Sequence And Series 60

Trigonometry 70

Co-Ordinate Geometry 95

Limit, Continuity And Differentiability 175

Integral Calculus 221

Differential Equations 245

Vector Algebra 254

Three Dimensional Geometry 283

Permutations And Combinations 310

Binomial Theorem And Its Simple Applications 321

Statistics And Probability 334

Mathematical Induction 349

Mathematical Reasoning 350

Other Useful Resources 359

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 ABOUT

W
elcome to “Important Formulas For Maths,” your essential JEE Main exam study re-
source for mastering the fundamental formulas, equations, laws and theorems of all
11th and 12th-class Maths chapters. This eBook is made to meet your needs, whether
you’re a JEE Main aspirant trying to get top grades or a teacher searching for a brief reference
for your students.

What You’ll Find Inside:

Comprehensive Coverage: This eBook provides a comprehensive chapterwise collection of all
the important formulas, equations, laws and theorems you’ll study in your Maths syllabus for the
JEE Main exam. From Algebra to Calculus, Trigonometry and Coordinate geometry to 3D Geom-
etry and Vectors, we’ve got you covered.

Clarity and Conciseness: Each formula is provided in an easy-to-understand and concise man-
ner. We have provided explanations and pertinent context to ensure you understand the funda-
mental concepts.

Visual Aids: To enhance your understanding, we’ve included images as well as tables where nec-
essary, helping you visualize difficult concepts and equations.

Examples: To help you better comprehend the concepts, we’ve included some solved examples.
You can improve your problem-solving abilities and perform well on tests by understanding these
examples.

Quick Reference: You can quickly find the chapter you need in our eBook because it is designed
for quick reference, allowing you to locate the chapter you need within seconds from the index/
content of the ebook. It is an invaluable tool for learning concepts, preparing for exams, and do-
ing assignments in less time.

Who Can Benefit From This eBook?

Students: This eBook is intended for class 11 and class 12 JEE Main aspirants, however those
who have already completed the 12th grade can also use it to revise the chapters of Maths thor-
oughly. It serves as the perfect companion for doing homework, exam preparation, and under-
standing the fundamental concepts, formulas, laws and theorems of Maths.

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 Teachers: This eBook can be used by teachers as a supplementary teaching resource. It can
support lesson preparation and be recommended to students as additional study material for
revision.

Parents: Parents can help students learn by providing them with this eBook, ensuring they have
access to the fundamental formulas and explanations they need to succeed in 11th-class and
12th-class Maths.

Why Choose Our eBook?

This eBook has been carefully curated and organized by our team of knowledgeable Maths edu-
cators to make sure it helps the JEE Main aspirants study and revise all 11th-class and 12th-class
Maths chapters. You’ll be confident to take on any Maths problems if you have our eBook in your
digital library because knowing important formulas is very helpful while solving questions in less
time.

We believe that a strong foundation in Maths chapters is crucial for success in the JEE Main
exam, and this eBook is your key to achieving that foundation.

Start studying and revising the Maths chapters with confidence. Download this ebook today and
take your Maths knowledge to new heights!

Happy Learning!
Warm regards,
Team Careers360

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 Sets, Relations and Functions
Important Formulae

1.Definition of Sets:
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects and it is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, S, U, V…...

Example: A = {1,2,3}

All the objects that form a set are called its elements or members. These are usually denoted by small letters, i.e. x, y, z …..

If x is an element of a set A, we write x ∈ A and read as ‘x belongs to A'.

If x is not an element of a set A, we write x ∉ A and read as ‘x does not belong to A'.

Example: A={1,2,3}, then 2 ∈ A (2 belongs to set A) and 4 ∉ A (4 does not belong to set A)

2.Representation of Sets:
There are two methods of representing a set - Roster (or Tabular) form & Set-builder Form.

Roster or Tabular form

In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are separated by commas and are enclosed within braces { }.

Example: {a, e, i, o, u} represents the set of all the vowels in English alphabet in the roster from.

In roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial, i.e. the set of all natural numbers which divide 14 is {1, 2, 7, 14} can also be
represented as {1, 14, 7, 2}.

An element is not generally repeated in roster form of set, i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct. For example, the set of letters forming the word
‘SCHOOL’ is { S, C, H, O, L} or {H, O, L, C, S}. Here, the order of listing elements has no relevance.

Set-builder Form

In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property which is not possessed by any element outside the set. If Z contains
all values of x for which the condition q(x) is true, then we write

Z = { x : q(x) } or Z = { x | q(x) }

Where, ' : ' or ' | ' is read as 'such that'

eg. The set A = { 0, 1, 8, 27, 64, .... } can be written in Set Builder form as

A={ is a non negative integer}

3.Types of Sets:
Empty Set
A set which does not contain any element in it is called the empty set (or null set or void set).

eg. A = {x: 1<x<2, x is a natural number},

Since no natural number lies between 1 and 2, hence A will be an empty set.

The empty set is denoted by the symbol φ or { }.

Note: φ ≠ {φ}, φ ≠ {0}

Equal Sets:

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements and we write A = B.

Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write A ≠ B.

Example If A= {3,2,1,4} and B= {2,3,4,1}, then both have exactly same elements, and hence A = B.

Equivalent Sets
Two sets having the same number of elements are called equivalent sets.

Example: A= {H,T,P,V} and B= {1,2,3,4}, they both are equivalent as number of elements in both are same.

Equivalent sets have the same cardinal number

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 Note: Two equivalent sets may or may not be equal, but equal sets are always equivalent.

4.Subsets
A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if all elements of A are present in B.

It is represented by ⊂ .

A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , C = {3, 2, 1}

A is a subset of B or A ⊂ B

C is a subset of A or C ⊂ A

Also, if all elements of set A present in set B, then A is a subset of B and B is called a superset of A

Properties
1. If sets A and B are subsets of each other then they are equal sets.

eg, If A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {3, 1, 2},

Here, A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A ⇒ A = B

2. Every set is a subset of itself, A ⊂ A.

3. φ is a subset of every set.

Proper and Improper Subsets

If A is a subset of B but , then we say A is a proper subset of B.

And if , then we say that A is an improper subset of B.

Example: If A={2,4} and B= {1,2,3,4,5}, then A is a proper subset of B

And C = {1,2,3,4,5} is improper subset of B in this case

Note:

1. Every set has one improper subset, all other subsets are proper subsets.

2. φ has only one subset, which is φ itself. So, φ does not have any proper subset.

3. Important sets related to numbers

N : the set of all natural numbers

Z : the set of all integers

Q : the set of all rational numbers

Q': the set of all irrational numbers

R : the set of real numbers

Z+ : the set of positive integers

Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers

R+ : the set of positive real numbers.

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R

Number of subsets of a set

If a set A has n elements, then the total number of subsets of A is 2n.

Also as each subset has one improper subset, so number of proper subsets is (2n-1).

Intervals as Subset of R
Open Interval

If a and b are two real number such that a < b, then the set of all real numbers x such that

a < x < b is called an open interval and denoted by (a, b) or ]a , b[.

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 (a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}.

On the real line, (a, b) represented as

Encircling a and b means the numbers a and b not included in the set.

So (1,5) contains all real numbers lying between 1 and 5, but NOT 1 and 5

So, 1.00001, 1.1, 1.5, π, √2, 4.99999 etc lie in this interval

Closed Interval
If a and b are two real number such that a < b, then the set of all real numbers x such that

a ≤ x ≤ b is called a closed interval and denoted by [a, b].

[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

On the real line, [a, b] represented as

So [1,5] contains all real numbers lying between 1 and 5, including 1 and 5

So, 1.00001, 1.1, 1.5, π, √2, 4.99999 etc lie in this interval. Also 1 and 5 also lie in it

Open-Closed and Closed-open Intervals

If a and b are two real number such that a < b, then the set of all real numbers x such that

a ≤ x < b is called Closed-open interval and a < x ≤ b is called Open-closed interval.

These are denoted by [a, b) and (a, b] respectively

[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x< b}: contains all real numbers between a and b, also it includes a (but does not include b)

(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}: contains all real numbers between a and b, also it includes b (but does not include a)

On the real line, these are represented as

[a, b) (a, b]

Finite set: A set which is empty or consists of a finite number of elements is called a finite set.
Examples: φ, {a}, {1,2,5,9}, {x: x is a person of age more than 18}

Infinite set: A set which has infinite elements is called an infinite set.

Examples:

a set of all the lines passing through a point,

set of all circles in a plane,

set of all points in a plane,

N, Z, Q, Q', R

{x : 2 < x < 2.1}

Singleton set: A set which is having only one element is called a singleton set.

Example: {3}, {b},

{{1,2,3}} is also singleton as it has one element which is a set

{φ} is also a singleton set

Note: Empty and singleton sets are finite sets

Power set

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 The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by P(A).

For Example if set A = {a, b, c}, then

P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c}}

The power set of any set is non-empty.

Each element of a Power set is a set.

Number of elements in P(A) = Number of subsets of set A = 2Number of elements in set

Universal set

A set that contains all sets in a given context is called the “Universal Set”. The universal set is usually denoted by U, and all its subsets denoted by
the letters A, B, C, etc.

For example, for the set of all integers, the universal set can be the set of rational numbers or, for that matter, the set R of real numbers.

If A is set of all tigers in a jungle, and B is a set of all deers in the jungle, then universal set can be all the animals of that jungle, as all tigers and all
deers are subsets of this set.

5.Venn Diagram
A diagram that represents or shows different sets is called a Venn diagram.

Universal set (U) is usually represented by a rectangle and its subsets are usually represented by circles (or any other closed curve).

For example, the set of natural numbers (N) is a subset of the set of whole numbers (W) which is a subset of integers (here integer(Z) is the
universal set).

Example

In the above figure Universal Set (U) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

Set A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = {2,3, 5}

A is a subset of U (A ⊂ U)

B is a subset of A (B ⊂ A)

Union of Sets

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 Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is the set which consists of all the elements of A and all the elements of B, the common elements
being taken only once. The symbol ‘∪’ is used to denote the union.

Symbolically, we write A U B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Properties of union

A∪B=B∪A (Commutative Property)

(A B) C=A (B C) (Associative property)

A φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of Null Set)

A A = A (Idempotent law)

U A = U (Law of U)

If A is a subset of B, then A ∪ B = B

Intersection of sets

The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all elements which are common to both A and B. The symbol ‘∩ ‘is used to denote the intersection.

Symbolically, we write A ∩ B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

For example, let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and B = { 2, 3, 5, 8 }, then A ∩ B = { 2, 8 }

If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then A and B are called disjoint sets.

For example, let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and B = { 1, 3, 5, 7 }. Then A and B are disjoint sets because there are no elements which are common to A and B.

Properties of intersection
A B=B A (Commutative law).

(A B) C=A (B C ) (Associative law).

A = ,

A U = A (Law of and U).

A A = A (Idempotent law)

If A is subset of B, then A B=A

Distributive laws

1. A (B C)=(A B) (A C ) i. e., distributes over

This can be seen easily from the following Venn diagrams

LHS:

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 RHS:

2. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

This can be seen easily from the following Venn diagrams

LHS:

RHS:

Difference of the sets

The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set of elements which belong to A but not to B.

Symbolically, we write A – B and read as “A minus B”.

For example, If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6, 8},

Then, A - B = {1, 2, 3} and B - A = {5, 6, 8}

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 The sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are mutually disjoint sets, i.e., the intersection of any two of these sets is the null set as shown in figure

Properties of Difference of Sets

1. In general A - B does not equal B - A

2. A - A =

3. A - =A

4. A - U =

5. If A is a subset of B, then A - B =

Symmetric Difference of Sets ( A Δ B )

Symmetric difference of two sets A and B is defined as

AΔB=(A-B)∪(B-A)

Venn Diagram

Clearly, A Δ B also equals ( A ∪ B) - ( A ∩ B )

Venn Diagram for the Complement of a set

Let U be the universal set and A is a subset of U. Then the complement of A is the set of all elements of U which are not the elements of A.

Symbolically, we use A' or Ac to denote the complement of A with respect to U.

A' = {x:x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. Obviously, A' = U – A

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 Properties of Compliment

A ∪ A′ = U

A ∩ A′ = φ

(A' )' = A

U′ = φ and φ′ = U

A - B = A ∩ B'

Cardinal number

The number of distinct elements in a finite set A is called Cardinal number of set A and it is denoted by n(A).

For example, if set A = {1, 3, 7, 11, 13} then n(A) = 5

6.Set Theory Formulas

Given, any two finite sets A and B, then Number of Elements in the union of set A & B is given by

n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A ∩ B)

If (A ∩ B) = φ,then n(A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B)

Given A, B and C be any finite sets, then Number of Elements in the union of sets A, B & C is given by

7.De-Morgan’s Laws
1. (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′

Let x be any element in (A ∪ B)’

x ∈ (A ∪ B)’ ⇔ x ∉ (A ∪ B)

⇔ x ∉ A and x ∉ B (As x does not belong to A ∪ B, it cannot belong to both A and B)

⇔ x ∈ A’ and x ∈ B’

⇔ x ∈ (A’ ∩ B’)

∴ x ∈ (A ∪ B)’ ⇔ x ∈ (A’ ∩ B’)

So, any element that belongs to (A ∪ B)’ also belongs to (A’ ∩ B’), and vice versa

So, these sets have exactly the same elements, hence they are equal

2. (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′

Let x be any element in (A ∩ B)’

x ∈ (A ∩ B)’ ⇔ x ∉ (A ∩ B)

⇔ x ∉ A or x ∉ B (as x ∉ (A ∩ B), means it is not common in A and B, and thus either it is not in A or not in B)

⇔ x ∈ A’ or x ∈ B’

⇔ x ∈ (A’ ∪ B’)

∴ x ∈ (A ∩ B)’ ⇔ x ∈ (A’ ∪ B’)

So, any element that belongs to (A ∩ B)’ also belongs to (A’ ∪ B’), and vice versa

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 So, these sets have exactly the same elements, hence they are equal

8.Cartesian Product And Ordered Pairs

Ordered pair

A pair of elements grouped together in a particular order is known as an ordered pair.

e.g. : (a,b), (3,5), (-1,0)...

The ordered pair (a, b) and (b, a) are different.

Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corresponding first elements are equal and the second elements are also equal.

i.e. (x, y) = (u, v) if and only if x = u, y = v.

Cartesian product

The cartesian product of two non-empty sets A and B is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y), where x ∈ A and y ∈ B.

Symbolically, we write it as A × B and it is read as ‘A cross B’.

A × B = {(a,b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}

For example, If

Then

Note

A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered triplet.

R × R = {(x,y): x,y ∈ R} and R × R × R = (x,y,z): x,y,z ∈ R}

Number of elements in A x B

If there are p elements in A and q elements in B, then there will be pq elements in A × B,

i.e., if n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.

Properties of Cartesian Product

If A,B,C and D are any four sets, then

1. A X (B - C) = (A X B) - (A X C)

2. If A ⊆ B, then (A X C) ⊆ (B X C)

3. If A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D, then A X C ⊆ B X D

9.Relations:
A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of the cartesian product A × B.

The subset is derived by describing the relationship between the first element and the second element of the ordered pairs in A × B.

The second element is called the image of the first element.

If the element (a,b) belongs to R, (here a belongs to A and b belongs to B), then the relation is represented as a R b.

Number of Relations from A to B

If A have m elements and B have n elements, then A B has m x n element.

As the number of subsets of AxB is 2mn, and a relation is a subset of AxB, so the total number of relations from A to B will be 2mn

10.Domain Range and Codomain Of A Function

Domain
The domain of a relation R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R.

eg. R={(a,b),(c,d)}, then the domain is {a,c}

Range

The range of a relation R is the set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R.

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 eg. R={(a,b),(c,d)}. Then Range is {b,d}

Co-domain
Co-domain in a relation from A to B is the set B itself.

Properties of Relations in Set Theory

Relation on a set

If a relation is from A to A itself, then this relation is called relation on set A.

Empty Relation
A relation R on a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is related to any element of A, i.e., R = φ

For example, Let A = {2, 4, 6} and R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ A and a + b is odd}

Here, R contains no element, therefore R is an empty relation on A

Universal Relation

A relation R on a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A is related to every element of A, i.e., R has all the ordered pair contained in
AxA

So, R = A × A.

For example,

1. Let A = {2 ,4} and R = {(2,2), (2,4), (4,2), (4,4)}

Here, R = A x A. Hence, R is Universal relation

2. Let A = {1,2,3}, and R = {(a, b) : |a - b| > -2, a , b ∈ A}

Clearly mod value of difference of any pair (a,b) will be greater than -2

So, each possible ordered pair in A x A will lie in R, therefore R is a universal relation

Identity relation
If every element of A is related to itself only, then it is known as an identity relation on A . It is denoted by IA

R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ A and a = b}

It can also be written as

For example A = {2 ,4, 6}

Then, IA = {(2,2), (4,4), (6,6)}

Reflexive Relation

A relation R on a set A is called Reflexive, if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A,

For example: let A={1,2,3}

R1 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)}

R2 = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3), (1,2), (2,1),(1,3)}
R3 = {(1,1),(2,2), (2,3),(3,2)}

Here R1 and R2 are reflexive relations on A, R3 is not a reflexive relation on A as (3,3) is not present in R3.

Note: In identity relation, all elements of type (a.a) should be there and there should not be any other element. But in reflexive relation, all elements
of type (a,a) should be there, and apart from these, other elements can also be there

So, R1 is identity relation and is also reflexive, but R2 is only reflxive and not an identity relation

Symmetric Relation

A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric relation, if a R b ⇒ b R a,∀ a,b ∈ A

For example, A={1,2,3}

R1 = {(1,2), (2,1)}
R2 = {(1,2), (2,1), (1,3),(3,1)} and
R3 = {(2,3),(1,3),(3,1)}

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 Here R1 and R2 are symmetric relations on A but R3 is not a symmetric relation on A because (2,3) is in R3 and (3,2) is not in R3.

Transitive Relation

A relation R on a set A is said to be a transitive relation, if a R b and b R c ⇒ a R c, ∀ a,b,c ∈A

For example, Let A={1,2,3}

R1 = {(1,2), (2,3),(1,3),(3,2)}
R2 = {(2,3),(3,1)}
R3 = {(1,3),(3,2),(1,2)}

Here R1 is not a transitive relation on A because (2,3) is in R1 and (3,2) is in R1 but (2,2) is not in R1 . Also, (3,2) in R1 and (2,3) is in R1, but (3,3)
is not in R1

Again R2 is not transitive relation on A because (2,3) is in R2 and (3,1) is in R2 but (2,1) is not in R2.

Finally R3 is a transitive relation.

A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

11.Function-
A relation from a set A to a set B is said to be a function from A to B if every element of set A has one and only one image in set B.

OR

A and B are two non-empty sets, then a relation from A to B is said to be a function if each element x in A is assigned a unique element f(x) in B,
and it is written as

and read as f is mapping from A to B.

Function Function Not a function

Not a function

Third one is not a function because, d is not related(mapped) to any element in B.

Fourth is not a function as element a in A is mapped to more than one element in B.

If f is a function from A to B and (a, b) belongs to f, then f (a) = b, where 'b' is called the image of 'a' under f and 'a' is called the pre-image of 'b'
under f.

In the ordered pair (1,2). 1 is the pre-image of 2.

Number of function from A to B

Total number of function from A to B = nm

(The proof of this formula requires the use of Permutation and Combination, so it will be covered later)

Vertical Line Test

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 Functionality check using the graph:

If any line drawn parallel to y-axis cuts the curve at most one point, then it is a function.

If any such line cuts the graph at more than one point, then it is not a function.

In figure 1, any line parallel to y-axis cuts the curve at one point only. Each value of x would have one and only one image (value of y), so figure 1
is a function.

Whereas in figure 2, a line parallel to y-axis cuts the curve in three points. Here for x = x1 , we have three images i.e. y1, y2, and y3 . Therefore,
figure 2 is not a function.

Domain Range and Codomain Of A Function

Domain

All possible values of x for f(x) is defined (f(x) is a real number) is known as domain.

If a function is defined from A to B i.e. , then all the elements of set A is called Domain of the function.

Co-domain

If a function is defined from A to B i.e. , then set B is called Co-domain of the function.

Range

The set of all possible values of f(x) for every x belonging to the domain is known as Range of this function.

For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 4, 8, 16, 27, 64, 125}. The function f : A -> B is defined by f(x) = x3. So here,

Domain : Set A

Co-Domain : Set B

Range : {1, 8, 27, 64, 125}

The range is always a subset of co-domain and Range can be equal to co-domain in some cases.

Note: If only the formula is given, then co-domain is R, and domain and range have to be found.

Domain in this case will be all the real values of x for which y is real
Range is all the real values of y corresponding to values of x in the domain

Rules to find Domain

If domain of f(x) is A and domain of g(x) is B, then domain of f(x)+g(x), f(x) - g(x), f(x) . g(x) is A ∩ B.
For domain of f(x)/g(x), remove values of x for which g(x)=0, from A ∩ B.

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 Domain of expressions of type , we take the common values between A and values of x for which f(x) ≥ 0.
Domain of polynomial function is R.
Graphical method: we can also find domain if only the graph of function is given. We will learn this through the help of solved examples.

Methods to find Range

Simple manipulations
For range of y = f(x), we can first express x as a function of y: x = g(y). Now the domain of x = g(y) is same as the range of y = f(x)
Graphical method: we can also find the range if only the graph of function is given.

We will learn these through the help of solved examples later

12.Inequalities
Inequalities are the relationship between two expressions which are not equal to one another. Symbols denoting the inequalities are <, >, ≤, ≥, and ≠.

x < 4, “is read as x less than 4”, x ≤ 4, “is read as x less than or equal to 4”.
Similarly x > 4, “is read as x greater than 4” and x ≥ 4, “is read as x greater than or equal to 4”.

The process of solving inequalities is same as of equality but instead of equality symbol inequality symbol is used throughout the process.

A few rules that are different from equality rules

If we multiply or divide both sides of inequality by a negative number, then we reverse the inequality (reversing inequality means > gets
converted to < and vice verse, and ≥ gets converted to ≤ and vice verse) (eg 4>3 means -4<-3)
If we cross multiply a negative quantity in an inequality, then we reverse the inequality (eg 3 > -2 means -3/2 < 1)
If we cancel minus sign from both sides of inequality, then we reverse the inequality. (eg -3 > -4 means 3 < 4)
As we ususally do not know the sign of a variable term like x, (x-2), etc, so we do not cross multiply them , as we cannot decide if we have to
reverse the sign of inequality or not.

We get a range of solutions while solving inequality which satisfies the inequality,

for e.g. a > 3 gives us a range of solution, (3, ∞)

Graphically inequalities can be shown as a region belonging to one side of the line or between lines, for example, inequality -3< x ≤ 5 can be
represented as below, a region belonging to -3 and 5 are the region of possible x including 5 and excluding -3.

Frequently Used Inequalities

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Transcendental functions: the functions which are not algebraic are called transcendental functions. Exponential,
logarithmic, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions are transcendental functions.

Exponential Function: function f(x) such that is known as an exponential function.

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 Property : If ax = ay ,then x = y

Logarithmic function: function f(x) such that is called logarithmic function

If a > 1 If 0 < a < 1

Properties of Logarithmic Function

Logarithmic inequalities:

So, we change the sign of inequality while removing log when the base is less than 1

Note: We always take the intersection of the answer of this inequality with the domains of all the log terms involved in the inequality.

Modulus Function:
The function f: R R defined by f(x) = |x| for each x R is called modulus function.

For each non-negative value of x, f(x) is equal to x. But for negative values of x, the value of f(x) is the negative of the value of x

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 1.Modulus Equations: Properties
If a > 0

1. |x| = a, then x = a, -a

2. |x| = |-x|

3. |x|2 = x2

4. If |x| = x, then x > 0 or x=0

5. If |x| = -x, then x < 0 or x=0

6. |f(x)| = |g(x)| , then f(x) = g(x) or f(x) = - g(x)

2.Modulus inequalities

These deal with the inequalities (<, >, ≤, ≥ ) on expressions with absolute value sign.

Properties

If a, b > 0, then

13.Functions and Types of Functions

Algebraic function:

A function f is said to be algebraic if it can be constructed using algebraic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
taking roots. E.g.

Monomial function

A function of the form y=axn , where a is constant and n is a non-negative integer, is called a monomial function.

E.g

y = x2 y = 2x

Polynomial function

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 A real valued function f : R → R defined by y = f (x) = a0 + a1x +a2x2 ...+ anxn , where n ∈ N, and a0 , a1 , a2 ...an ∈ R, for each x ∈ R, is called
Polynomial functions.

The higest power of x is called the Degree of this polynomial.

Domain for such functions is R.

The range depends on the degree of the polynomial. If degree is odd, then range is R, but it is does not equal R if the degree is even.

Identity function

Let R be the set of real numbers. Define the real valued function f : R R by y = f(x) = x for each x R.

Such a function is called the identity function. It is denoted by . Here the domain and range of function are R. The graph is a straight line.

y=x

Constant function
The function f: R R by y = f (x) = c, x R where c is a constant and each x R.

Here domain of f is R and its range is {c}.

The graph is a line parallel to the x-axis. For example, if f(x) = 4 for each x R, then its graph will be a line as shown in Fig

As from the above figure, we can see that blue line is y = 4

Green line is y = 2 and purple line is y = -2

Rational Function

, Where polynomials in x.

Domain of this function is

Range depends on the function.

Signum function:
The function f : R R defined by

is called the signum function. The domain of the signum function is R and the range is the set {-1,0,1}.

This function can also be written in another form:

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 Graph:

Greatest integer function (G.I.F.)

The function f: R R defined by f(x) = [x], x R assumes the value of the greatest integer which is equal to or less than x. Such a functions is
called the greatest integer function.

eg;

[1.75] = 1

[2.34] = 2

[-0.9] = -1

[-4.8] = -5

[4] = 4

[-1] = -1

Graph:

From the definition of [x], we

can see that

[x] = –1 for –1 x<0

[x] = 0 for 0 x<1

[x] = 1 for 1 x<2

[x] = 2 for 2 x < 3 and so on.

Properties of greatest integer function:

i) [ a ] = a (If a is an integer)

ii) [[x]] = [x]

iii) x-1 < [x] ≤ x

iv) [ x + a ] = [ x ] + a (If a is an integer)

v) [ x - a ] = [ x ] - a (If a is an integer)

vi)

Fractional part function:

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 When [ x ] is the Greatest Integer Function

Eg

{2.2} = 2.2 - [2.2] = 2.2 - 2 = 0.2

{1.7} = 1.7 - [1.7] = 1.7 - 1 = 0.7

{2} = 2 - [2] = 2 - 2 = 0

{ - 2.2} = -2.2 - [-2.2] = 2.2 - (-3) = 0.8

{ - 1.7} = -1.7 - [ - 1.7] = 1.7 - (-2) = 0.3

{ - 2} = - 2 - [-2] = 2 - ( - 2) = 0

Clearly , 0 ≤ {x} < 1

Graph

Domain: R

Properties of fractional part of x

i) {x} = x if 0 ≤ x < 1

ii) {a} = 0, if a is an integer

iii) 0 ≤ {x} < 1

iv) { x + a } = {x} ( If a is an integer)

v) {x} + {-x} = 1, if x doesn’t belongs to integer

vi) {x} + {-x} = 0, if x belongs to integer

14.One to One Function

A function f : X Y is called a one-one (or injective) function, if different elements of X have different images in B. i.e. no two elements of set X
can have the same image.

Consider,

, function given by y = f(x) = x , and

X = {-2, 2, 4, 6} and Y = {-2, 2, 4, 6},

Graphically it can be shown that for every x, there is a unique y (or no y has more than one x corresponding to it) as below and hence it is one-one.

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 Now, consider, X1 = {1,2,3} and X2 = {x,y,z}

Method to check One-One Function

1. If x1, x2 X, then f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 = x2

2. A function is one - one iff no line parallel to X-axis meets the graph of function at more than one point.

3. Even degree polynomials are NOT one-one functions

1.Number of One - One Function

If A and B are finite sets having element m and n respectively, then the number of one-one function from A to B is

15.Many one function

A function f : X Y is called a many one function, if two or more elements of set X have the same image in set Y,

Or we can say that if f : X Y is many- one if it is not one-one function.

To check it graphically a line parallel to x-axis cuts the curve at more than one point.

Both are many one, as in both there are two elements x2 , x3 which corresponds to the same image y3, i.e. f(x2) = f(x3) = y3

Method to check many-one

Check whether the function is one-one or not. If the function is not one-one then it is a many-one function

A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element of Y is the image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y ∈ Y, there
exists an element x in X such that f(x) = y

Hence, Range = co-domain for an onto function

Some examples of onto function

Consider, X = {x1, x2, x3, x4} and Y = {y1, y2, y3}

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 As every element in Y has a pre-image in X, so it is an onto function

Method to show onto or surjective

Find the range of y = f(x) and show that range of f(x) = co-domain of f(x)

16.Into Function:
A function f : X Y is said to be an into function if there exists an element in Y having no pre-image in A.

In other words, if f : X Y is not onto mapping then it is an into mapping.

Eg

As the element y2 in codomain does not have a pre-image in domain, so it is into function

NOtE: If a function is not onto, then it is into and

If a function is not into, then it is onto.

17.Bijective Function
A function f : X Y is said to be bijective, if f is both one-one and onto (meaning it is both injective and surjective)

Consider, X1 = {1,2,3} and X2 = {x,y,z}

Eg

The number of bijective function:

If f(x) is bijective, and the function is from a finite set A to a finite set B, then

And, the number of Bijective functions= m!

18.Equal Functions
The two functions f and g are said to be equal if

Domain(f) = Domain(g)

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 Co-domain(f) = Co-domain(g), and
f(x)=g(x) for all x belonging to domain

19.Composition of Functions
Let f: A B and g : B C be two functions. Then the composition of f and g is denoted by gof and defined as the function gof : A C given by
gof (x) = g(f (x))

Properties of composition:
In general fog ≠ gof (Not commutative)
fo(goh) = (fog)oh (Associative)
If f and g are bijections then fog and gof are also bijections
The composition of any function with the identity function is the function itself. If

20.Inverse Functions
Function f : X → Y is an invertible function if it is one-one and onto

Also its inverse g is defined in the following way

g : Y → X such that if f(a) = b, then g(b) = a

The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f -1 .

Let us consider a one-one and onto function f with domain A and co-domain B. Where, A={1,2,3,4} and B={2,4,6,8} and f: A → B is given
f(x)=2x, then write f and f -1 as a set of ordered pairs.

So, f ={(1,2) (2,4) (3,6) (4,8)}

And f -1 = {(2,1) (4,2) (6,3) (8,4)}

In above definition domain of f = {1,2,3,4} = range of f -1

Range of f = {2,4,6,8} = domain of f -1 .

Steps to find the inverse of a function:

i) First we write f(x) as y and equate y=f(x), where f(x) is a function in x

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 ii) Then we separate the variable x as the dependent variable and express it in terms of y by assuming y as the independent variable

iii) Then we write g(y)=x where g(y) is a function in y

iv) And finally, we replace every y by x

Properties of an inverse function

i) The inverse of a bijection is unique.

ii) if is a bijection and is the inverse of f, then and , where IA and IB are identity functions on
the sets A and B, respectively.

iii) inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.

iv) If f: A → B and g: B → C are two bijections, then

v) The graphs of f and its inverse function, are mirror images of each other in the line y = x.

21.Even function:
If for a function f(x), f(-x) = f(x) then the function is known as even function. Even functions are symmetric about the y axis.

y = x2 y = |x| y = cos(x)

22.Odd function:
If for a function f(x), f(-x) = - f(x) then the function is known as odd function. Odd functions are symmetric about the origin.

y = sin(x) y = x3

NOTE: We can have functions that are neither even nor odd. Eg, y = x+1

Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations

Important Formulae

The square of any real number, whether it is positive or negative or zero is always non-negative, i.e. x2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R.

Hence, the equation x2 + 1 = 0 is not satisfied for any real value of x or not solvable in real number system..

Thus, the equation x2 + 1 = 0 has imaginary solution. ‘Eular’ was the first mathematician to introduced the symbol i (read as ‘iota’). The imaginary
number i is defined as the square root of −1 .

Hence, the equation

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 1.Integral Powers of iota (i)
(1) If the power of iota is the whole number

(2) If the power of iota is the negative integer

The sum of four consecutive powers of iota (i) is zero

2.Complex Number
A number of the form a + ib is called a complex number (where a and b are real numbers and i is iota). We usually denote a complex number by
letter z, z1, z2, etc

For example, z = 5 + 2i is a complex number.

5 here is called the real part and is denoted by Re(z), and 2 is called imaginary part and is denoted by Im(z)

Note: 2i is not the imaginary part, only 2 is called the imaginary part.

For z = - 2 - i, Re(z) = -2, Im(z) = -1

We denote the set of all complex numbers by C.

Purely Real and Purely Imaginary Complex Number

A complex number is said to be purely real if its imaginary part is zero, Im(z) = 0

i.e. z = 4 + 0i, z = 4.

A complex number is said to be purely imaginary if its real part is zero, Re(z) = 0

i.e. z = 0 + 3i, z = 3i

All real numbers are also complex numbers (with b=0). Eg 4 can be written as 4 + 0i

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 So, R is a proper subset of C.

Equality of Complex Numbers

Two complex numbers are said to be equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal.

a + ib = c + id

⇒ a = c and b = d

a, b, c, d ∈ R and i = √-1

Note: In complex number, inequalities do not exist. z1 > z2 does not make any sense in complex numbers

Eg,

4 + 3i > 1 + i is wrong (as two complex numbers cannot be compared)

1000 + 7000i > -39 - 800i is also wrong
1000 + 40i > 2 is wrong

We can only compare two complex numbers if their imaginary parts are 0. Eg, 5 + 0i > 4 + 0i is correct.

3.Argand Plane
A complex Number can be represented on a rectangular coordinate system called Argand Plane.

In this z = a + ib is represented by a point whose coordinates are (a,b)

So, x-coordinate of the point is the Real part of z and y coordinate is imaginary part of z

Eg z = - 2 + 3i is represented by the point (-2,3) and it lies in second quadrant.

4.Algebraic Operations on Complex Numbers

1. Addition of Two Complex Numbers

z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers. Then, the sum z1 + z2 is defined as

z1 + z2 = (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)

2. Difference of Two Complex Numbers

z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers. Then, the difference z1 - z2 is defined as

z1 - z2 = (a + ib) - (c + id) = (a - c) + i(b - d)

3. Multiplication of Two Complex Numbers

z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers. Then, the multiplication is defined as

= ac + iad + ibc + i2bd

= ac + i(ad + bc) - bd

= (ac - bd) + i(ad + bc)

4. Division of Two Complex Numbers

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 z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id (and z2 is non-zero) be any two complex numbers. Then, the division is defined as

5.Closure Property
1. Closure law: sum of two complex number is a complex number, i.e. z1 + z2 is a complex number for all complex numbers z1 and z2.
2. Commutative law : for any two complex numbers z1 and z2 , z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
3. Associative law : for any three complex numbers z1, z2 and z3 , (z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3)
4. Additive identity: if the sum of a complex number z1 with another complex number z2 is z1, then z2 is called the additive identity. We have
z + 0 = z = 0 + z, so 0 is additive identity.
5. Additive inverse : To every complex number z = a + ib, we have the complex number – a + i(– b) (denoted as – z), called the additive inverse
or negative of z. i.e. z + (-z) = 0 (-z is additive inverse).

6.Modulus and Conjugate of a Complex Number

The conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib (a, b are real numbers) is a − ib. It is denoted as .

i.e. if z = a + ib, then its conjugate is = a - ib.

Conjugate of complex numbers is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary part of the complex number. The real part of the number is left
unchanged.
Note:

When a complex number is added to its complex conjugate, the result is a real number. i.e. z = a + ib, = a - ib

Then the sum, z + = a + ib + a - ib = 2a (which is real)

When a complex number is multiplied by its complex conjugate, the result is a real number i.e. z = a + ib, = a - ib

Then the product,

= a2 + b2 (which is real)

Geometrically complex conjugate of a complex number is its mirror image with respect to the real axis (x-axis).

For example

z = 2 + 2i and = 2 - 2i

7.Properties of the conjugate complex numbers:

z, z1, z2, and z3 be the complex numbers

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 8.Modulus
If z = x + iy is a complex number. Then, the modulus of z, denoted by | z |, is the distance of z from origin in Argand plane, and it is a non-negative
real number equal to .

i.e. |z| = .

Every complex number can be represented as a point in the argand plane with x-axis as real axis and y-axis as imaginary axis.

(length r from origin to point (x,y))

Properties of Modulus
i) |z| ≥ 0

ii) |z| = 0, iff z = 0 and |z| >0, iff z ≠ 0

iii) -|z| ≤ Re(z) ≤ |z| and -|z| ≤ Im(z) ≤ |z|

iv)

v)

vi)

vii)

viii) (Triangle inequality) this can be generalised for n complex numbers.

ix)

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 In polar form, we represent the complex number through the argument and modulus value of complex numbers.

Let z = x + iy be a complex number,

And we know that

And let arg(z) = θ

9.Polar Form of Complex Numbers

From the figure, x = |z| cos(θ) = r cos(θ)

and y = |z| sin(θ) = r sin(θ)

So, z = x + iy = r cos(θ) + i.r sin(θ) = r ( cos(θ) + i.sin(θ))

This form is called polar form with principal value of arg(z) and r = |z|.

10.For general values of the argument

The polar form of complex number

We know the expansion of ex is

So

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 Euler forms make algebra very simple for complex numbers in cases where multiplication, division or powers of complex numbers are involved.
Any complex number can be expressed as

Application of Euler form:

1. Multiplication of two complex numbers:

2. Division also can be done in the same way,

3. The logarithm of Complex Number

Properties of Argument of Complex Numbers

This formula for argument can be generalised for n number of complex in similar way

where k is an integer

k belongs to an integer

11.Square Root of Complex Number

Let z = x + iy, is the complex number whose square root we have to find

Since the square root of complex number must be a complex number,

Now squaring both sides

Now comparing real and imaginary part and finding the value of a and b in terms of x and y

if Im(z) > 0 otherwise there will be -ve sign between real and imaginary part of the square root of z.

Note:

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 1. Students do not need to remember this formula. But, they are required to know the procedure to find the square root of a complex number.

2. If a + ib is one of the square root of z, then other square root must be -(a+ib)

12.Complex Equations
To find the solution of the complex equation we substitute z = x + iy and find the value of x and y by comparing real and imaginary parts of the
equation obtained. z = x+iy is the required solution.

13.De-moivre’s theorem
De-moivre’s theorem is based on Euler form representation of complex numbers.

According to De-moivre’s theorem

1.

Proof:

Note: If n is a rational number which is not an integer and n= p/q , where HCF (p,q) =1 and q>0, then zn will have q values. One of the values will
be

2.

Proof:

Note:

14.Cube Root of Unity

Let z be the cube root of unity (1)

So, z3 = 1

⇒ z3 - 1 = 0

⇒ (z - 1)(z2 + z + 1) = 0

⇒ z - 1 = 0 or z2 + z + 1 = 0

If the second root is represented by , then the third root will be represented by (we can check that by squaring the second root, we get the third
root)

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 So, 1, , are cube roots of unity and are the non-real complex root of unity.

Properties of Cube roots of unity

i) 1 + = 0 and (Using sum and produc of roots relations for the equation z3 - 1 = 0)

ii) To find , first we write in multiple of 3 with remainder being 0 or 1 or 2.

The cube roots of unity when represented on the complex plane has its point on vertices of triangle circumscribed by a unit circle whose one
vertices lies on the +ve X-axis.

15. nth root of unity

We solve the nth root of unity same as cube root, only the value becomes n instead of 3.

Let z be nth root of unity

So, zn = 1

z = (1)1/n = 1 + i(0)

= (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/n

= (cos (2kπ + 0) + i sin (2kπ + 0))1/n , where k = integer

= (cos (2kπ) + i sin (2kπ))1/n ,

Using De-moivre theorem, it can be written as

Now for k = 0,1,2,..,(n-1) we get n different solutions, nth roots of unity are represented by αk where k=0,1,2,..., (n-1).

Then, nth root of unity are αk (k = 0, 1, 2, 3, …………...(n-1))

I.e. 1, α, α2, α3, α4 ……………αn-1

So these roots of unity are in geometric progression with common ratio α = e2iπ/n

(We will study geometric progression and common ratio in the chapter Sequences and Series later)

Sum of nth roots of unity

As all these numbers are roots of the polynomial equation

zn - 1 = 0

So, using sum of roots relation, we can see that sum of roots = 0 (As there is no term with zn-1 in the equation)

Product of nth roots of unity

As all these numbers are roots of the polynomial equation

zn - 1 = 0

So, using product of roots relation, we can see that product of roots will be 1 if n is odd and it will be (-1) is n is even.

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 We solve the nth root of unity same as cube root, only the value becomes n instead of 3.

Let z be nth root of unity

So, zn = 1

z = (1)1/n = 1 + i(0)

= (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/n

= (cos (2kπ + 0) + i sin (2kπ + 0))1/n , where k = integer

= (cos (2kπ) + i sin (2kπ))1/n ,

Using De-moivre theorem, it can be written as

Now for k = 0,1,2,..,(n-1) we get n different solutions, nth roots of unity are represented by αk where k=0,1,2,..., (n-1).

Then, nth root of unity are αk (k = 0, 1, 2, 3, …………...(n-1))

I.e. 1, α, α2, α3, α4 ……………αn-1

So these roots of unity are in geometric progression with common ratio α = e2iπ/n

(We will study geometric progression and common ratio in the chapter Sequences and Series later)

16.Complex Numbers as Vectors

1.Vector Notation

Let us take any complex number z=x+iy, so point P(x,y) represents it on Argand Plane. Then OP can be represented as vector ,
where represents x axis while represents y axis and O is the origin.

Therefore complex number z can be represented as

Similarly, a vector starting from point A (z1) and ending at B(z2) is represented by AB vector which equals (z2 - z1)

And the length of AB is given by modulus of this vector |z2 - z1|

Rotation Theorem (Coni Method)

Let three points A, B and C in the Argand Plane whose affixes are z1, z2 and z3 respectively.

If we rotate AB to AC, then

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 Note: Final vector should be in numberator and starting vector in denominator. is positive if rotation is anti-clockwise and negative if it is
clockwise.

Distance between two points A(z1) and B(z2) is

AB = |z2 - z1| = | Affix of B - Affix of A |

The distance of a point from the origin is |z - 0| = |z|

Three points A(z1), B(z2) and C(z3) are collinear, then AB + BC = AC

i.e. |z2 - z1| + |z3 - z2| = |z3 - z1|

Perpendicular bisector

We can use the distance formula to find the equation of perpendicular bisector

Let two fixed points A(z1) and B(z2) and a moving point C(z) which lies on perpendicular bisector of AB

As any point on perpendicular bisector of AB will be equidistant from A and B, so

AC = BC

|z - z1| = |z - z2|

This is the equation of perpendicular of bisector of AB, where A(z1) and B(z2).

Equation of Circle

The equation of the circle whose center is at the point and have radius r is given by

If the center is origin then, , hence equation reduces to |z| = r

Interior of the circle is represented by

The exterior is represented by

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 Here z can be represented as x + iy and is represented by

Equation of Circle in second form

This equation also represents a circle. This can be verified by putting z = x+iy, z1 = p+iq, z2 = a+ib

Equation of Ellipse

|z - z1| + |z - z2| = k (k > |z1 - z2|)

This represents an ellipse as sum of distances of point z from z1 and z2 is constant, which is the locus of an ellipse.

Equation of Hyperbola

| |z - z1| - |z - z2| | = k (k < |z1 - z2|)

This represents a hyperbola as difference of distances of point z from z1 and z2 is constant, which is the locus of a hyperbola.

Section Formula
The complex number z dividing z1 and z2 internally in ratio m: n is given by

z=

And

The complex number z dividing z1 and z2 externally in ratio m: n is given by

z=

Centroid

Centroid of the triangle with vertices z1, z2 and z3 is given by (z1 + z2+ z3)/3

17.Quadratic equation
A polynomial equation in which the highest degree of a variable term is 2 is called quadratic equation.

Standard form of quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0

Where a, b and c are constants (they may be real or imaginary) and called the coefficients of the equation and (a is also called the leading
coefficient).

Eg, -5x2 - 3x + 2 = 0, x2 = 0, (1 + i)x2 - 3x + 2i = 0

As degree of quadratic polynomial is 2, so it always has 2 roots (number of real roots + number of imaginary roots = 2)

The root of the quadratic equation is given by the formula:

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 Where D is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation, given by ,

Proof:

Let the quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a,b,c ∈ R)

D (called the discriminant of the equation) = b2 - 4ac

Roots of this equation are given by

i) if D < 0, then both roots are non-real (imaginary numbers), and the roots will be conjugate of each other, means if p + iq is one of

the roots then other root will be p - iq

ii) If D > 0, then roots will be real and distinct

iii) if roots D = 0, then roots will be real and equal, and they equal

Special cases of case ii (D > 0)

i) if a,b,c are rational numbers (Q) and

If D is perfect square, then roots are rational

If D is not perfect square than roots are irrational (in this case if is one root of quadratic equation then other root will be )

ii) If a = 1 and b and c are integers and

If D is perfect square, then roots are integers

If D is not perfect square than roots are non-integrer values

Let and be two roots of a quadratic equation. So, we have

Sum of roots:

Product of roots:

The difference of root can also be found in the same way by manipulating the terms

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 Important Results

Equation from roots

A quadratic equation with and as its roots is

(x - )(x - ) = 0

x2 - ( )x+ =0

So, the equation with given roots can be written as

x2 - (sum of roots) x + (Product of roots) = 0

Transformation of roots

Let and be the roots of quadratic equation , then

i) the equation with root and will be

, (replace x by x-k)

ii) the equation with root and will be

, (replace x by x+k)

iii) the equation with root and will be

(replace x by )

iv) the equation with root and will be

(replace x by kx)

v) the equation with root and will be

(replace x by -x)

vi) the equation with root and will be

( replace x by )

vii) the equation with root and will be

( replace x by )

viii) the equation with root and will be

(replace x by )

We consider two-equation and try to find the conditions for roots to be common among them

Let the equations be

18.Only one common root:

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 Let be the common root, so it will satisfy both the equations

This,

On solving these two equations using cross multiplication method, we get

This is the condition required for a root to be common to both quadratic equation.

And the common root is given by,

The common root can also be found using the method given below :

1. First make the coefficient of x2 same in two given quadratic equation.

2. Now, subtract the two equations

3. Use the relation between their roots and coefficients to find roots of other equation.

Both roots are common :

Let and be the common roots of the equations

Then, both the equation are identical, hence

19.Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Quadratic Equations

We have y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0

The shape of the y = f(x) will be parabolic

If the parabola opens upward (when a > 0) then the y value of vertex represents least value of equation, and if opens downward (when a < 0) then y
value of vertex represents the greatest value of the parabola.

Both least and greatest values are attained at x value of vertex of parabola

Hence the graph of any general quadratic equation will look like below graph (given a>0)

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 In the general quadratic equation if and if a > 0

Then the parabola opens upward. As given below,

if a < 0 it opens downward. As given below,

x-coordinate of point of intersection of a graph y = f(x) and x-axis gives the root of equation f(x) = 0. If a graph intersects x axis at (p,0), then for x
= p, y = 0, so x=p is a root of the equation f(x)=0 (or we can also say y=0).

Now, if a, b, c are real numbers

Case 1: If D > 0

We have learnt that if D > 0 and a,b,c are real numbers, then quadratic equations has two distinct real roots. Hence the equation has two different
real values of x satisfying the equation, so graph of the equation must cut x-axis at two different points, irrespective of the sign of a ( a > 0 or a < 0 ).

Case 2: If D = 0

We have equal and real roots. Since both root will coincide, hence the graph will touch the x- axis at one point only, and it will open upward or
downward depending upon the value of ‘a’. Graph is as shown below.

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 Case 3: If D < 0

We know that quadratic equations will have non-real roots which will exist in pairs. So The graph will not cut x-axis as any real x will not satisfy
the equation. So the graph of such an equation will be as given below.

Intersection with y-axis:

y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

For intersection with y-axis,

substitute x=0 in y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

we get y=c.

For example,

Curve y = x2 + x + 1, cuts y-axis at y = 1 (by putting x=0 in the given equation). So the graph will pass through (0,1). This si the point of
intersection of graph with y axis

Let y = ax2 + bx + c = 0 be the quadratic equation, such that a is non-zero and a,b,c are real numbers, then

1. If D < 0 then we know quadratic equation has no real roots. So for all real value of x, the graph never intersects or touches x axis, so it is always
above or below x-axis. This means that the value of y will always be positive or negative,

If a > 0 and D < 0:

The graph open upwards hence all values of y will be positive as graph can’t start from below x-axis (because if it happens then it will cut x - axis as
it is opening upwards, but it has no solution) so it starts from above x-axis and hence y is +ve for all values of x.

In similar way if a < 0 and D < 0 then y is -ve for all values of x- axis.

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 2. If D = 0, then the quadratic equation y will have one real solution, so y = 0 for one particular value of x and for all rest value of x, y will be +ve or
-ve depending upon value of a. If a > 0, then the graph will open upwards so y will be +ve otherwise if a < 0, then y will be -ve.

20.Wavy curve method

Wavy curve method is used to solve the inequality of the type

We use following steps in wavy curve method to solve a question (start by getting 0 on one side of inequality)

1: Factorize numerator and denominator into linear factors.

2: Make coefficients of x positive in all linear factors.

3: Equate each linear factor to zero and find the values of x in each case. The values are called critical points. Do not include the linear factors with
even power while finding critical points.

4: Identify distinct critical points on the real number line. The “n” numbers of distinct critical points divide real number lines in (n+1) sub-intervals.

5: The sign of rational function in the rightmost interval is positive. Alternate sign in adjoining intervals on the left.

6. Check for each critical points and points from even powered linear factors, if these are to be included in the answer or not.

For Example : using the wavy curve method to find the interval of x for the inequality given :

Steps

0 on right hand side (already there)

all linear factors (already present)
Critical points are : x=0,1

The critical points are marked on the real number line. Starting with positive sign in the right most interval, we denote signs of adjacent intervals by
alternating sign.

Hence,

Note that 1 cannot be taken in the answer as at x=1, denominator becomes 0 and hence expression in not defined.

Equation of higher degree

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 is known as the polynomial equation of degree n which has exactly n roots (i.e., number of real roots + number of imaginary roots = n)

21.Relation between its coefficients and roots

For example,

Suppose n = 3 and ax3 + bx2 +cx + d = 0 is polynomial equation with a ≠ 0 and ?, ? and ? are the roots of the equation then :

Matrices and Determinants

Important Formulae

A rectangular arrangement of objects (numbers or symbols or any other objects) is called a matrix (plural: matrices).

Example:

1.

2.

3.

1.Order of Matrix
Rows and Columns:

The horizontal objects denote a row and vertical ones denote a column.

Eg, in first matrix above, elements 2, 4 and -3 lie in first row and 5, 4 and 6 in second row

Also 2, 5, lie in first column, 4,4 in second column, and -3, 6 in third column

Order of a matrix:

Matrix of order m × n, (read as m by n matrix) means that the matrix has m number of rows and n number of columns.

E.g.,

First matrix has order 2 x 3

Second matrix has order 3 x 2
Third matrix has order 4 x 1

Representation of a m x n matrix:

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 This representation can be represented in a more compact form as

Where represents element of ith row and jth column and i = 1,2,...,m; j = 1,2,...,n.

For example, to locate the entry in matrix A identified as aij, we look for the entry in row i, column j. In matrix A, shown below, the entry in row 2,
column 3 is a23.

Note:

Matrix is only a representation of the symbol, number or object. It does not have any value. Usually, a matrix is denoted by capital letters.

2.Types of Matrices
Row matrix: A matrix containing only one row is called a row matrix. So a matrix is said to be a row
matrix when m = 1.

It can be denoted by

Column matrix: A matrix containing only one column is known as a column matrix. So a matrix is said to
be column matrix when n = 1.

It is denoted by

Note:

A matrix that contains only one row or one column is also known as a vector i.e. row vectors and column vectors.

Equal Matrices: Two matrices are said to be equal if they have the same order and each element of one matrix is equal
to the corresponding elements of another matrix or we can say where a is the element of one matrix and b is
the element of another matrix.
Square matrix: the square matrix is the matrix in which the number of rows = number of the columns. So a matrix
is said to be a square matrix when m = n.

E.g.

Rectangular matrix: Rectangular matrix is the matrix in which is the number of rows ≠ number of columns.

So a matrix is said to be a rectangular matrix when m ≠ n.

E.g.

Null matrix/ Zero Matrix: A matrix whose all elements are 0, is called a null matrix.

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 Eg, ,

Diagonal matrix: A square matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix, if all its elements except the diagonal elements are
zero.

So, a matrix is a diagonal matrix if and m = n.

E.g

A diagonal matrix of order n x n having diagonal elements as d1, d2, d3 ………, dn is denoted by

Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.

Where c is not equal to 0

Unit or Identity Matrix: A diagonal matrix of order n whose all the diagonal elements are equal to one is called an
identity matrix of order n. It is represented as .

So, a square matrix is Identity matrix if

For example,

Triangular matrix: A square matrix whose all elements above or below principal diagonal are zero is called a
Triangular matrix.

A triangular matrix is further classified into two types:

1. Upper triangular matrix

2. Lower triangular matrix

Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix whose all elements below principal diagonal are zero is called upper
triangular matrix.

Or is said to be upper triangular if when i > j.

E.g.,

Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix whose all elements above principal diagonal is zero is called a lower
triangular matrix.

Or is said to be upper triangular if when i < j.

Eg.

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 3.Matrix Addition and Subtraction
Addition of matrices:

Two matrices can be added only when they are of the same order

If two matrices of A and B of the same order, they are said to be conformable for addition.

If A and B are matrices of order m × n, then their sum will also be a matrix of the same order and in addition, corresponding elements of A and B get
added.

So if for all i, j

Subtraction of matrices:

Two matrices can be subtracted only when they are of the same order. If A and B are matrices of order m × n then their difference will also be a
matrix of the same order and in subtraction, corresponding elements of A and B get subtracted. So if

for all i, j

4.Properties of matrix addition:

1. Matrix addition is commutative, A + B = B + A

2. Matrix addition is associative, A + (B+C) = (A+B) + C

3. Additive identity exist, means there exist a matrix O (null matrix) such that A + O = A = O + A (Here O has same order as A)

4. Existence of additive inverse means there exists a matrix B such that A + B = O = B + A

5. Cancellation property:

If A + B = A + C then B = C

If A + C = B + C then A = B

Note: all matrix taken in above property explanation has same order which is m × n.

5.Matrix Scalar Multiplication

1.Scalar multiplication:

Let k be any scalar number, and be a matrix. Then the matrix obtained by multiplying every element A by a scalar k and denoted as kA.

Example, if

1.Properties of scalar multiplication:

If A and B are two matrices and k, l are scalar then

i) k(A + B)=kA + kB

ii) kl(A) = k(lA) = l(kA)

iii) (k+l)A = kA + lA

iv) (-k) A = -(kA) = k(-A)

v) 1A = A, (-1)A = -A

Note: A and B have the same order m × n.

6.Matrix multiplication:
Product AB can be found if the number of columns in matrix A and the number of rows in matrix B are equal. Otherwise, multiplication AB is not
possible.

i) AB is defined only if col(A) = row(B)

ii) BA is defined only if col(B) = row(A)

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 7.Properties of matrix multiplication:
i) Multiplication may or may not be commutative, so AB may or may not be equal to BA.

ii) Matrix multiplication is associative, meaning A(BC) = (AB)C

iii) Matrix multiplication is distributive over addition, mean A(B+C) = AB + AC and (B+C)A = BA + CA

iv) If matrix multiplication of two matrices gives null matrix then it doesn’t mean that any of those two matrices was a null matrix.

So

8.Transpose of a matrix
In simple language transpose of a matrix is changing its rows into columns or columns into rows. Let be a matrix, then matrix obtained by
changing rows into columns or vice-versa will give transpose of A which is denoted as A’ or AT. Hence

E.g

1.Properties of the transpose of a matrix:

If A’ and B’ denotes the transpose of the matrices A and B, then :
i) (A’)’=A

ii) (A±B)’=A’ ± B’ (given that A and B are conformable for matrix addition)

iii) (kA)’ = kA’

iv) (AB)’ = B’A’ ( given that A and B are conformable for matrix product AB)

9.Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix is said to be symmetric if A' = A,

Clearly, A = A', hence A is a symmetric matrix

10.Skew-symmetric matrix:
A square matrix is said to be skew-symmetric if A’ = -A

That means all the diagonal element of a skew-symmetric matrix are 0.

11.Hermitian matrix
A square matrix is said to be Hermitian matrix if ∀ i, j,

i .e.

We know that when we take the transpose of a matrix, its diagonal elements remain the same, and while taking conjugate we just change sign from
+ve to -ve and -ve to +ve for imaginary part of all elements, So to satisfy the condition A? = A diagonal elements must not change, ⇒ all diagonal
element must be purely real,

E.g.

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 Note :

For any square matrix say A, with complex number entries,

12.Trace of matrix:
The sum of all diagonal elements of a square matrix is called trace of a matrix.

Trace of matrix is denoted by Tr(A).

1.Properties of trace of matrix:

Let and k is a scalar, then

i) Tr(kA)=k·Tr(A)

ii) Tr(A ± B) = Tr(A) ± Tr(B)

iii) Tr(AB) = Tr(BA)

iv) Tr(A) = Tr(A’)

v) Tr(AB) ≠ Tr(A).Tr(B)

13.Orthogonal matrix
A square matrix is said to be an orthogonal matrix if AA’ = I, where I is the identity matrix.

Note

1. AA’ = I ⇒ A-1 = A

2. If A and B are orthogonal then AB is also orthogonal.

3. If A is orthogonal the A-1 and A’ is also orthogonal

14.Idempotent matrix
A square matrix is said to be an idempotent matrix if it satisfies the condition A2 = A.

15.Periodic matrix
If a square matrix A satisfies the relation Ak+1 = A, where k is a +ve integer. Then A is called a periodic matrix. If k is the least +ve integer for
which this condition is satisfied then k is called the period of A.

For k = 1, we get A2 = A, which is the condition for idempotent matrix, so period of idempotent matrix =1.

16.Nilpotent matrix
If A satisfies the condition Ak = O and Ak-1 ≠ O, then A is called nilpotent matrix and k is known as the order of nilpotent matrix A.

17.Involutory matrix
If A satisfies the condition A2 = I, where I is the identity matrix then A is called the involutory matrix.

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 Note: A = A-1 for involutory matrix.

18.Elementary Row Operations

1.Row transformation: Following three types of operation (Transformation) on the rows of a given matrix are known as elementary row operation
(transformation).

i) Interchange of ith row with jth row, this operation is denoted by

ii) The multiplication of ith row by a constant k (k≠0) is denoted by

iii) Adding of ith row elements with of jth row multiplied by constant k (k≠0) is denoted by

In the same way, three-column operations can also be defined too.

Elementary Row Transformations

Algorithm for finding the lnverse of a Non singular 3 x 3 Matrix by Elementary Row Transformations

1. Introduce unity at the intersection of first row and first column either by interchanging two rows or by adding a constant multiple of elements
of some other row to first row.
2. After introducing unity at (1,1) place introduce zeros at all other places in first column.
3. Introduce unity at the intersection of 2nd row and 2nd column with the help of 2nd and 3rd row.
4. Introduce zeros at all other places in the second column except at the intersection of 2nd row and 2nd column.
5. Introduce unity at the intersection of 3rd row and third column.
6. Finally introduce zeros at all other places in the third column except at the intersection of third row and third column.

For example, to find the inverse of matrix A

First write, A = IA

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 Steps for finding the inverse of a matrix of order 2 by elementary row operations

19.Adjoint of a Matrix
Adjoint of a matrix A is the transpose of cofactor matrix of the matrix A. Cofactor matrix of matrix A is a matrix which has same order as that of A
and has element in place of .

E.g.,

Properties of adjoint of matrix

1. If A is a square matrix of order n, then

, or product of a matrix and its adjoint is commutative.

Proof :

Since the sum of the product of elements of a row (or a column) with corresponding cofactors is equal to |A| and otherwise zero,

we have

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 If A is a singular matrix of order n, then

(Adj A) A = A(Adj A) = O (null matrix) (As |A| = 0)

2. If A be non-singular square matrix of order n, then |Adj A| = |A|n-1

Proof:

3. If A and B are square matrices of order n, then, adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)

4. If A is a square matrix of order n, then, (adj A)’ = adj A’

5. If A be a square non-singular matrix of order n, then adj (adj A) = |A|n-2A

Proof:

6. If A is non-singular square matrix, then,

Proof: from the previous property, we know that

20.Inverse of a Matrix
A non-singular square matrix A is said to be invertible if there exists a non-singular square matrix B such that

AB = I = BA

and the matrix B is called the inverse of matrix A. Clearly, B should also have the same order as A.

Hence,

Formula for A-1

We know

To compute the inverse of matrix A of order 3, first, check whether the matrix is singular or non-singular.

If the matrix is singular, then its inverse does not exist.

If the matrix in non-singular, then the following ar ethe steps to find the Inverse

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 1. Calculating the Matrix of Minors,

2. then turn that into the Matrix of Cofactors,

3. then take the transpose (These 3 steps give us the adjoint of matrix A)

4. multiply that by 1/|A|.

Properties of inverse of a matrix:

1. Inverse of a matrix is unique

Proof:

Let A be a square and non-singular matrix and let B and C be two inverses of matrix A

Hence an invertible matrix has a unique inverse.

2. If A and B are invertible matrices of order n, then AB will also be invertible. and (AB)-1 = B-1A-1.

Proof :

3. If A is an invertible matrix, then

(A')-1 = (A-1) '

Proof: As A is an invertible matrix, so |A| ≠ 0 ⇒ |A' | ≠ 0. Hence, A' is also invertible.

4. Let A be an invertible matrix, then, (A-1)-1=A

Proof:

Let A be an invertible matrix of order n.

5. Let A be an invertible matrix of order n and k is a natural number, then (Ak)-1 = (A-1)k = A-k

Proof:

6. Let A be an invertible matrix of order n, then

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 Proof: If A is invertible, then |A| ≠ 0.

7. Inverse of a non-singular diagonal matrix is a diagonal matrix

then

21.Multiplication of Determinant
Let two determinant of third-order be

We can multiply these row-by-row or column-by-column or row-by-column or column-by-row

Row-by-row multiplication of these two determinants is given by

Multiplication can also be performed row by column; column by row or column by column as required in the problem.

To express a determinant as a product of two determinants, one requires lots of practice and this can be done only by inspection and trial.

1.Property:

22.Properties of Determinants
Property 1: The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged.

For example,

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 Property 2: If any two rows or two columns of a determinant are interchanged, then sign of determinant changes but
the numerical value remains unaltered.
For example

Property 3 If there is an interchange of rows or coloumns twice, then the value of the determinant remains the same.

If is the determinant obtained by n such successive operations, then

Property 4

If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all corresponding elements are same), then the value of the determinant is zero.

For Example,

If we interchange the identical rows (or columns) of the determinant Δ, then by property 2, Δ changes its sign

Property 5

If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k, then the value of the determinant is multiplied by k.

For example

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 Note:

1. By this property, we can take out any common factor from any one row or any one column of a given determinant.

2. If corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are proportional (in the same ratio), then the determinant value is
zero.

Property 6
If every element of some row or column of a determinant are expressed as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as
sum of two (or more) determinants

For example

Proof:

Property 7

If to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equimultiples of corresponding elements of other rows (or column) are added, then
the value of determinant remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remains same if we apply the operation

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 Explanation,

Property 8

If each element of one side or the other side or both sides of the principal diagonal of a determinant is zero, then the value of the determinant is the
product of the diagonal elements.

I.e.

Property 9

If a determinant become 0 for x = α, then (x - α) is a factor of Δ.

For example,

23.System of Linear Equation

1. System of 2 Linear Equations:

It is a pair of linear equations in two variables. It is usually of the form

Finding a solution for this system means to find the values of x and y that satisfy both the equations.

2. System of 3 Linear Equations:

It is a group of 3 linear equations in three variables. It is usually of the form

Finding a solution for this system means to find the values of x, y and z that satisfy all the three equations.

The system of equations are broadly classified into two types:

Consistent system of equations:

A system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution. Let the given system of equation is

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 E.g., x+ y = 2

x - y = 6 is consistent because it has a solution x = 4 and y = -2.

Given lines are non-parallel, hence lines will have one point of intersection.

In this case two lines represented by these lines coincide, so there are infinite pair of values of x and y that satisfy both the equations. This case is
also counted as consistent as there is at least one solution.

Inconsistent equation:
A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if it has no solution.

For example, x+y = 5 and 2x+2y = 5 is inconsistent as it has no solution, just by seeing the equation, we get that it is the equation of two different
parallel lines which never intersect. This lines are non-intersecting, hence there is no solution to this system.

24.Cramer’s law
For the system of equations in two variables:

We can observe that first column in the numerator of x is of constants and 2nd column in the numerator of y is of constants, and the denominator is
of the coefficient of variables.

We can follow this analogy for the system of equations of 3 variable where third column in the numerator of the value of z will be of constant and
denominator will be formed by the value of coefficients of the variables.

For the system of equations in three variables:

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 i) If , then the system of equations has a unique finite solution and so equations are consistent, and solutions are

Then the system of equations is inconsistent and hence no solution exists.

iii) If all then

System of equations is consistent and it has an infinite number of solutions (except when all the three equations represent parallel planes, in which
case there is no solution)

25.Homogeneous Equation
A linear equation with constant value as zero is called a homogeneous equation.

Note that x = y = z = 0 will always satisfy this system of equations. So system of homogeneous equations will always have at least one solution.

Also the solution x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 is called trivial solution and other solutions are called non-trivial solutions.

Let us consider n linear equations in n unknowns, given as below

The above system of equations can be written in matrix form as

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 Premultiplying equation AX=B by A-1, we get

A-1(AX) = A-1B ⇒ (A-1A)X = A-1B

⇒ IX = A-1B

⇒ X = A-1B

26.Types of equation
1. System of equations is non-homogenous:

i. If |A| ≠ 0, then the system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution X = A-1B

ii. If |A| = 0 and (adj A)·B ≠ 0, then the system of equations is inconsistent and has no solution.

iii. If |A| = 0 and (adj A)·B = 0, then the system of equations is consistent and has infinite number of solutions.

2. System of equations is homogenous:

i. If |A| ≠ 0, then the system of equations has only one solution which is the trivial solution.

ii. If |A| = 0, then the system of equations has non-trivial solution and it has an infinite number of solutions.

Sequence and Series

Important Formulae

1.Sequences:
A sequence is formed when terms are written in order such that they follow a particular pattern

Eg, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.....

1, 4, 9, 16, ......

1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, ......

Finite and Infinite Sequences

A sequence may have an infinite number of terms or a finite number of terms.

If a sequence has three dots at the end, then it indicates the list never ends. It has infinite numbers of terms. Then, the sequence is said to be an
infinite sequence.

Eg, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …

If sequence has only a finite number of terms, then the sequence is called a finite sequence.

Eg, 2, 4, 6, 8

5, 8, 11, 14, ......., 65

In sequences nth term is usually denoted by an or tn or Tn

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 So, in sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, ...

a1= 2, a2= 4, a3= 6, and so on

We can write it in compact form as an = 2n

an or nth term is also called General term of the sequence.

So a sequence can be written as a1, a2, a3, ........

Conversely, if the general term of a sequence is given, we can find any term of that sequence.

Eg, If Tn = 2n , then fourth term can be obtained by putting n = 4

So, T4 = 24 = 16

2.Series:
If we add or subtract all the terms of a sequence we will get an expression, which is called a series. It is denoted by Sn.

This is the formula for finding general term of a sequence if the sum of n terms is given.

3.Progression:
If the terms of a sequence follow some pattern that can be defined by an explicit formula in n, then the sequence is called a progression.

Eg. 3, 9, 27, 81…

Here, general term can be written explicitly in terms of n, which is 3n

4.Arithmetic Progression
An arithmetic progression is a sequence in which each term increases or decreases by a constant term or fixed number. This fixed number is called
the common difference of an AP and generally denoted by ‘d’.

Eg, 1, 4 , 7, 10,.... is an AP with common difference 3

Also, 2, 1, 0, -1,.... is an AP with common difference -1

In AP, first term is generally denoted by ‘a’

5.General Term of an AP
We found a formula for the general term of a sequence, we can also find a formula for the general term of an arithmetic sequence. First, write the
first few terms of a sequence where the first term is ‘a’ and the common difference is ‘d’. We will then look for a pattern.

i.e. a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ………

Then the nth term (general term) of the A.P. is .

On simplification of general term, we can see that the general term of an AP is always a linear in n

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 6.Important Properties of an AP
1. If a fixed number is added to or subtracted from each term of a given A.P., then the resulting series is also an A.P. and its common difference
remains the same.

2. If each term of an A.P. is multiplied by a fixed constant or divided by a non-zero fixed constant then the resulting series is also in A.P.

3. If and are two A.P’s, then are also in A.P.

4. If terms of an A.P. are taken at equal intervals, then the new sequence formed as also an A.P.

6. Choosing terms in A.P.

If sum of few terms (like 3, 4, or 5 terms) in an A.P. is given in the problem, then selecting the following terms reduces the calculation

If we need to choose three terms in an A.P., then choose (a-d), a, (a+d) [Note: Here first term is a-d, and common difference is d]
If we need to choose four terms in an A.P., then choose (a-3d), (a-d), (a+d), (a+3d) [Note: Here first term is a-3d, and common difference
is 2d]
If we need to choose five terms in an A.P., then choose (a-2d), (a-d), a, (a+d), (a+2d) [Note: Here first term is a-2d, and common difference
is d]

7. Sum of terms equidistant from beginning and end of an AP is constant and it equals sum of first and the last terms.

8. If a, b, c are in A.P., then 2b = a + c

The sum, Sn of n terms of an AP with the first term ‘a’ and common difference ‘d’ is given by

7.Arithmetic Mean
If three terms are in AP, then the middle term is called the Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) of other two numbers. So if, a, b and c are in A.P., then b is AM
of a and c.

If are n positive numbers, then the Arithmetic Mean of these numbers is given by

Insertion of n-Arithmetic Mean Between a and b

If are n arithmetic mean between two numbers a and b, then, is an A.P.

Let d be the common difference of this A.P. Clearly, this A.P. contains n + 2 terms.

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 The sum of n arithmetic mean between two numbers is n times the single A.M. between them.
Proof:

Let be n arithmetic mean of two numbers a and b.

Then, is an A.P. with common difference

8.Geometric Progression
A geometric sequence is a sequence where the first term is non-zero and the ratio between consecutive terms is always constant. The ‘constant
factor’ is called the common ratio and denoted by ‘r’ . r is also a non-zero number.

The first term of a G.P. is usually denoted by 'a'.

If is in geometric progression

9.General Term of a GP
If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘r’ is the common ratio, then

So, the general term or nth term of a geometric progression is

Increasing and Decreasing GP

For a GP to be increasing or decreasing, r > 0. If r < 0, then the terms of G.P. are alternately positive and negative so neither increasing nor
decreasing.

a a>0 a>0 a<0 a<0

r r>1 0<r<1 r>1 0<r<1

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 Result Increasing Decreasing Decreasing Increasing

Important Properties of a GP

1. If a , b, c are in GP, then b2 = a.c

2. If each term of a G.P. is multiplied by a fixed constant or divided by a non-zero fixed constant then the resulting series is also in G.P. with
same common ratio as the orginal series.

3. If each term of a G.P. is raised to some real number m, then the resulting series is also in G.P.

4. If are two G.P.’s, then and are also G.P.s.

5. If are in G.P. with common ratio r, then is in A.P. and converse also holds true.

6. If three numbers in G.P. whose product is given are to be taken, then take them as a/r, a, ar.

7. If four numbers in G.P. whose product is given are to be taken, then take them as .

8. Product of terms equidistant from start and end of the G.P. is constant and it equals product of first and the last terms.

10.Geometric Mean
If three terms are in G.P., then the middle term is called the Geometric Mean (G.M.) of the other two numbers. So if, a, b and c are in G.P., then b is
GM of a and c,

If are n positive numbers, then the Geometric Mean of these numbers is given by

If a and b are two numbers and G is the GM of a and b. Then, a, G, b are in geometric progression.

Hence, .

Insertion of n-Geometric Mean Between a and b

Let be n geometric mean between two numbers a and b. Then, is an G.P. Clearly, this G.P. contains n
+ 2 terms.

Important Property of GM

The product of n geometric mean between a and b is equal to the nth power of a single geometric mean between a and b.

If a and b are two numbers and are n-geometric mean between a and b, then will be in geometric
progression.

So, Product of n-G.M’s between a and b is

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 11.Sum of n-term of a GP
Let Sn be the sum of n terms of the G.P. with the first term ‘a’ and common ratio ‘r’. Then

The above formula does not hold for r = 1

For r = 1, each of the n terms is equal to a, and thus the sum of n terms of the G.P. is .

12.Sum of an infinite GP
If a is the first term and r is the common ratio of a G.P. Then,

Let, - 1 < r < 1, i.e. | r | < 1, then

[as this is infinite G.P., so n tends to infinity]

is the sum to infinite terms of the G.P.

Note: If r ≥ 1, then the sum of an infinite G.P. tends to infinity.

13.Application of GP
The sum of n-term of the series is

The sum of n-term of the series is

14.Harmonic Progression

A sequence of non-zero numbers is called a harmonic progression if the sequence is an arithmetic

progression.

OR

Reciprocals of arithmetic progression is a Harmonic progression.

Eg, is an HP because their reciprocals 2, 5, 8, 11,... form an A.P.

No term of the H.P. can be zero.

The general form of HP is

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 Here a is the first term and d is the common difference of corresponding A.P.

15.General term of a Harmonic Progression

The nth term or general term of a H.P. is the reciprocal of the nth term of the corresponding A.P.

Thus, if is an H.P. and the common difference of corresponding A.P. is d, i.e. , then the nth term of

corresponding AP is and hence, the general term or nth term of an H.P. is given by

Note:

There is no general formula for the sum of n terms that are in H.P.

16.Harmonic Mean

If are n positive numbers, then the Harmonic Mean of these numbers is given by .

If a and b are two numbers and H is the HM of a and b. Then, a, H, b are in harmonic progression. Hence,

Note that if the AM between two numbers a and b is , it does NOT follow that HM between the same numbers is . The HM is the

reciprocal of

Insertion of n-Harmonic Mean Between a and b

Let be n harmonic mean between two numbers a and b. Then, is in H.P.

Clearly, this H.P. contains n + 2 terms.

Let, D be the common difference of this A.P. Then,

Important Property of HM

The sum of reciprocals of n harmonic means between two numbers is n times the reciprocal of a single H.M. between them.

Proof:

Let be n harmonic means between two numbers a and b. Then, is an H.P.

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 17.Properties of A.M. and G.M
A and G are arithmetic and geometric mean of ‘a’ and ‘b’, two real, positive and distinct number. Then,

a and b are the roots of the equation x2-2Ax+G2=0.

a and b are given by .

Proof:

a and b are the roots of the equation, then

Roots of the equation are

18.Arithmetico-Geometric Progression
Arithmetico-Geometric Progression is the combination of arithmetic and geometric series. This series is formed by taking the product of the
corresponding elements of arithmetic and geometric progressions. In short form, it is written as A.G.P (Arithmetico-Geometric Progression).

Let the given AP be

And, the GP is

Multiplying the corresponding elements of the above progression, we get,

19.Sum of n-terms of an Arithmetico-Geometric Progression

Let Sn denotes the sum of n terms of a given sequence. Then,

20.Sum of an infinite AGP

S∞ denotes the sum of an infinite AGP. This sum is a finite quantity if -1 < r < 1

21.Summation by Sigma(Σ) Operator

The summation of each term of a sequence or a series can be represented in a compact form, called summation or sigma notation. This summation is
represented by the Greek capital letter, Sigma (Σ).

For example,

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 22.Properties of Sigma Notation

23.Sum of Common Series

1. Sum of the first n-natural numbers

2. Sum of first n-odd natural number

Sum of Common Series

1. Sum of the cube of first n-natural numbers

24.METHOD OF DIFFERENCES (Shortcut)

To find the nth term of the series, you can use the following steps:

1. If the sequence of the first consecutive difference is in A.P., then the nth term, Tn = an2 + bn + c or a(n-1)(n-2) +b(n-1) + c, where a, b and c
are constants. To find the value of a, b and c put n = 1, 2, 3 and put the value of T1 , T2 , T3.

2. If the sequence of the first consecutive difference is in G.P., then the nth term, Tn = arn + b, where a and b are constant terms and r is the
common ratio of GP. To find the value of a and b put n = 1, 2 and put the value of T1 , T2

25.Sum of some special series (Vn method)

Sum of the series of the form

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 d be the common difference of an AP, then

Sum of some special series (Vn method)

Sum of the series of the form

26.Application of AM-GM
If are n positive variables and k is a constant

Proof:

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 Trigonometry
Important Formulae

1.Measurement of Angle
To form an angle, we start with two rays lying on top of one another. We leave one fixed in place, and rotate the other. The fixed ray is the initial
side, and the rotated ray is the terminal side. And, the measure of an angle is the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side.

An angle in standard position if its vertex is located at the origin, and its initial side extends along the positive x-axis, as you can see from the figure
given below.

If the angle is measured in a counterclockwise direction from the initial side to the terminal side, the angle is said to be a positive angle. If the angle
is measured in a clockwise direction, the angle is said to be a negative angle.

There are three systems used for the measurement of angles

Sexagesimal system

In this system, an angle is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds.

1 Right angle = 90o (Read as 90 degree)

1o = 60’ ( 1 degree = 60 minutes)

1’ = 60” ( 1 minutes = 60 seconds)

Centesimal system
In this system, the measurement of the right angle is divided into 100 equal parts, and parts called Grades.

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 1 Right angle = 100g (Read as 100 grades)

Circular system
In this system, an angle is measured in radians.

One radian is the measure of a central angle of a circle that intercepts an arc equal in length to the radius of that circle. A central angle is an angle
formed at the center of a circle by two radii.

The formula for radian measure of an angle formed by an arc of length l at the centre of circle of radius r is (Length of arc)/(Radius) = l/r

Because the total circumference equals 2π times the radius, a full circular rotation is 2π radians.

So, 2π radians = 360°

So, π radians = 360°/ 2 = 180°

and 1 radian = 180°/ π ≈ 57.3°

Interconversion of units

Since, degrees and radians both measure angles, we need to be able to convert between them. We can easily do so using a proportion (where θ is the
measure of the angle in degrees and θR is the measure of the angle in radians)

OR

Note:

1. Radian is the unit to measure angles, and it does not mean that π stands for 180o. π is a real number. Remember the relation, π radians = 180o.

2. In a circle of radius r, the length of an arc s subtended by an angle with measure θ in radians. Arc length = (radius) x (Angle subtended by an
arc in radians)

2.Trigonometric Functions of Acute Angles

We can define the trigonometric functions in terms of an angle t and the lengths of the sides of the triangle. The adjacent side (=x) is the side closest
to the angle (Adjacent means “next to.”). The opposite side (=y) is the side across from the angle. The hypotenuse (=1) is the side of the triangle
opposite the right angle.

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 Reciprocal Functions: In addition to sine, cosine, and tangent, there are three more functions. These too are defined in terms of the sides of the
triangle.

Since, the hypotenuse is the greatest side in a right angle triangle, and can never be greater than unity and and can never by
less than unity.

Trigonometric Ratios of some Special Angles

3.Trigonometric Identities
These identities are the equations that hold true regardless of the angle being chosen.

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 4.Sign of Trigonometric Functions
The sign of trigonometric ratios of an angle depends on the quadrant in which the terminal side of the angles lies. We always take OP = r as positive.
Thus, the sign of trigonometric functions depends on the sign of x and y.

An angle is said to be in a quadrant in which it's terminal ray lies (here terminal ray is OP).

1. In the first quadrant x and y are positive so sin θ, cos θ, tan θ, sec θ, csc θ, and cot θ are all positive.

2. In the second quadrant, x is negative and y is positive, so only sin θ and cosec θ are positive.

3. In the third quadrant, x is negative and y is negative, so only tan θ and cot θ are positive.

4. In the fourth quadrant, x is positive and y is negative, so only cos θ and sec θ are positive.

To help us remember which of the six trigonometric functions are positive in each quadrant, we can use the mnemonic phrase “After School to
College". Each of the four words in the phrase corresponds to one of the four quadrants, starting with quadrant I and rotating counterclockwise.

Depending on the sign of x and y, the various trigonometric ratio will have different sign given.

5. Graph of Trigonometric Function

Sine Function

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 y = f(x) = sin(x)

Domain is R

Range is [-1, 1]

Cosine Function
y = f(x)= cos(x)

Domain is R

Range is [-1, 1]

Tangent Function
y = f(x) = tan(x)

Range is R

Cosecant Function

y = f(x) = cosec(x)

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 Domain is R - {nπ, n ∈ I (Integers)}

Range is R - (-1, 1)

Period is 2π

Secant Function
y = f(x) = sec(x)

The range is R - (-1, 1)

Period is 2π

Cotangent Function
y = f(x) = cot(x)

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 Domain is R - {nπ, n ∈ I (Integers)}

Range is R

Period is 2π

Allied Angles

Part I-

Two angles are called allied if their sum or difference is a multiple of π/2

sin (900 - θ) = cos (θ)

cos (900 - θ) = sin (θ)

tan (900 - θ) = cot (θ)

csc (900 - θ) = sec (θ)

sec (900 - θ) = csc (θ)

cot (900 - θ) = tan (θ)

sin (900 + θ) = cos (θ)

cos (900 + θ) = - sin (θ)

tan (900 + θ) = - cot (θ)

csc (900 + θ) = sec (θ)

sec (900 + θ) = - csc (θ)

cot (900 + θ) = - tan (θ)

Case II-

sin (1800 - θ) = sin (θ)

cos (1800 - θ) = - cos (θ)

tan (1800 - θ) = - tan (θ)

csc (1800 - θ) = csc (θ)

sec (1800 - θ) = - sec (θ)

cot (1800 - θ) = - cot (θ)

sin (1800 + θ) = - sin (θ)

cos (1800 + θ) = - cos (θ)

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 tan (1800 + θ) = tan (θ)

csc (1800 + θ) = - csc (θ)

sec (1800 + θ) = - sec (θ)

cot (1800 + θ) = cot (θ)

AID TO REMEMBER
1. All the trigonometric function of a real number of the form 2n(π/2) ± x ( n ∈ I) (i.e. an even multiple of π/2 ± x) is numerically equal to the
same function of x, with sign depending on the quadrant in which terminal side of the angles lies.

For example: cos (π + x) = cos (2(π/2) + x) = - cos (x), -ve sign chosen because (π + x) lies in 3rd quadrant and ‘cos’ is -ve in third quadrant.

2. All the trigonometric function of a real number of the form (2n + 1)π/2 ± x ( n ∈ I) (i.e. an even multiple of π/2 ± x) is numerically equal to
the co-function of x, with sign depending on the quadrant in which terminal side of the angles lies.

Note that ‘sin’ and ‘cos’ are co-functions of each other, ‘tan’ and ‘cot’ are co-function of each other and ‘sec’ and ‘cosec’ are co-function of
each other.

For example: sec (π/2 +x ) = - cosec (x), as (π/2 +x) lies in the 2nd quadrant and ‘sec’ is -ve in 2nd quadrant.

7. Trigonometric Ratio for Compound Angles (Part 1)

The sum or difference of two or more angles is called a compound angle. If A, B and C are any angle then A + B, A - B, A + B + C, A + B - C etc all
are compound angles.

1. cos (α - β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

2. cos (α+ β) = cos α cos β - sin α sin β

3. sin (α - β) = sin α cos β - cos α sin β

4. sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

Trigonometric Ratio for Compound Angles (Part 2)

8.Trigonometric Ratio for Compound Angles (Some more Results)

Product into Sum/Difference

9.Sum/Difference into Product-

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 10.Double Angle Formula and Reduction Formula

For tan
Replacing α = β = θ in the sum formula gives

Reduction Formula

The double-angle formulas can be used to derive the reduction formulas, which are formulas we can use to reduce the power of a given expression
involving even powers of sine or cosine.

11.Triple Angle Formula

Half Angle Formula

All the above trigonometric ratio can be derived by replacing ‘θ’ with ‘θ/2’ in the double angle formulas.

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 Trigonometric Ratio of θ in terms of θ/3

The above trigonometric ratio of angle ‘A’ in terms of ‘A/3’ can be derived by replacing ‘A’ with ‘A/3’ in the triple angle formulas

Value Trigonometric Ratios of some Particular Angles (Part 1)

1. sin 18o

2. cos 18o

12.Trigonometric Series

13.For cosine series

In the above result replacing ‘α’ by ‘π/2 + α’ we get

14.Maximum and Minimum value of Trigonometric Function

We know that range of sin x and cos x which is [-1, 1],

If there is a trigonometric function in the form of a sin x + b cos x, then replace a with r cos and b with r sin

Then we have,

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 So, the minimum value of trigonometric function a sin x + b cos x is and maximum value is .

15.Trigonometric Equations
Trigonometric equations are, as the name implies, equations that involve trigonometric functions.

Solution of Trigonometric Equation

The value of an unknown angle which satisfies the given trigonometric equation is called a solution or root of the equation. For example, 2sinӨ = 1,
clearly Ө = 300 satisfies the equation; therefore, 300 is a solution of the equation. Now trigonometric equation ususally has infinite solutions due to
periodic nature of trigonometric functions. So this equation also has (360+30)o,(720+30)o,(-360+30)o and so on, as its solutions.

Principal Solution

The solutions of a trigonometric equation that lie in the interval [0, 2π). For example, 2sinӨ = 1 , then the two values of sinӨ between 0 and 2π are
π/6 and 5π/6. Thus, π/6 and 5π/6 are the principal solutions of equation 2sinӨ = 1.

16.General Solution
As trigonometric functions are periodic, solutions are repeated within each period, so, trigonometric equations may have an infinite number of
solutions. The solution consisting of all possible solutions of a trigonometric equation is called its general solution.

Some Important General Solutions of Equations

17.General Solution of some Standard Equations (Part 1)

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 18.General Solution of some Standard Equations (Part 2)
sin2 = sin2 α

Note:
The general solution of the equation cos2 Ө = cos2 α and tan2 Ө = tan2 α is also

Important Points to remember while solving trigonometric equations

1. While solving a trigonometric equation, squaring the equation at any step should be avoided as much as possible. If squaring is necessary,
check the solution for values that do not satisfy the original equation.

2. Never cancel terms containing unknown terms on the two sides which are in product. It may cause the loss of a genuine solution.

3. The answer should not contain such values of angles which make any of the terms undefined or infinite.

4. Domain should not change while simplifying the equation. If it changes, necessary corrections must be made.

5. Check that the denominator is not zero at any stage while solving the equations.

Example:

Solve sin x + cos x = 1

Solution:

Hence only n = 0, 4, 8, 12, ..... and n = 1, 5, 9, .... satisfy the equation

19.Solutions of Equations of the Form a cos + b sin = c

To solve equations, a cos + b sin = c, put a = r cos φ and b = r sin φ

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 Where,

So the equation becomes

Hence, for a solution to exist for the equation a cos Ө + b sin Ө = c, . In that case put

So our equation becomes,

Working Rules for solving such types of equations

20.Tangent Rule or Napier’s Analogy

For any ΔABC ,

21.Projection Formula
In the ΔABC,

Projection of AB on BC is BD and Projection of AC on BC is DC

Now,

BD = c cos B and DC = b cos C

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 and, BC = a = BD + DC

= c cos B + b cos C

a = c cos B + b cos C

In a similar way, other projection formula can be derived

1. a = c cos B + b cos C

2. b = c cos A + a cos C

3. c = b cos A + a cos B

22.Half-Angle Formula
Half-Angle Formula for Sine

Half-Angle Formula for Cosine and Tangent

Half Angle Formula for tan

This half-angle formula can be proved using tan x = sin x/cos x, and using half-angle formula of sine and cosine.

23.Area of Triangle
Area formula for a triangle is given as

Area = ½ bh, where ‘b’ is base and ‘h’ is the height

Clearly, height h = c.sin(A)

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 Area of triangle ABC is represented by Δ, Thus

24.Area of triangle in terms of sides (Heron’s Formula)

25.Circumcircle of a Triangle
The circumcircle of triangle ABC is the unique circle passing through the three vertices A, B, C. Its center, the circumcenter O, is the intersection of
the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides. The circumradius is always denoted by R.

The radius of the circumcircle of a ΔABC, R is given by the law of sines:

The perpendicular bisector of the sides AB, BC and CA intersects at point O. So, O is the circumcentre and

OA = OB = OC = R

Let D be the mid point of BC.

∠BOC = 2∠BAC = 2A

∠BOD = ∠COD = A

So, in Δ OBD,

R can also be written in terms of the area of the triangle

Area of ΔABC,

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 26.In-Circle and In-Centre
The point of intersection of the internal angle bisectors of a triangle is called the in-centre of the triangle.

Also, a circle that can be inscribed within a triangle such that it touches each side of the triangle internally is called in-circle of a triangle. Its centre
is the in-centre of the given triangle. The in-centre of a triangle is denoted by I.

The radius of the in-circle of a triangle is called the in-radius and it is denoted by ‘r’.

27.Escribed Circle of Triangle

The circle which touches the side BC and two sides AB and AC produced of triangle ABC is called the escribed circle opposite to the angle A. Its
radius is denoted by r1. Similarly, r2 and r3 denote the radii of the escribed circles opposite to the angles B and C respectively.

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 Problems in which all three sides are given
Till now we have learned different rules and properties of triangles. Now we will see their application in different situations.

In a triangle, there are six variables, three sides (say a, b, c) and three angles (say A, B, C). If any three of these six variables (except all the angles
A, B, C) is given, then the triangle can be known completely: other three variables can be found out using the formulae we learnt in this chapter.

There are different cases that arise when a few components of the triangle are given.

Case 1

When three sides (a, b and c) of a triangle are given

The remaining variables can be found by using the following formulae

Problems in which two sides and included angle is given

Case 2

When two sides (say a, b) and included angle (angle C) of a triangle is given.

Problems in which one side and two angles are given

Case 3

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 When one side (say a) and two angles (say A and B) is given

28.Height and Distance

Trigonometric ratios are useful to solve problems regarding height and distances around us in real life. It is not possible to measure every distance
using measuring tape, for instance, the height of a hill ( distance between its foot and its summit), the altitude of a flying object at a certain time, etc.

Angle of Elevation

The student is looking at the top of the tower. The line AC drawn from the eye of the student to the top of the tower is called the line of sight. The
angle BAC, so formed by the line of sight with the horizontal is called the angle of elevation of the top of the tower from the eye of the student. It is
called angle of elevation because the object is above the observer’s eye level.

Here α is the angle of elevation.

Angle of Depression
If the object is below the observer’s eye level, the angle between the horizontal line and the line of sight is called the angle of depression of the
object.

Here β is the angle of depression.

29.Inverse Trigonometric Function

In order to use inverse trigonometric functions, we need to understand that an inverse trigonometric function “undoes” what the original
trigonometric function “does,” as is the case with any other function and its inverse. In other words, the domain of the inverse function is the range
of the original function and vice versa.

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 For example, if f(x) = sin x, then we would write f−1(x) = sin−1 x. Be aware that sin−1 x does not mean 1/sinx. The following examples illustrate the
inverse trigonometric functions:

1. sin (π/6) = ½, then π/6 = sin-1 (½ )

2. cos(π) = −1, then π = cos−1 (−1)

3. tan (π/4) = 1, then (π/4) = tan−1 (1)

We know that inverse of a function is defined when the function is one-one and onto. But we also know that trigonometric functions are periodic
and hence many-one in their domain.

So, to make inverse of trigonometric functions to be defined, the actual domain of trigonometric function must be restricted to make it a one-one
function and its co-domain should be be restricted to make it an onto function.

The domain of the sine function is R and range is [-1, 1]. If we restrict its domain to [-π/2, π/2] then it become one-one and if we restrict its co-
domain to [-1,1], then it becomes onto. So for this new domain and range, the inverse of our function y = sin(x) is defined.

And domain for this inverse function y = sin-1(x) will be range of y = sin(x): [-1,1] and its range will be equal to domain of y= sin(x):

[-π/2, π/2]

Actually, sine function can be restricted to any of the intervals [-3π/2, -π/2], [-π/2, π/2], [π/2, 3π/2] and so on. It becomes one-one in all these
intervals and it is also onto (if codomain is [-1,1]). We can, therefore, define the inverse of sine function in each of these intervals. But by
convention we take domain as [-π/2, π/2], and this domain is called Principal domain/ Principal value branch of y = sin(x)

So if f: [-π/2, π/2] → [-1,1] and f(x) = sin(x), then its inverse is

f-1: [-1,1] → [-π/2, π/2] and f-1(x) = sin-1(x)

In a similar way, we define other trigonometric functions by restricting their domain and co-domains.

30.Domain and range of Inverse Trigonometric Function (Part 1)

y = sin-1(x)

The function y = sin(x) is many one so it is not invertible. Now consider the small portion of the function

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 Which is strictly increasing, Hence, one-one and inverse is y = sin-1(x)

y = cos-1(x)

y = tan-1(x)

Domain and range of Inverse Trigonometric Function (Part 2)

y = cot-1(x)

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 y = sec-1(x)

y = cosec-1(x)

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 31.Graph of Principal Value of function f-1 (f (x)) (cosec and sec)
1. Graph of cosec-1(cosec (x))

Domain of the function is R - {nπ, n ∈ I} and range is [- π/2, π/2] - {0}

y = cosec-1( cosec (x))

∴ cosec y = cosec x

or sin x = sin y

Hence, graph of cosec-1( cosec (x)) is the same as that of y = sin-1( sin (x)), but excluding points x = nπ, n ∈ I.

2. Graph of sec-1(sec (x))

Domain of the function is R - {(2n + 1)π/2, n ∈ I} and range is [0, π] - {π/2}

y = sec-1(sec (x))

∴ sec y = sec x

or cos y = cos x

Hence, graph of sec-1(sec (x)) is the same as that of y = cos-1(cos (x)), but excluding points x = (2n + 1)π/2, n ∈ I.

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 Conversion of one ITF to other
We can write the different inverse trigonometric function in the terms of other inverse trigonometric functions

1. Converting sin-1 x

If 0 < x < 1

Let sin-1 x = . Then sin = x or sin = x/1

So, we have the right-angled triangle

From the figure

2. Converting cos-1 x

If 0 < x < 1

Let cos-1 x = , implies cos = x

We have the following right angled triangle

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 From the figure

3. Converting tan-1 x

If x > 0

Let tan-1 x = , implies tan = x

We have the following right angled triangle

From the figure

Relating f-1(x) with f-1( -x)

We have the following important results

1. sin-1 (-x) = - sin-1 (x) for all x ∈ [-1, 1]

32.Relating f-1(x) with f-1(1/x)

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 33.Complementary Angles

34.Sum of angles in terms

Sum and difference of angles in terms of arctan

Sum and difference of angles in terms of arcsin

Sum and difference of angles in terms of arccos

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 Multiple angles in terms of arcsin

Multiple angles in terms of arccos

Multiple angles in terms of arctan and arcsin

Multiple angles in terms of arctan and arccos

Co-ordinate Geometry
Important Formulae

1.Coordinate Axes
The Cartesian coordinate system, also called a rectangular coordinate system, is based on a two-dimensional plane consisting of the x-axis and the
y-axis. Perpendicular to each other, the axes divide the plane into four sections. Each section is called a quadrant; the quadrants are numbered
counterclockwise as shown in figure below

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 A two-dimensional plane where the

x-axis is the horizontal axis

y-axis is the vertical axis

A point in the plane is defined as an ordered pair, (x,y), such that x is determined by its horizontal distance from the origin and y is determined by its
vertical distance from the origin.

The distance from a point to the vertical or y-axis is called the abscissa or x-coordinate of the point.

The distance from a point to the horizontal or x-axis is called the ordinate or y-coordinate of the point.

We can represent the point (3,−1) in the plane by moving three units to the right of the origin in the horizontal direction, and one unit down in the
vertical direction.

Conversion Sign of coordinate

XOY X'OY X'OY' XOY'

Quadrants
(I) (II) (III) (IV)
X- coordinate sign + - - +
Y-coordinate sign + + - -
Sign of (x, y) (+, +) (-, +) (-, -) (+, -)

Polar Coordinate of a Point

Consider the figure,

If OP = r and ∠XOP = Θ. Then, the ordered pair of real numbers (r, Θ) called the polar coordinates of the point P.

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 From the figure

OM = x = r cos Θ

PM = y = r sin Θ

2.Distance between two points

Given, Point A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) are two points on the cartesian plane

Using Pythagoras Theorem

Note:

The distance of a point A (x, y) from the origin O (0, 0) is given by

3.Section Formula
1. Internal division

The coordinates of the point P (x, y) dividing the line segment joining the two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) internally in the ratio m : n is given
by

Note:

If P is the mid point of the line segment AB, then ratio become equals, i.e. m = n, in this case, coordinates of point P is

2. External Division

The coordinates of the point P (x, y) dividing the line segment joining the two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) externally in the ratio m : n is given
by

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 NOTE:

If the ratio in which a given line segment is divided, is to be determined, then sometimes, for convenience (instead of taking the ratio m : n)

we take the ratio λ : 1 and apply the formula for internal division

If the value of λ > 0, it is an internal division, otherwise it is an external division (i.e. when λ < 0 )

3.Centroid
A median is the line joining the mid-points of a side and the opposite vertex of a triangle.

Centroid of a triangle is the point of intersection of the three medians of the triangle. A centroid divides any median in the ratio 2:1.

The coordinates of the centroid of a triangle (G) whose vertices are A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C(x3, y3), is given by

Note:

If D (a1, b1), E (a2, b2) and F (a3, b3) are the mid point of ΔABC, then centroid of triangle ABC is given by

4.Incentre
Incentre is the point of intersection of internal angle bisectors of triangle. And it is denoted by I.

The coordinates of Incentre (I) of triangle, whose vertices are A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C(x3, y3), is given by

Where, a, b and c are the length of side BC, CA and AB respectively.

NOTE:

If ΔABC is equilateral triangle, then a = b = c

Coordinates of Incentre (I) = Coordinates of Centroid (G) =

5.Circumcentre
Perpendicular bisector of a side of a triabgle is the line through the midpoint of a side and perpendicular to it.

The Circumcentre (O) of a triangle is the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle.

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 Circumcentre is also defined as the center of a circle that passes through the vertices of a given triangle.

Coordinates of Circumcentre (O) is

Note:

For a right angled triangle, the circumcenter is the mid point of the hypotenuse.

6.Orthocentre:
The Orthocentre (H) of a triangle is the point of intersection of altitudes which are drawn from one vertex to the opposite side of a triangle.

Coordinates of Orthocentre (H) is

Note:

For a right angled triangle, the orthocenter is the vertex containing the right angle

Excenters of Triangle
An excenter is a point at which the line bisecting one interior angle meets the bisectors of the two exterior angles on the opposite side.

The circle opposite to the vertex A is called the escribed circle or the circle escribed to the side BC . If I1 is the point of intersection of the internal
bisector of ∠BAC and external bisector of ∠ABC and ∠ACB then,

Coordinates of I1 , I2 and I3 is given by

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 7.Area of Triangle
If vertices of a triangle ABC given as A (x1, y1), B (x2, y2) and C(x3, y3), then area of ΔABC is

8.Locus and its Equation

When a point moves in a plane under certain geometrical conditions, then the point traces out a path, This path of the moving point is known as
the locus of this point.

For example, let a point O(0,0) is a fixed point (i.e. origin) and a variable point P (x, y) is in the same plane. If point P moves in such a way that the
distance OP is constant r, then point P traces out a circle whose center is O(0, 0) and radius is r.

Steps to Finding the Equation of Locus

1. Consider the point (h, k) whose locus is to be found.

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 2. Express the given condition as an equation in terms of the known quantities and unknown parameters.

3. Eliminate the parameters so that the resultant equation consists only locus coordinates h, k, and known quantities.

4. Now, replace the locus coordinate (h, k) with (x, y) in the resultant equation.

9.Transformations of Axes
Shifting of Origin
Point P has coordinate (x, y) in the original coordinate system, i.e. in xy-coordinate system.

If the new origin takes position as O’(h, k) with new x and y axes remaining parallel to old axes.

The coordinates of the point P are now (X, Y) = (x - h, y - k) w.r.t. the new coordinate system (i.e. Y’O’X’).

Thus, X = x - h and Y = y - k

Or, x = X + h and y = Y + k

Note:

If the function f(x, y) = 0 is with respect to original coordinate system, then the equation with respect to new coordinate system is f(x + h, y + k) = 0.

10.Rotation of Axes About Origin

P(x, y) is the point in the original coordinate system and axes are rotated by an angle Ө anticlockwise direction about the origin. Then, the
coordinates of point P with respect to the new coordinate system is (X, Y) = (x cos Ө + y sin Ө, y cos Ө - x sin Ө ).

OX and OY are original system of coordinate axes and OX’ and OY’ are the new system of coordinate axes. PM and PN are perpendicular to OX
and OX’ and also NL and NQ perpendicular OX and PM.

We have

From the figure:

Solving (i) and (ii), we get

X = x cos Ө + y sin Ө

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 11.Straight Line
It is a curve such that all points on the line segment joining any two points on it lies on it.

Every equation of first degree in x, y represents a straight line. General equation of a straight line is given as ax + by + c = 0 where a, b and c
are real numbers and at least one of a and b is non-zero.

Slope of a Line
Slope of a line tells us the direction in which a line is drawn.

A line in a coordinate plane forms two angles with the x-axis, which are supplementary.

The angle θ made by the line 'l' with the positive direction of the x-axis and measured anticlockwise is called the inclination of the line. θ lies in the
range [0o, 180o)

If θ is the angle at which a straight line is inclined to a positive direction of the x-axis, then the slope (or gradient) of this line is defined by m = tan θ

Slope will be positive when θ is an acute angle and it will be negative when θ is an obtuse angle.

Note

Slope is not defined for a vertical line, as θ = 90o, and tan(90o) is not defined.
If a line is equally inclined with the coordinate axes then it will make an angle of 45o and 135o wrt positive direction of x-axis. In this case the
slope will be tan(45o) or tan(135o). i.e. m = 1 or m = -1.

The slope of the line joining two given Points

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 If and are two points on a straight line then the slope of the line is

Intercepts of a Line
X-Intercept: The x- coordinate of point where the straight line cuts x-axis.

Here straight line cuts X-axis at (x, 0) so

x-intercept is x (it can be positive or negative)

Length of x-intercept is |x|.

y-intercept: The y- coordinate of point where the straight line cuts y-axis.

Here straight line cuts Y-axis at (0, y) so

y-intercept is y (it can be positive or negative)

Length of y-intercept is |y|.

Equation of Straight Line

(a) Slope-Intercept form
The equation of a straight line whose slope is given as m and making y-intercept of length c unit is y = mx + c

Proof:

Consider the given figure

AB is a straight line with slope m and intercept c on Y-axis.

Let P(x, y) any point on the straight line. PL is perpendicular to X-axis and MQ is perpendicular to Y-axis

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 Note:

If the straight line passing through the origin, then equation of straight line become y = mx
If the equation of straight line is Ax + By + C = 0, then

We can write By = - Ax - C

(b) Point-Slope form

The equation of a straight line whose slope is given as ‘m’ and passes through the point (x1,y1) is

Proof:

Let the equation of the line l with slope ‘m’ is

y = mx + c …..(i)

(x1,y1) lies on this line

y1= mx1+c ……(ii)

From (ii) - (i)

y - y1 = m( x - x1)

Equation of Straight Line

(c) Two-point form

The equation of a straight line passing through the two given points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given by

Proof:

Let the equation of straight line l with slope ‘m’ be

y = mx + c ……(i)

Points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) pass through the given line l, then

y1 = mx1 + c ……(ii)

y2 = mx2 + c ……(iii)

Subtract eq (ii) from eq (i)

y - y1 = m( x - x1 ) ……(iv)

Subtract eq (iii) from eq (i)

y - y2 = m( x - x2 ) ……(v)

Divide eq (iv) by eq (v)

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 Determinant Form:

(d) Intercept form of line

Equation of a straight line which makes intercepts ‘a’ and ‘b’ on X-axis and Y-axis respectively is given by

Proof:

A straight line which cut X-axis at A (a, 0) and Y-axis at B (0, b)

Using the concept of two points form of a line

Equation of a straight line through the two-point A(a, 0) and B(0, b)

Note:

For the general equation Ax + By + C = 0

If C ≠ 0, then Ax + By + C = 0 can be written as

Hence, x-intercept is and y-intercept is .

Normal and Parametric form of a line

Normal form of line

Equation of straight line on which the length of the perpendicular from the origin is p and this normal makes an angle θ with the positive direction
of X-axis is given by

Proof:

AB is the straight line and length of perpendicular from origin to the line is p (i.e. ON = p).

Line AB cuts X-axis and Y-axis at point Q and R respectively

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 Using Slope-point form, equation of line AB is

Parametric form of a line

The equation of a straight line passing through the point (x1,y1) and making an angle θ with the positive direction of X-axis is

Where r is the directed distance between the points (x, y) and (x1,y1).

Proof:

AB is a straight line passing through the point P(x1,y1) and meets X-axis at R and makes an angle θ with the positive direction of X-axis.

Let Q(x, y) be any point on the line AB at a distance 'r' from P

As from the figure

From the above two equation

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 12.Angle between two straight line
Two lines are given with the slope m1 and m2, then acute angle θ between the lines is given by

Note:

1. If the angle between the two lines is 0o or then lines are parallel two each other. In this case, m1 = m2 where m1 and m2 are slopes of two lines.

2. If the angle between the two lines is or then lines are perpendicular two each other. Then in this case m1⋅m2 = -1 where, m1 and m2 are
slopes of two lines.

3. Equation of two straight line given as and . If these two lines are coincident then,

Position of two points with respect to a line

Two given points and lies on the same side of a line ax + by + c = 0 when and points lie on the

opposite side when .

Note:

1. The side of the line where origin lies is known as the origin side.

2. A point (p, q) will lie on the origin side of the line ax + by + c = 0 if , meaning ap + bq + c and c will have the same sign.

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 3. A point (p, q) will lie on the non-origin side of the line ax + by + c = 0, if , meaning ap + bq + c and c will have the
opposite sign.

Position of a point which lies inside a triangle

Let P(x1 ,y1) be the point that lies inside the triangle

The equations of sides of a triangle are

First find the coordinates of vertices of triangle ABC

Let

And if coordinates of vertices of triangle ABC is given then find equation of sides of triangle ABC.

If point P lies inside the triangle, then P and A must be same side of BC, P and B must be same side of AC and P and C must be same side of AB,
then.

Line parallel and perpendicular to a given line

1. The equation of the line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is given as ax + by + λ = 0, where λ is some constant.

Equation of the given line is ax + by + c = 0

Its slope is (-a/b)

So, any equation of line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is

2. The equation of the line perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is given as bx - ay + λ = 0, where λ is some constant.

Equation of the given line is ax + by + c = 0

Its slope is (-a/b)

Slope of perpendicular line will be (b/a)

So, any equation of line perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is

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 13.Distance of a point from a line
Perpendicular length from a point (x1,y1) to the line L : Ax + By + C = 0 is

Let L : Ax + By + C = 0 be a line, whose distance from the point P (x1 , y1 ) is d. Draw a perpendicular PM from the point P to the line L

The line meets the x-and y-axes at the points Q and R, respectively. Then, the coordinates of the points are and . Thus,
the area of the triangle PQR is given by

14.Distance between two parallel lines

The equation of two parallel line is ax + by + c = 0 and ax + by + d = 0, then the distance between them is the perpendicular distance of any point on
one line from the other line.

If is any point on the line ax + by + c = 0

Then,

Now, perpendicular distance of the point from the line ax + by + d = 0 is

15.Point of intersection of two lines

If the equations of two non-parallel lines are

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 If P (x1, y1) is a point of intersection of L1 and L2 , then solving these two equations of the line by cross multiplication

We get,

Concurrent Lines

If three straight lines meet in a point then three given lines are called concurrent.

To check if three lines are concurrent or not

1. First find the point of intersection of any two straight lines by solving them simultaneously. If this point satisfies the third equation then three
lines are concurrent.

2. Three lines , i = 1, 2, 3 are concurrent if

16.Family of Lines
Any equation of line through the point of intersection of the lines and can be
represented as

Where λ is a parameter.

Note:.

The equation L1 + λL2 = 0 or μL1 + νL2 = 0 represents a line passing through the intersection of the lines L1 = 0 and L2 = 0 which is a fixed
point. And λ, μ , ν are constants.

Equation of Straight Lines Passing Through a Given Point and Making a given Angle with a Given Line

The equation of the straight lines which pass through a given point (x1 , y1) and make an angle α with the given straight line y = mx + c are

Where,

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 AB is a given line which makes an angle with the x-axis.

So,

CD and EF are the lines that make an angle α with the given straight line AB.

Consider the figure

17.Line Equally Inclined with two lines

If the two lines with slope m1 and m2 are equally inclined to a line having slope m, then

Two lines with slope m1 and m2 intersect at point A

As from the fig

Hence,

18.Equation of the Bisectors

The equation of the angle bisectors between the two lines

and is

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 Bisector of the Angle Containing the Origin
Rewrite the equation of the line a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 such that the constant term c1 and c2 are positive.

Then, the equation

gives the equation of the bisector of the angle containing the origin and

gives the equation of the bisector of the angle not containing the origin.

Distinguish between obtuse and acute angle bisector

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 Shortcut Method for Identifying Acute Obtuse Angle Bisectors

Foot of Perpendicular

Foot of perpendicular of P(x1, y1) on the line AB : ax + by + c = 0 is M (x2, y2). then

Proof:

Let the coordinate of foot of perpendicular be M (x2, y2). Then, point M lies on the line AB.

Using ratio and proportion

(Using (i))

19.Image of a Point about a Line

Q (x2, y2) is the image of a point P (x1, y1) about a line L : ax + by + c = 0 . To find the coordinates of point Q, first find the coordinates of the foot
of perpendicular M drawn from the point P (x1, y1) on the line L and use the concept that point M is the midpoint of point P (x1, y1) and point Q (x2,
y2).

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 OR

If the Image of P (x1, y1) on the line L: ax + by + c = 0 is Q (x2, y2), then

Image of a point in some standard lines

1. Image of P(h, k) with respect to X-axis is Q = (h, -k)

2. Image of P(h, k) with respect to Y-axis is Q = (- h, k)

3. Image of P(h, k) with respect to the line x = y is Q = (k, h)

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 20.Reflection of Light
Laws of reflection

1. The incident ray, the normal ray and the reflected ray to a surface at the point of an incident all lie on the same plane.

2. The angle of incident = angle of reflection

Joint Equation of a Pair of Straight Lines

If the equation of two straight lines are a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, then combined or joint equation of these two lines is

(a1x + b1y + c1)(a2x + b2y + c2) = 0

Multiplying the brackets we get

⇒ a1a2x2 + (a1b2 + a2b1)xy + b1b2y2 + (a1c2 + c1a2)x + (b1c2 + c1b2)y + c1c2 = 0

Here the coefficients can be re-named and this equation can be re-written as

ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 .....(i)

So, a pair of straight lines is represented by a two degree equation in x and y.

21.Condition for a general two degree equation to represent a pair of straight lines
A general two degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 may represent a

Pair of straight lines, or

Circle, or
Parabola, or
Ellipse, or
Hyperbola

To identify which of the following curves is represented by a given equation, we have a determinant

If this determinant equals zero, then the given equation represents a pair of straight lines. (The conditions for other curves will be seen in subsequent
chapters).

Proof:

If we write the equation as a quadratic in x, where a ≠ 0

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 For this equation to represent two straight lines, we must have ‘x’ as a linear expression in ‘y’. For that, the value under the square root must be a
perfect square of some linear expression in ‘y’. For this to happen, the Discriminant of the quadratic equation in y (the equation inside the
root) must be zero.

This is the condition for which ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represent a pair of straight line.

This condition can also be written in a determinant form as

22.Point of Intersection of Pair of Straight Lines

To get the point of intersection, first find the separate equations of straight line and solve them simultaneously.

Or

The point of intersection of pair of straight lines can also be determined with the help of partial differentiation

IMPORTANT NOTE
In the above equations, 2ax + 2hy + 2g = 0 and 2hx + 2by +2f = 0 are NOT the equations of components of straight line.

Homogeneous Equations in Two Variables

Homogeneous equations are those equations where each term has the same degree of variable terms.

The equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 is a homogeneous equation of second degree.

It always represents two straight lines passing through the origin.

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 Real and Imaginary Lines
For equation (ii), if roots m1 and m2 are real, then the lines are also real, and if m1 and m2 are not real (imaginary), then the lines are also not
real (imaginary). This depends on discriminant of equation (ii)

Discriminant = 4h2 - 4ab = 4 (h2 - ab)

1. The lines are real and distinct if D > 0 : h2 - ab > 0

2. The lines are coincident if D =0 : h2 - ab = 0

3. The lines are imaginary if D < 0 : h2 - ab < 0

Angle between pair of Straight Lines

General equation of pair of straight line is ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. Angle between the pair of the straight lines is

Homogenization of Second Degree Equation

Consider the general second degree equation

This equation may represent a pair of the straight lines, circle, parabola, ellipse or hyperbola.

Now, let’s a straight line : L = lx + my + n = 0 .....(2) intersects the curve at two points A and B.

The combined equation of pair of straight lines OA and OB must be homogenous and must contain only second-degree terms.

In order to make Eq (1) homogeneous using Eq (2), we can use (2) to write

This will give a homogeneous equation of degree 2, and this represents the combined equation of OA and OB.

Circle

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 Definition
A circle is the locus of a moving point such that its distance from a fixed point is constant.

The fixed point is called the centre (O) of the circle and constant distance is called its radius (r)

23.Equation of circle
Centre-Radius Form

The equation of a circle with centre at C (h,k) and radius r is (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r2

Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle. Then, by definition, | CP | = r.

Using the distance formula, we have

If the centre of the circle is the origin or (0,0) then equation of the circle becomes

General Form:
The equation of a circle with centre at (h,k) and radius r is

This is known as the general equation of the circle.

To get radius and centre if only the equation of the circle (ii) is given:

Compare eq (i) and eq (ii)

h = - g, k = - h and c = h2 + k2 - r2

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 Coordinates of the centre (-g,-f)

Radius =

Nature of the Circle

For the standard equation of a circle x2+y2+2gx+2fy+c=0 whose radius is given as

Now the following cases arise

1. If g2+f2-c > 0, then the radius of the circle will be real. Hence, the circle is a real circle.

2. If g2+f2-c = 0, then the radius of the circle will be real (=0). Hence, the circle is a Point circle because the radius is 0.

3. If g2+f2-c < 0, then the radius of the circle will be imaginary. Hence, the circle is an imaginary circle.

Parametric Form

To represent any point on a curve in terms of a single variable (parameter), we use parametric form of that curve.

1. Parametric Form for x2+y2 = r2

P(x,y) is a point on the circle x2+y2 = r2 with centre O (0,0). And OP makes an angle θ with the positive direction of X-axis, then x=r.cosθ, y=r.sinθ
called the parametric equation of the circle.

Here as θ varies, the point on the circle also changes, and thus θ is called the parameter. Here 0 ≤ �< 2π.

So any arbitrary point on this circle can be assumed as (r.cosθ, r.sinθ)

2. Parametric Form for (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2

Centre of the circle here is (h, k)

Parametric point on it is (h + r.cosθ, k + r.sinθ)

Concentric Circles
Two circles having common centre C(h, k) but different radii r1and r2 are called concentric circles

Locus of Mid Point of the Chord of the Circle

A circle with radius r, centered at the point (h, k) and AB is its chord. Let M (x1 , y1) be the midpoint of the chord AB.

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 From the figure,

Diametric Form of a Circle:

The equation of circle, when endpoints A (x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) of a diameter are given, is

Proof:

P(x,y) is any point on the circle

Intercepts Made by Circle on the Axis

If the equation of Circle is , then

Length of x-intercept :

Length of y-intercept :

Proof:

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 24.Different Form of a Circle
When the circle touches X-axis

(a,b) be the centre of the circle, then radius = |b|

When the circle touches Y-axis

(a,b) be the centre of the circle, then radius = |a|

When the circle touches both the axes:

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 (a,a) be the centre of the circle, then radius = |a|

Note:

In this case, the centre can also be (a, -a) and radius |a|.

Position of a Point With Respect to Circle

Let S be a circle and P be any point in the plane.Then

To check if the point P (x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the circle S

If CP2 - r2 > 0, then CP is greater than r, which means P lies outside the circle
If CP2 - r2 < 0, then CP is lesser than r, which means P lies inside the circle
If CP2 - r2 = 0, then CP is equal to r, which means P lies on the circle

Let us find the equation for CP2 - r2

This expression can also be obtained by substituing the coordinates of point P in the equation of the circle, and we call this expression S1

So, if

Greatest and Least Distance of a Point from a Circle

S1 be a circle and P be any point in the plane.

(a) If P lies inside of the circle

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 The minimum distance of P from the circle = PA = AC - PC = r - PC

The maximum distance of P from the circle = PB = BC + PC = r + PC

(b) If P lies outside of the circle

The minimum distance of P from the circle = PA = CP - AC = CP - r

The maximum distance of P from the circle = PB = BC + PC = r + PC

25.Line and Circle

S is a circle with center O and radius r, and L is a straight line in the plane of the circle.

Case (1)

If line L intersects the circle S in two distinct points, then Equation (iii) will have two real and distinct roots

So, Discriminant of equation (iii) > 0

In this case the line is a secant to the circle, i.e., it represents the equation of chord to the circle.

Case (2)

If the line L touches the circle, then Equation (iii) will have two equal real roots

So, Discriminant of equation (iii) = 0

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 In this case the line is a tangent to the circle

This is also the condition of tangency to the circle.

Case (3)

If the line L and the circle S have no common points, then Equation (iii) will have imaginary roots

So, Discriminant of equation (iii) < 0

Alternate method to check position of line with respect to the circle

We can find the distance OM between the line and the centre of the circle, and compare it with radius of the circle

If OM < r, then line is a chord (secant) to the circle

If OM = r, then line is a tangent to the circle
If OM > r, then line does not intersect the circle at any point

26.Length of Intercept Cut-Off from a line

The length of the intercept cut off from the line L : y = mx + c by the circle x2 +y2 = a2 is

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 27.Tangent Circle Formula
Equation of the Tangent in Point Form

Point Form

The equation of the tangent to a circle at the point P(x1,y1) is

Proof:

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 NOTE:

In order to find out the equation of a tangent to any 2nd-degree curve, the following points must be kept in mind:

and c will remain c.

This method is applicable only for a 2nd degree conic.

Equation of Tangent of Circle in Parametric Form

The equation of the tangent at the point to a circle is

Proof:

Tangent Circle Formula

Slope Form

The equation of the tangent to a circle having slope m is , and point of tangency is

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 Point of Contact:

NOTE:

28.Equation of the Normal to a Circle

A line passing through a point P on the curve which is perpendicular to the tangent at P is called the normal to the curve at P.

For a circle, the normal always passes through the centre of the circle.

Point Form:
The equation of the Normal at the point P(x1,y1) to a circle is

Proof:

As we know that the normal always passes through the centre C(-g, -f) of a circle.

Thus, the equation of the normal at point P to the circle

Tangent from a Point to the Circle

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 If a point lies outside of a circle (here point is P), then two tangents can be drawn from P to the circle. Here, PQ and PR are two tangents.

If a point lies on the circle, then one tangent can be drawn from the point to the circle. If C is the point, then ACB is the tangent

If a point lies inside the circle, then no tangent can be drawn from the point to the circle.

To get equation of the tangents from an external point

The tangents are real, imaginary or coincidence that is depends on the value of the discriminant.

If we have real values of m, then we can find the equations of 2 tangents using these slopes and the point P.

29.Length of tangent (PT) from a point to a circle

This expression can also be written as

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 30.Power of a point wrt Circle
The power of a point P(a, b) with respect to the circle

is S1, where

We know

Also we know that PT =

So, PA.PB = PT2 = S1

Chord of Contact
S is a circle and P(x1,y1) be an external point to a circle S. A and B are the points of contact of the tangents drawn from P to circle S. Then the
chord AB is called the chord of contact of the circle S drawn from an external point P.

To get the equation of chord of contact of external point P(x1, y1) with respect to the circle , we use the formula
T=0

So the equation of chord of contact is

31.Equation of Chord Bisected at a Given Point

The equation of the chord (AB) of the circle S = 0 whose midpoint is M(x1,y1) is

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 Note:

Same result , can also be applied to get chord bisected at a given point for any circle of type

as well.

Pair of Tangent
The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from P(x1,y1) to the circle S: x2 + y2 = a2 is

Where,

The combined equation of a pair of tangents drawn from P(x1,y1) to a circle is

32.Director Circle
The locus of the point through which perpendicular tangents are drawn to a given circle S = 0 is a circle called the director circle of the circle S = 0.

If two tangents are drawn from any point on the Director circle to the circle, then the angle between the tangents is 90o.

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 Proof:

So the director circle for any circle is a circle which is concentric with the given circle and whose radius is times the radius of the given
circle. This fact is applicable for the circles that have non-origin centres as well.

DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE
The locus of the mid-points of a system of parallel chords of a circle is known as the diameter of the circle.

The diameter of a circle always passes through the centre of a circle and perpendicular to the parallel chords

Equation of any diameter to the given circle is perpendicular to the given parallel chord is my + x + λ = 0 which passes through the centre (0, 0) of a
circle.

λ=0

Hence, the required equation of the diameter is x + my = 0

33.Intersection of Two Circle

There are different cases of intersection of two circlre

CASE 1

When two circles do not intersect

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 In this case, four common tangents can be drawn to two circles, in which two are direct common tangents and the other two are transverse common
tangents.

Here, point D divides C1 and C2 internally in the ratio r1:r2 and point P divides C1 and C2 externally in the ratio r1:r2

Then the co-ordinates of P and D are

The transverse common tangents will pass through the point D (α, β). The equation of transverse common tangents is (y – β) = m1(x – α)

The direct common tangents will pass through the point P (�,� δ) so equation of tangents will be (y – δ) = m2(x – )� .

Now values of m1 and m2 can be obtained from the length of the perpendicular from the centre C1 or C2 on the tangent is equal to r1 or r2. Put two
values of m1 and m2 on the common tangent equations, then we get the required results.

CASE 2

When two circles touch each other externally

i.e, the distance between the centres is equal to the sum of radii, then two circles touch externally.

In this case, two direct common tangents are real and distinct while the transverse tangents are coincident.

Direct common tangent can be found as done in case 1

For Transverse common tangent

CASE 3

When two circles intersect at 2 distinct points

Thus two common tangents can be drawn

Direct common tangent can be found as done in case 1

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 CASE 4

When two circles touch each other internally

CASE-5

When one circle lies inside the other one

Thus, no common tangent can be drawn.

Common Chord of two Circles

If two circles S = 0 and S’ = 0, intersects at two points let say at A and B. Then equation of the line joining the point A and B is called the common
chord of the two circles.

Length of Common Chord AB

The length of common chord AB of two circle is maximum when it is the diameter of the smaller circle between them.

34.Family of Circles
1. Equation of the family of circles passing through the point of intersection of two given circles S = 0 and S’ = 0 is S + λS’ = 0 where, λ is
the parameter

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 2. Equation of the family of circles passing through the point of intersection of a given circle S = 0 and a line L = 0is S + λL = 0 where, λ is
the parameter.

3. Equation of the family of circles touching the given circle S = 0 and the line L = 0 is S + λL=0

4. Equation of the family of circles passing through the two given points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is

5. Equation of the family of circles which touch for any finite m is

And if m is infinite then the family of circles is

35.Angle of Intersection of Two Circle

Angle of Intersection of Two Circle is defined as the angle between the tangents drawn to both circles at their point of intersection.

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 NOTE:

If the angle of intersection two circles is 90°, then the circles are said to be orthogonal circles.

The condition for orthogonality is

36.Radical Axis
The radical axis of two circles is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way that the lengths of the tangents drawn from it to the two
circles are same.

Consider the two circle:

Let point P(x1 , y1) such that

|PA| = |PB|

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 Length of the tangent from a point P (x1, y1) to circle S is .

Introduction to Conic Section

The two dimensional curves that can be generated as cross-sections when a double cone is cut by a plane at different angles are called conic
sections.

We obtain different kinds of conic sections depending on the position of the intersecting plane with respect to the cone and by the angle made by it
with the vertical axis of the cone.

Let β be the angle made by the intersecting plane with the vertical axis of the cone

For example, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are conic sections as they are formed when a plane cuts a double cone as shown in figure

Note: a circle is a special case of ellipse when the plane is perpendicular to axis of the double cone, and hence a circle is also a conic section

37.Definition of Conic Section in 2-dimensions

A conic section is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that its distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to its perpendicular
distance from a fixed-line.

The fixed point is called the Focus of the conic and this fixed line is called the Directrix of the conic.

Also, the constant ratio is called the Eccentricity and denoted by e.

From the figure

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 Some Important Definitions to Remember
Axis: The straight line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the conic section.

Vertex: The point of intersection of the conic section and the axis is called the vertex of the conic section.

Double ordinate: Any chord, which is perpendicular to the axis of the conic section, is called a double ordinate of the conic section.

Focal chord: Any chord passing through the focus is called the focal chord of the conic section.

Focal distance: The distance between the focus and any point on the conic is known as the focal distance of that point.

Latus rectum: Any chord passing through the focus and perpendicular to the axis is known as the latus rectum of the conic section.

Centre: The point which bisects every chord of the conic passing through it, is called the centre of the conic section.

38.Equation of Conic Section:

Recognition of Conics
Equation of conic represented by the general equation of second degree

The discriminant of the above equation is denoted by , where

It can also be written in determinant form as

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 Case 1: When the focus lies on the directrix

: In this case the equation represents a pair of straight lines

Case 2: When the focus does not lie on the directrix

39.Parabola
A parabola is the locus of a point moving in a plane such that its distance from a fixed point (focus) is equal to its distance from a fixed line
(directrix).

Hence it is a conic section with eccentricity e = 1.

Standard equation of a parabola

Let focus of parabola is S(a, 0) and directrix be x + a = 0

P(x, y) is any point on the parabola.

Now, from the definition of the parabola,

which is the required equation of a standard parabola

Important Terms related to Parabola

1. Axis: The line which passes through the focus and perpendicular to Directrix of the parabola. For parabola , X-axis is the Axis.

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 2. Vertex: The point of intersection of the parabola and axis. For parabola , A(0, 0) i.e. origin is the Vertex.

3. Double Ordinate: Suppose a line perpendicular to the axis of the parabola meets the curve at Q and Q’. Then, QQ’ is called double ordinate of
the parabola.

4. Latus Rectum: The double ordinate LL’ passing through the focus is called latus rectum of the parabola.

5. Focal Chord: A chord of a parabola which is passing through the focus. In the figure PP’ and LL’ are the focal chord.

6. Focal Distance: The distance from the focus to any point on the parabola. I.e. PS

Length of the Latus rectum and Parametric form

The length of the latus rectum of the parabola is 4a.

L and L’ be the ends of the latus rectum.

Clearly the x-coordinate of L and L' will be 'a'

As L and L' lie on parabola, so put x = a in the equation of parabola to get y coordinates of L and L'

Parametric Equation:

From the equation of the parabola, we can write

Point P(t) lying on the parabola means the coordinates of P are (at2, 2at)

Other Forms of Parabola

1. Parabola with focus S (-a, 0) and directrix x = a (Parabola opening to left)

Equation of the parabola is y2 = - 4ax, a > 0

2. Parabola with focus S (0, a) and directrix y = -a (Parabola opening to upward)

Equation of the parabola is x2 = 4ay , a > 0.

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 3. Parabola with focus S (0, -a) and directrix y = a (Parabola opening to downward)

Equation of the parabola is x2 = -4ay , a > 0.

General equation of Parabola

Let S (h, k) be the focus and lx + my + n = 0 be the equation of the directrix and P(x, y) be any point on the parabola.

Then, from the definition PS = PM

This is the general equation of a parabola.

2nd form of Parabola and Shifted Parabola

2nd form of Parabola

Equation of parabola when equation of axis, tangent at vertex and latusrectum length are given

Let the equation of axis be lx + my + n = 0 and the equation of the tangent at the vertex be mx - ly + r = 0.

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 Equation of parabola is

Shifted Parabola

If the parabola y2 = 4ax is shifted (without any rotation) to a new position with new vertex as (p,q), then the equation of new parabola is (y-
q)2 = 4a(x-p)
If the parabola y2 = - 4ax is shifted (without any rotation) to a new position with new vertex as (p,q), then the equation of new parabola is (y-
q)2 = - 4a(x-p)
If the parabola x2 = 4ay is shifted (without any rotation) to a new position with new vertex as (p,q), then the equation of new parabola is (x-
p)2 = 4a(y-q)
If the parabola x2 = -4ay is shifted (without any rotation) to a new position with new vertex as (p,q), then the equation of new parabola is (x-
p)2 = -4a(y-q)

Note: Parametric point of (y-q)2 = 4a(x-p) is (p + at2, q + 2at)

Equation of a Parabola When The Vertex IS (h k ) and Parabolic Curve

The equation of the parabola when the axis is parallel to x-axis

can be written as

The vertex of the parabola is O(0, 0). Now the origin is shifted to O’(h, k) without changing the direction of axes, its equation becomes

Thus its focus is S (a + h, k), latus rectum = 4a and the equation of the directrix is

x = h – a, i.e. x + a – h = 0

Another equation of the parabola when the axis is parallel to y-axis is

Its focus is S(h, a + k), latus rectum = 4a and the equation of the directrix is y = k – a, i.e. y + a – k = 0

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 Parabolic Curve

Position of a Point and Focal Chord

Position of a Point wrt a Parabola

P(x1,y1) any point in the plane and point Q(x1, y2) is on the parabola

The point P lies outside, on and inside of the parabola according as

Ends of Focal Chord of a Parabola

PQ is the focal chord of the parabola . PQ is passing through the focus S(a, 0).

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 Point P, S and Q are collinear

So, Slope of PS = Slope of SQ

Which is the required relation

TIP

40.Line and a Parabola

To get the point(s) of intersection, let us solve the equations of the parabola and the line simultaneously

Condition of tangency: The line y = mx + c will be a tangent to the parabola y2=4ax, if D = 0 ⇒ c = a/m

The point of contact :

Substitute the value of c = a/m in the equation my2 - 4ay + 4ac = 0

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 41.Tangents of Parabola in Point Form

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 Note:

The same procedure can be applied to any general equation of parabola as well

For example, the tangent to 4y = x2 + 2x - 9 at (x1,y1) is 2(y+y1) = xx1 + (x+x1) - 9

Tangents of Parabola in Parametric Form

Proof:

Tangents of Parabola in Slope Form

If m is the slope of the tangent, then

The coordinates of point of contact are

Slope form of tangent for other forms of parabola

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 Note:

When the vertex of the shifted parabola at (h, k), then replace x by (x-h) and y by (y-k) in th equations of tangents

Point of Intersection of Tangent

Point of Intersection of tangents drawn at point P and Q is

TIP

The locus of the point of intersection of the mutually perpendicular tangents to a parabola is the directrix of the parabola.

Normal in point form of parabola

Point Form

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 The equation of the Normal at the point P(x1,y1) to a Parabola y2 = 4ax is

Proof:

Normal in Parametric Form of Parabola

Proof:

The equation of the Normal at the point P(x1,y1) to a Parabola y2=4ax is

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 NOTE:

42.Normal in Slope Form of Parabola

The equation of the Normal at the point P(x1,y1) to a Parabola y2=4ax is

m is the slope of the tangent, then

TIP

TIP

When the vertex of the parabola at (h, k)

Point of Intersection of Normal of a Parabola

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 Let the equation of parabola be y2 = 4ax

Normal at t1 meets the parabola again at t2

43.Co-normal Points:
In general, a maximum of three normals can be drawn from a point to a parabola and their feet (points) where they meet the parabola are called the
co-normal points.

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 P (h,k) is any point on the plane

Points A, B, C in which the three normals from P (h,k) meets the parabola are called co-normal points

Pair of Tangent of a Parabola

The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from an external point P(x1,y1) to the parabola, say S=y2-4ax=0 is SS1=T2.

Where,

Let (h, k) be any point on either of the tangents drawn from the point P (x1, y1). The equation of the line joining the point (x1, y1) and (h, k) is

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 Hence, the locus of the point (h, k) is

Note:

The formula SS1 = T2 works for finding pair of tangents to any general parabola as well.

Chord of Contact and Diameter of Parabola

Chord of Contact

S is a parabola and P(x1,y1) be an external point to parabola S. A and B are the points of contact of the tangents drawn from P to parabola S. Then
the chord AB is called the chord of contact of the parabola S drawn from an external point P.

The equation of the chord of the parabola S=y2-4ax=0 , from an external point P(x1,y1) is

Note: The formula T = 0 works for finding chord of contact from an external point for any general parabola as well

Diameter

The locus of the mid-points of a system of parallel chords to a parabola is known as the diameter of the parabola.

The equation of the diameter to the parabola y2 = 4ax bisecting a system of parallel chords with slope m is y = 2a/m

Let y = mx + c be a system of parallel chord to a parabola y2 = 4ax . For different value of c, we get different chords.

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 Equation of Chord Bisected at a Given point
The equation of the chord of parabola S : y2 - 4ax = 0, whose midpoint P(x1,y1) is

The equation of the parabola is y2 = 4ax

Let AB is the chord and M is midpoint of chord AB

Note: The formula T = S1 works for finding the equation of chord with given mid-point for any general parabola as well.

44.Length of Tangent, Subtangent, Normal and Subnormal

Let P(x,y) is any point on the parabola y2 = 4ax. The tangent and normal at point P(x, y) meets axis of the parabola at T and G respectively and let
tangent at point P(x, y) makes an angle �with X-axis.

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 Then, we define

PT = Length of Tangent

PG = Length of Normal

TN = Length of Subtangent

And, NG = length of Subnormal

45.Some Standard Properties of Parabola

1. The portion of a tangent to a parabola intercepted between the directrix and the curve subtends a right angle at the
focus.

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 2. The tangent at a point P on the parabola y2 = 4ax is the bisector of the angle between the focal radius SP and the
perpendicular from P on the directrix.

3. The foot of the perpendicular from the focus on any tangent to a parabola lies on the tangent at the vertex.

Hence, the point of intersection of Eq. (i) and (ii) lies on x = 0, which is the equation of tangent at the vertex

4. If S is the focus of the parabola and tangent and normal at any point P meet its axis in T and G respectively, then ST
= SG = SP

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 46.Ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points (x, y) in a plane such that the sum of their distances from two fixed points is a constant. Each fixed point is called a
focus (plural: foci).

OR

The locus of a point which moves in a plane such that the ratio of the distance from a fixed point (focus) to the distance from a fixed line (directrix)
is constant. Constant is known as eccentricity e and for ellipse e < 1.

Consider the figure, C is the origin, S is the focus and ZM is the directrix.

SA = e.AZ (i)

SA’ = e.A’Z (ii)

(from the definition)

Adding these

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 Let AA’ = 2a. C is the mid point of AA’. Hence, CA = CA’ = a.

A = (a, 0) and A’ = (-a, 0)

From equation (i) and (ii)

SA + SA’ = e(AZ + A’Z)

2a = e(CZ - CA + CA’ + CZ)

2a = e(2CZ) [CA = CA’]

CZ = a/e

The equation of directrix, ZM is x = a/e

Again from equation (i) and (ii)

SA’ - SA = e(A’Z -AZ)

[(CA’ + CS) - (CA -CS)] = e[AA’]

2CS = e(2a)

CS = ae

The coordinate of focus, S = (ae, 0) and S’ = (-ae, 0)

P(x, y) is any point on the ellipse and PM is perpendicular to directrix ZM.

Important Terms related to ellipse:

1. Centre: All chord passing through point C is bisected at point C. Here C is the origin, i.e. (0, 0).

2. Foci: Point S and S’ is foci of the ellipse where, S is (ae, 0) and S’ is (-ae, 0).

3. Directrices: The straight-line ZM and Z’M’ are two directrices of the ellipse and their equations are x = a/e and x = -a/e.

4. Axis: In figure AA’ is called the major axis and BB’ is called the minor axis. 2a is called the length of the major axis and 2b is called the
length of the minor axis.

5. Double Ordinate: If a line perpendicular to the major axis meets the curve at P and P’, then PP’ is called double ordinate.

6. Latusrectum: Double ordinate passing through focus is called latus rectum. Here LL’ is a latus rectum. There is another latus rectum that
passes through the other focus S'. So an ellipse has 2 latus rectum

47.Standard Equation of Ellipse:

The standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center (0, 0) and major axis on the x-axis is

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 1. a > b

2. the length of the major axis is 2a

3. the length of the minor axis is 2b

4. the coordinates of the vertices are (±a, 0)

Horizontal and Vertical Ellipse

When the major axis is along Y-axis and the minor axis is along X-axis, i.e. b > a

Then, AA’ = 2a and BB’ = 2b

The foci are S (0, be) and S’(0, be)

The equation of directrix MZ and M’Z’ are

Equation

Graph

Centre (0 ,0) (0, 0)

Vertices

Length of Major Axis 2a 2b

Length of Minor Axis 2b 2a

Foci

Distance b/w foci 2ae 2be

Equation of Directrices

Distance b/w Directrices

Eccentricity, e

Length of Latusrectum

Endpoint of Latusrectum

Focal radii SP+S'P = 2a SP+S'P = 2b

Parametric coordinates

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 Tangent at vertices

Position of a point with respect to Ellipse

P(x1,y1) is any point in the plane

Then,

As Point P(x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the ellipse according to

48.Line and the Ellipse

Equation of Ellipse and Line is

Now depending on the value of determinant of this equation we can have following cases

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 1. If D > 0, then we have 2 real and distinct roots which means two distinct points of intersection of the line and the ellipse.

2. If D = 0, then we have 1 real and repeated root which means one point of intersection of the line and the ellipse which means that the line is
tangent to the ellipse. By putting values in D = 0, we get a2m2+b2=c2. This is also the condition of tangency for the line y = mx + c to be
tangent to the ellipse.

3. If D < 0, then we do not have any real root, which meansno point of intersection of the line and the ellipse.

Using a2m2+b2=c2 as the condition of tangency for the line y = mx + c to be tangent to the ellipse, the equation of tangent to the standard ellipse is

49.Equation of Tangent of Ellipse in Point Form:

Note:

The equation T = 0 can also be used to find the equation of tangent at point (x1, y1) lying on any general ellipse.

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 Equation of Tangent of Ellipse in Parametric Form and Slope Form
Parametric Form:

(This can be easily derived using the point form of tangent to an ellipse)

Slope Form:

50.Equation of Normal in Point Form and Parametric Form

Point form

Proof:

We know that the equation of tangent in point from at (x1, y1)

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 Parametric form

Proof:

In the equation of point form of normal, replace x1 with a.cos��and y1 with b.sin�.�

Equation of Normal in Slope form

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 The coordinate of the point of contact is .

Pair of Tangents

Where points Q and R are the point of contacts of the tangents to the ellipse.

Note:

The equation SS1 = T2 can be used to find the combined equation of tangents for any general ellipse as well.

51.Chord of Contact:

QR is a chord of contact.

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 Equation of Chord bisected at a given point

Note:

These formulae can be used for any general ellipse as well

52.Diameter of Ellipse:
The locus of the mid-points of a system of parallel chords of an ellipse is called a diameter and the point where the diameter intersects the ellipse is
called the vertex of the diameter.

53.CONJUGATE DIAMETERS:
Two diameters are said to be conjugate when each bisects all chords parallel to the other.

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 If PQ and RS be two conjugate diameters. Then the coordinates of the four extremities of two conjugate diameters are

54.Director Circle

The locus of the point through which perpendicular tangents are drawn to a given Ellipse S = 0 is a circle called the director circle of the
ellipse S = 0.

The tangent and normal of the ellipse at P(x1 , y1) meets the X-axis at Q and R respectively

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 55.Hyperbola
A Hyperbola is the set of all points (x, y) in a plane such that the difference of their distances from two fixed points is a constant. Each fixed point is
called a focus (plural: foci).

OR,

The locus of a point which moves in a plane such that the ratio of the distance from a fixed point (focus) to the distance from a fixed line (directrix)
is constant. Constant is known as eccentricity e and for hyperbola e > 1.

Consider the figure, O is the origin, S and S' are the foci and ZM and Z'M' are the directrices.

The foci are S(ae, 0) and S'(-ae, 0). The equation of directrices: ZM is x = a/e and Z'M' is x = - a/e

P(x, y) is any point on the hyperbola and PM is perpendicular to directrix ZM.

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 The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center (0, 0) and foci lying on x-axis is

Important Terms related to Hyperbola:

Centre: All chord passing through point O is bisected at point O. Here O is the origin, i.e. (0, 0).

Foci: Point S and S’ is foci of the hyperbola where, S is (ae, 0) and S’ is (-ae, 0).

Directrices: The straight line ZM and Z’M’ are two directrices of the hyperbola and their equations are x = ae and x = -ae.

Axis: In figure AA’ is called the transverse axis and the line perpendicular to it through centre of hyperbola is called conjugate axis. 2a is
length of transverse axis and 2b is length of conjugate axis.

Double Ordinate: If a line perpendicular to transverse axis of hyperbola meets the curve at Q and Q’, then QQ’ is called double ordinate.

Latusrectum: Double ordinate passing through focus is called latus rectum. Here LL’ ans L1L1' are two latusrectum of a hyperbola.

Eccentricity of Hyperbola:

Focal Distance of a Point

The difference between the focal distance at any point of the hyperbola is constant and is equal to the length of the transverse axis of the hyperbola.

If P(x1, y1) is any point on the hyperbola.

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 Length of Latusrectum and Parametric Equation of Hyperbola:

End-points of a latus rectum :

For LR passing through S(ae, 0):

For LR passing through S'(-ae, 0):

Parametric equation of Hyperbola:

The equations , are called the parametric equation of the hyperbola

The circle with center O (0, 0) and OA as the radius is called the auxiliary circle of the hyperbola.

Draw PN perpendicular to the x-axis axis and NQ be a tangent to the auxiliary circle. Let be ∠QON = (This angle is also known as Eccentric
Angle). Hence, the parametric equation of circle at point Q (a cos�,� a sin�)� .

56.Conjugate Hyperbola
Corresponding to every hyperbola, there exists a hyperbola in which the conjugate and the transverse axes of one is equal to the transverse and
conjugate axes of the other. Such types of hyperbolas are known as the conjugate hyperbola.

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 Equation

Centre (0 ,0) (0, 0)

Vertices
Length of Transverse Axis 2a 2b
Length of conjugate Axis 2b 2a
Foci
Distance b/w foci 2ae 2be

Equation of Directrices

Distance b/w Directrices

Eccentricity, e

Length of Latusrectum

Endpoint of Latusrectum

Focal radii |SP-S”P| = 2a |SP-S”P| = 2b

Parametric coordinates
Tangent at vertices

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 Shifted Hyperbola
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center (h, k) and transverse axis parallel to the x-axis is

or

x=X+h and y = Y + k

Origin is shifted to (h, k).

Position of a point with respect to Hyperbola

Let P(x1,y1) be any point in the plane

Equation of Tangent of Hyperbola in Point Form:

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 Note:

T = 0 can be used to get the equation of tangent on the point (x1, y1) lying on any general hyperbola as well.

57.Equation of Tangent of Hyperbola in Parametric Form and Slope Form

Parametric Form

(This can easily be derived by putting x1 = a sec and y1 = b tan in the point form of tangent)

Slope Form

We have studied that if the line y = mx + c is tangent to the hyperbola , then c2 = a2m2 - b2. So the equation of tangent is
.

These equations are equations of two parallel tangents to hyperbola having slope m.

Equation of Normal of Hyperbola in Point and Parametric Forms

Point form

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 We know that the equation of tangent in point form at (x1, y1)

Parametric form

Proof:

The equation of normal in point form is

Put

Equation of Normal of Hyperbola in Parametric Form and Slope Form

Parametric form:

The equation of normal in point form is , put

Slope form:

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 Hence, the equation of normal become

Pair of Tangents

Note:

The formula SS1 = T2 can be used to find the combined equation of pair of tangents for any general hyperbola as well.

Chord of Contact

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 i.e. T = 0 which is chord of contact QR.

Equation of Chord bisected at a given point:

Note:

These formulae can be used for any general hyperbola as well

Director Circle
The locus of the point through which perpendicular tangents are drawn to a given Hyperbola S = 0 is a circle called the director circle of the
hyperbola.

Proof:

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 58.Asymptotes of Hyperbola:
Asymptote of a curve is a straight line such that the distance between the curve and the line approaches to zero when one or both of x- and y-
coordinate approach infinity.

For example,Asymptote of the curve y = 1/x is straight line y = 0 and x = 0.

An asymptote of any hyperbola is a straight line that touches it at infinity.

To find the asymptotes of the hyperbola,

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 TIP:

The angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola

If the angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola

59.Rectangular Hyperbola
If the length of the transverse axis and the conjugate axis are equal (i.e. a = b) then the hyperbola is known as rectangular hyperbola or equilateral
hyperbola.

This is the general equation of a rectangular hyperbola.

Rectangular Hyperbola xy = c2
If we rotate the coordinate axes by 45o keeping the origin fixed, then the axes coincide with lines y = x and y = -x

Limit, Continuity And Differentiability

Important Formulae

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 Consider the function f(x) = x2

Observe that as x takes values very close to 0, the value of f(x) is also close to 0. (See graph below)

We can also interpret it in another way. If we input the values of x which tend to/approach 0 (meaning close to 0, either just smaller than 0 or just
larger than 0), the value of f(x) will tend to 0/approach (meaning close to 0, either just smaller than 0 or just larger than 0). Note we do NOT want to
see what happens at x = 0, we just want values of x which are very close to 0.

Then we can say that, (to be read as limit of f(x) as x tends to zero equals zero).

Similarly, when x approaches 2, the value of f(x) approaches 4, i.e.

Now consider the function

Notice that x cannot be 7, or we would be dividing by 0, so 7 is not in the domain of the original function. In order to avoid changing the function
when we simplify, we set the same condition, x ≠ 7, for the simplified function. We can represent the function graphically

What happens at x = 7 is completely different from what happens at points close to x = 7 on either side. Just observe that as the input x approaches 7
from either the left or the right, the output approaches 8. The output can get as close to 8 as we like if the input is sufficiently near 7. So we say that
limit of this function at x = 7 equals 8 and it is denoted by .

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 So even if the function does not exist at x = a, still the limit can exist at that point as limit is concerned only about the
points close to x = a and NOT at x = a itself.

Left-Hand Limits and Right-Hand Limits

With continuing from previous concept, we can approach the input of a function from either side of a value—from the left or the right.

we had our function as

which becomes equivalent to the function

now, let us observe the values of f(x) nearby x = 7.

Approaching 7 “from the left” means that the values of input are just less than 7. And if for such values of x, the values of f(x) are close to L, then L
is called the left-hand limit of function at x = 7. For this function, 8 is the left-hand limit of the function f(x) at x = 7.

Approaching 7 “from the right” means that the values of input are just larger than 7. And if for such values of x, the values of f(x) are close to R,
then R is called the right-hand limit of function at x = 7. For this function, 8 is the right-hand limit of the function f(x) at x = 7.

To indicate the left-hand limit, we write . 7- indicates the values that less than 7 and are infinitesimally close to 7

To indicate the right-hand limit, we write . 7+ indicates the values that greater than 7 and are infinitesimally close to 7

The left-hand and right-hand limits are the same for this function.

( It denotes that if we can redefine the function, it is possible to define value of function at x = 7 as f(7) = 8... this is the scenario we wiil be
observing the the chapter again and again where, we define it that if LHL = RHL at a point x=a, then Limit of function at the point can be defined)

The left-hand limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a from the left is denoted by

The right-hand limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a from the right is denoted by

Now consider a function,

Let’s check the behavior of f(x) in the neighborhood of x = 0

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 1.Existence of a limit of a function
From the above example, we can define the existence of limit

i.e., LHL = RHL at x = a

Also notice that the limit of a function can exist even when f(x) is not defined at x = a.

2.Algebra of Limits

Let f(x) and g(x) be defined for all x ≠ a over some open interval containing a. Assume that L and M are real numbers such that
and . Let c be a constant. Then, each of the following statements hold:

3.Limit of Indeterminate Form and Algebraic limit

If we directly substitute x = a in f(x) while evaluating , and will get one of the seven following forms

then it is called indeterminate form.

For example,

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 Note:

1. form means the numerator and denominator are both tending to 0 (AND NOT exactly 0)

Eg, , when we input the values of x close to 0(and x>0), then denominator is tending to 0, but numerator values are not tending to 0 BUT

numerator is exactly 0. So this is not form.

2. We can convert one indeterminate form into another and vice verse.

We will divide the problems of finding limits into five categories, which are

1. Limit of Algebraic function

2. Trigonometric Limit

3. Logarithmic limit

4. Exponential limit

5. Miscellaneous forms

One by one we will discuss all of these.

Limit of Algebraic function

(a) Direct Substitution Method

To find , directly substitute the value of the limit of the variable. (i.e. substitute x = a) in the expression f (x)

If f (a) is finite then L = f (a)

If f (a) is undefined then limit does not exist.
If f (a) is indeterminate then this method fails.

Limit of Algebraic function

(b) Factorization Method

In this method, we factorize numerators and denominators. The common factors are canceled out and the rest of the output is the final answer.

Illustration 1:

(c) Rationalization Method

This method is used when either numerator or denominator or both have fractional powers (like ½, �etc). After rationalization, the terms are
factorized which on cancellation gives the final answer.

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 Let’s go through an illustration to understand better

Illustration 2:

Rationalizing numerator and denominator we get,

Limit of Algebraic Function Using Standard Result

As we studied in Binomial Theorem, the binomial expansion for any index

where, |x| < 1

When x is infinitely small (approaching to zero), we can ignore higher powers of x and can write (1 + x)n = 1 + nx (approximately).

We will use this fact to evaluate the value of

Let x = a + h,

Illustration 1:

Solution:

Algebraic Function of type ‘infinity/infinity’

An important result:

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 Limit of the type ∞ - ∞
This type of problems can be solved by rationalization. rationalization converts ∞ - ∞ form to ∞/∞ form

Let’s go through the illustration to understand how to solve such type of questions

The value of the limit is

First Rationalising the expression

Limit Using Expansion (Part 1)

Using the expansions is one of the methods to find the limits. The following expansion formulas which is also known as Taylor series, are very
useful in evaluating various limits.

Limit Using Expansion (Part 2)

4.Sandwich Theorem
Sandwich theorem is also known as squeeze play theorem. It is typically used to find the limit of a function via comparison with two other functions
whose limits are known or are easily calculated.

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 Sandwich Theorem

Let f(x), g(x) and h(x) be real functions such that f (x) ≤ g( x) ≤ h(x) for all x in neighbourhood of x = a. If

Trigonometric Limits

In the trigonometric limit, apart from using the method of direct substitution, factorization and rationalization (same as given in algebraic limits), we
can use the following formulae.

Exponential Limits

In order to solve the limit of the function involving exponential function, we use the following standard results

Proof:

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 In General, if , then we have

Logarithmic Limits
To evaluate the Logarithmic limit we use the following results:

Proof:

In General, if , then we have

5.Limits of the form 1∞ (1 power infinity)

To find the limit of the form 1∞, we will use the following results

If

Then,

Or

When,

Then,

Proof:

Let

Taking log of both sides

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 As f(x) is tending to 0, so

Some particular cases

6.L’Hospital’s Rule

L’Hospital’s Rule states that, if , then differentiate numerator and denominator till this intermediate form is
removed.

i.e.,

But, if we again get the indeterminate form , then, (so we differentiate numerator and
denominator again)

And this process is continued till the indeterminate form is removed.

Note:

We do not use quotient rule of differentiation here. Numerator and denominator have to be differentiated separately.

Some Application of L’Hospital’s Rule.

Note:

In some cases, L’Hospital’s Rule fails to evaluate limit

For example,

Limit of the form 00 or ∞0 (0 power 0 or infinity power 0)

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 In such type of questions, generally we equate the limit with y, then take logarithm of both sides. After this we solve the limits, mostly by
using L’Hospital rule.

Let’s go through some of the illustrations to understand how such questions are solved

Illustrations 1

We have an indeterminate form of the type ∞0

7.DIFFERENTIATION
The rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity x is callled the derivative or differential coefficient of y with respect to x.
Geometrically, Differentiation of a function at a point represents slope of tanget to the graph of the function at that point.

Consider any function, y = f(x)

Let P(x, y) and Q(x + Δx, f(x + Δx)) be two points on the curve

Slope of chord PQ = (Using two points lying on the straight line PQ)

Now as , the point Q moves infinitesimally close to point P, and chord PQ becomes tangent to the curve at point P.

So slope of chord PQ becomes slope of the tangent to the curve at point P

So slope of tangent at P =

This gives the slope of tangent at P. This value is also known as the derivative or differentiation of function f(x) with respect to x.

It is also denoted by

If we replace Δx with h, then we can write

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 This method to find the derivative of f(x) is also known as "First Principle of derivative" or "a-b initio method"

Derivative of the Polynomial Function

Finding derivatives of functions by using the definition of the derivative (by using First Principle) can be a lengthy and, for certain functions, a
rather challenging process. In this section, we will learn direct results for finding derivatives of certain standard functions that allow us to bypass
this process.

So the derivative of a constant function is zero. Also since a constant function is a horizontal line the slope of a constant function is 0.

For f(x) = xn where n is a positive integer, we have

Since,

we can write

Next, divide both sides by h:

Thus,

Finally,

Derivative of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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 Derivative of the Trigonometric Functions (sin/cos/tan)

Derivative of the Trigonometric Functions (cot/sec/csc)

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 Rules of Differentiation (Sum/Difference/Product)
Let f(x) and g(x) be differentiable functions and k be a constant. Then each of the following rules hold:

Sum Rule
The derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative of f and the derivative of g.

In general,

Difference Rule
The derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the derivative of f and the derivative of g.

Constant Multiple Rule

The derivative of a constant k multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by the derivative of f

Product rule
Let f(x) and g(x) be differentiable functions. Then,

This means that the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function plus the derivative of the
second function times the first function

Extending the Product Rule

If 3 functions are involved, i.e let k(x) = f(x)��g(x)�h� (x)

Let us have a function k(x) as the product of the function f(x)g(x) and the function h(x). That is, k(x) = (f(x)��g(x))�h� (x). Thus,

Rules of Differentiation (Division or Quotient Rule)

Quotient Rule

Let f(x) and g(x) be differentiable functions. Then

OR

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 As we see in the following theorem, the derivative of the quotient is not the quotient of the derivatives.

If and are differentiable funcitons, then or is also differentiable.

If , then

is known as chain rule. Or,

If and then

The chain rule can be extended as follows:

If then

Differentiation of Implicit Function

If variables x and y are connected by a relation of the form f(x, y)=0 and it is not possible or convenient to express y as a function of x i.e., in the
form y = Φ(x), then y is said to be an implicit function.

To find in such a case, we differentiate both sides of the given relation with respect to x keeping in mind that the derivative of Φ(y) with

respect to x is .

For example

Differentiation of Function in Parametric Form

Sometimes, x and y are given as functions of a single variable, i.e., x = g(t) and y = f(t) are two functions and t is a variable. In such cases x and y
are called parametric functions or parametric equations and t is called the parameter.

To find in such cases, first find the relationship between x and y by eliminating the parameter t and then differentiate with respect to t.

But sometimes it is not possible to eliminate t, then in that case use

For example

If and , then dy/dx is

Solution.

Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Function (sin/cos/tan)

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 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Function (csc/sec/cot)

As

Differentiating both sides we get,

Substitutions for Inverse trigonometric functions

Differentiation Using Logarithm

1. Till now we have studied how to find derivatives of functions of the form y = (g(x))n (where n is constant), as well as functions of the form y =
bg(x) , b > 0 and b ≠ 1 (where b is a constant). But how to find the derivatives of functions of the form y= [f(x)]g(x) such as y = xx or y = (tanx)sin(x).
These functions require a technique called logarithmic differentiation, which allows us to differentiate any function of the form h(x) = [f(x)]g(x)

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 Note:
Shortcut to differentiate such functions

2. We can use logarithmic differentiation in cases where y is made up of several factors in numerator and denominator. Logarithm reduces the
calculation time and effort in such cases.

Differentiation of a Function wrt another Function and Higher Order derivative of a Function

Suppose it is required to differentiate a function u = f(x) w.r.t. another function v = g(x).

Here, f(x) and g(x) are different functions, but the variable i.e. x is the same.

To find du/dv or dv/du, we first differentiate both function f(x) and g(x) w.r.t. x separately and then put these values in the following formulae:

8.Higher Order Derivative of a Function

The derivative of a function is itself a function, so we can find the derivative of a derivative. The new function obtained by differentiating the
derivative is called the second derivative. Furthermore, we can continue to take derivatives to obtain the third derivative, a fourth derivative, and so
on.

Collectively, these are referred to as higher-order derivatives. The notation for the higher-order derivatives of y = f(x) can be expressed in any of the
following forms:

Note:

It is interesting to note that the notation for may be viewed as an attempt to express more compactly.

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 Also

9.Differentiation of Determinants
To differentiate a determinant, we differentiate one row or column at a time, keeping the other row or column unchanged.

Consider 2 x 2 matrix,

We can also differentiate column wise.

Similarly, if three-order determinant is given,

Functional Equations
To solve the question of the type where functional equation in two independent variables with some conditions are given and it is asked to find the
derivative of the function at some value of x or it is asked to find the function.

Let’s go through some illustration to understand how to deal with such questions.

Illustration 1

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 Solution

If f(x) is asked then we can integrate this equation obtained

Differentiation of Inverse Function

Let f(x) be a function that is both invertible and differentiable. Let y = g(x) be the inverse of f(x). Then,

Differentiating both sides

Illustration

If f(x) = x3 + x5 , and g(x) is the inverse of f(x), then find g'(2)

Solution

Using , put x = 2

........(i)

Now we need to get the value of g(2)

As we know for inverse functions if f(a) = b, then g(b) = a. So let g(2) = p, then f(p) = 2

p3 + p5 = 2

p = 1 = g(2)

Putting this in (i)

10.Continuity
Many functions have the property that their graphs can be traced with a pen/pencil without lifting the pen/pencil from the page. Such functions are
called continuous. Other functions have points at which a break in the graph occurs, but satisfy this property over some intervals contained in their

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 domains. They are continuous on these intervals and are said to have a discontinuity at a point where a break occurs. So continuity can be defined in
two ways: Continuity at a point and Continuity over an interval.

Continuity at a point
Let us see different types of conditions to see continuity at point x = a

We see that the graph of f(x) has a hole at x=a, which means that f(a) is undefined. At the very least, for f(x) to be continuous at x=a, we need the
following conditions:

(i) f(a) is defined

Next, for the graph given below, although f(a) is defined, the function has a gap at x=a. In this graph, the gap exists because lim x → a f(x) does not
exist. We must add another condition for continuity at x=a, which is

(ii) exists

The above two conditions by themselves do not guarantee continuity at a point. The function in the figure given below satisfies both of our first two
conditions, but is still not continuous at a. We must add a third condition to our list:

(iii)

So, a function f(x) is continuous at a point x = a if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied:

1. f(a) is defined

2. exists

3.
Or

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 A function is discontinuous at a point a if it fails to be continuous at a.

Directional Continuity and Continuity over an Interval

A function may happen to be continuous in only one direction, either from the “left” or from the “right”.

A function y = f(x) is left - continuous at x = a if

A function y = f(x) is right - continuous at x = a if

For example,

But it is NOT left continuous at x = 2 as LHL = 1 but f(2) = 2. Hence f(2) does not equal LHL at x = 2.

Continuity over an Interval

Over an open interval (a, b)

A function f(x) is continuous over an open interval (a, b) if f(x) is continuous at every point in the interval.

For any c ∈ (a, b), f(x) is continuous if

Over a closed interval [a, b]

A function f(x) is continuous over a closed interval of the form [a, b] if

it is continuous at every point in (a, b) and

is right-continuous at x = a and
is left-continuous at x = b.

i.e.At x = a, we need to check . L.H.L. should not be evaluated to check continuity x = a

And at x = b, we need to check . R.H.L. should not be evaluated to check continuity x = b

Consider one example,

f(x) = [ x ], prove that this function is not continuous in [2, 3],

Sol.

Condition 1

For continuity in (2,3)

At any point x = c lying in (2,3),

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 f(c) = [c] = 2 ( as c lies in (2,3))

LHL at x = c : (as in close left neighbourhood of x = c, the function equals 2)

RHL at x = c: (as in close right neighbourhood of x = c, the function equals 2)

So function is continuous for any c lying in (2,3). Hence the function is continuous in (2,3)

Condition 2

Right continuity at x = 2

f(2) = 2

So f(x) is left continuous at x = 2

Condition 3

Left continuity at x = 3

f(3) = 3 and

(as in left neghbourhood of 3, f(x) = 2)

So f(3) does not equal LHL at x = 3

hence f(x) is not left continuous at x = 3

So third condition is not satisfies and hence f(x) is not continuous in [2,3]

Discontinuity and Removable Types Discontinuity

A function that is non-continuous, is said to be a discontinuous function.

There are various kinds of discontinuity at a point, which are classified as shown below:

1. Removable Discontinuity

2. Non-Removable Discontinuity

Finite Type

Infinite Type

Oscillatory

Removable Discontinuity

In this type of discontinuity, the limit of the function necessarily exists but it is either not equal to f(a) or f(a) is not defined. However, it
is possible to redefine the function at x = a in such a way that the limit of the function at x = a is equal to f(a), i.e. .

Again removable discontinuity can be classified into missing point discontinuity and isolated point discontinuity

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 In the above graph, observe that the graph has a hole (missing point) at x = 2, which makes it discontinuous at x = 2.

Here LHL = RHL = 4

Here function f(x) is not defined at x = 2, i.e. f(2) is not defined. However, we can redefine the function as

It makes the function continuous as now LHL = RHL = f(2)

Non - Removable, Infinite and Oscillatory Type Discontinuity

Non - Removable Discontinuity

In this type of discontinuity, the limit of the function at x = a does not exists, i.e. does not exists, so it is not possible to redefine the
function in any way to make it continuous at x = a.

Again non-removable discontinuity can be classified into three categories

1. Finite Discontinuity

In this type of discontinuity, both left hand and right hand limit exists but, they are unequal.

i.e.

For example

At x = 1, both LHL and RHL exist, but they are not equal

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 The value of function jumps by “1” units at x = 1, hence, such kinds of discontinuity are also known as jump discontinuity.

2. Infinite Discontinuity
Here, at least one of the two limits (L.H.L. and R.H.L) is infinity or minus infinity

Consider the function,

Function has infinite type of discontinuity at x = 0

3. Oscillatory Type Discontinuity

In this type of discontinuity, the limit of the function doesn’t exists but oscillates between two quantities.

For example,

Graph of f(x) = sin (1/x)

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 Continuity of Composite Function
If the function f(x) is continuous at the point x = a and the function y = g(x) is continuous at the point x = f(a), then the composite function y = (gof)
(x) = g(f(x)) is continuous at the point x = a.

It is discontinuous at x = 0

So, g(x) = f(f(x)) is discontinuous at x = 0 and x = 1

Now consider,

seems to be continuous, but it is discontinuous at x = 1 and x = 0 where f(x) and f(f(x)) respectively are not defined.

11.The Intermediate Value Theorem (IMVT)

Let f be continuous over a closed interval [a, b] and f(a) ≠ f(b). If z is any real number between f(a) and f(b), then there is at least one x in [a, b]
satisfying f(x) = z

Important result from IMVT

If f(x) is a continuous function in [a , b] and f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, then there is at least one root of f(x) lying in (a, b).

Differentiability and Existence of Derivative

The derivative of a function f(x) at point a is defined by provided

that the limit exists.

If does not exists, we say that the function f(x) is not differentiable at x = a.

Or, we can say that a function f(x) is differentiable at a point ‘a’ in its domain if limit of the function f’(x) exists at x = a.

i.e.

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 are finite and equal.

(Both the left-hand derivative and the right-hand derivative are finite and equal.)

Geometrical meaning of Right-hand derivative

Let A (a, f(a)) and B (a + h, f(a + h)) be two points very near to each other on the curve y = f (x). Using the slope of a line formula, we get

Now apply lim on both sides to get :

Geometrical meaning of Left-hand derivative

Let A (a, f(a)) and C (a - h, f(a - h)) be two points very near to each other on the curve y = f (x). Using the slope of a line formula, we get

Now apply on both sides to get :

Geometrical meaning of the existence of derivative

We know that the derivative of a function exists at x = a, if L[f’(a)] = R[f’(a)]

1. Slope of the tangent drawn at A towards left = slope of the tangent drawn at A towards the right

2. The same tangent line towards left and right: meaning a unique tangent at the point

3. Smooth curve around x = a

Differentiability and Continuity

Theorem

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 If a function f(x) is differentiable at every point in an interval, then it must be continuous in that interval. But the converse may or may not be true.

Proof

Let a function f(x) is differentiable at x = a

Therefore, f(x) is continuous at a.

Converse
The converse of the above theorem is NOT true. i.e. if a function is continuous at a point then it may or may not be differentiable at that point.

For example,

Consider the function, f(x) = |x|, the modulus function is continuous at x = 0 but it is not differentiable at x = 0 as LHD = -1 and RHD = 1

As we see in the graph, at x = 0, it has a sharp edge. If the graph of a function has a sharp turn at some point x = a, then the function is
not differentiable at x = a.

Note:
1. If a function is differentiable, then it must be continuous at that point
2. If a function is continuous, then it may or may not be differentiable at that point
3. If a function is not continuous, then it is definitely not differentiable at that point
4. If a function is not differentiable, then it may or may not be continuous at that point

Examining differentiability Using Differentiation and Graph

1. Using Differentiation (only for continuous functions)

There are some functions which are defined piecewise, in such cases first we need to check if the function is continuous at the split point, and if it is
continuous we need to differentiate each branch function and compare left - hand and right - hand derivative at the split point.

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 2. Differentiability using Graphs
A function f(x) is not differentiable at x = a if

1. Function is discontinuous at x = a
2. Graph of a function has a sharp turn at x = a
3. Function has a vertical tangent at x = a

Illustration 1

Check the differentiability of the following function.

1. f(x) = sin |x|

Method 1

Using graphical transformation, we can draw its graph

Using graph we can tell that at x = 0, the graph has a sharp turn, so it is not differentiable at x = 0.

Method 2

As LHL = RHL = f(0) = 0, so the function is continuous at x = 0

So we can use differentiation to check differentiability

As these are not equal, so, f(x) = sin |x| is not differentiable at x = 0

Illustration 2

f(x) = |log |x||, x not equal to 0

Plot the graph of | log |x| | using graphical transformation

We can see that graph has sharp turn at +1 and -1 so function is not differentiable at these points.

Differentiability in an Interval
A) A function f(x) is differentiable in an open in interval (a,b) if it is differentiable at every point on the opern interval (a,b).

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 B) A function y = f (x) is said to be differentiable in the closed interval [a, b].

1. If f (x) is differentiable at every point on the open interval (a, b). And,

2. It is differentiable from the right at “a” and from the left at “b”.

(In other words both exists), then f(x) is said to be differentiable in [a, b]

Theorems of Differentiability
Theorem 1

If f(x) and g(x) are both differentiable functions at x = a, then the following functions are also differentiable at x = a.

Theorem 2

If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not differentiable at x = a , then f(x) ± g(x) will not be differentiable at x = a.

For example, cos (x) + |x| is not differentiable at x = 0, as cos (x) is differentiable at x = 0, but |x| is not differentiable at x = 0.

Other cases, f(x).g(x) and f(x)/g(x) may or may not be differentiable at x = a, and hence should be checked using LHD-RHD, continuity or graph.

For example, if f(x) = 0 (differentiable at x = 0) and g(x) = |x| (non-differentiable at x = 0). Their product is f(x).g(x) = 0 which is differentiable. But
if f(x) = 2, g(x) = |x|, then f(x).g(x) = 2|x| is non-differentiable at x = 0.

Theorem 3
If f(x) and g(x) both are non differentiable function at x = a, then the function obtained by algebraic operation of f(x) and g(x) may or may not be
differentiable at x = a. Hence they should be checked.

For example, Let f(x) = |x|, not differentiable at x = 0 and g(x) = -|x| which is also not differentiable at x = 0. Their sum = 0 is differentiable and
theor difference = 2|x| is not differentiable. So there is no definite rule.

Theorem 4

Differentiation of a continuous function may or may not be continuous.

Derivative as Rate Measure

If two related quantities are changing over time, the rates at which the quantities change are related. For example, if a balloon is being filled with air,
both the radius of the balloon and the volume of the balloon are increasing.

If a variable quantity y depends on and varies with a quantity x, then the rate of change of y with respect to x is .

A rate of change with respect to time is simply called the rate of change.

For example, the rate of change of displacement (s) of an object w.r.t. time is velocity (v).

Illustration:

Consider balloon example again, a spherical balloon is being filled with air at a constant rate of 2 cm3 /sec. How fast is the radius increasing when
the radius is 3 cm?

The volume of a sphere of radius r centimeters is,

Since the balloon is being filled with air, both the volume and the radius are functions of time. Therefore, t seconds after beginning to fill the
balloon with air, the volume of air in the balloon is

Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time and applying the chain rule, we see that the rate of change in the volume is related to
the rate of change in the radius by the equation

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 The balloon is filled with air at a constant rate of 2 cm3 /sec. So, V’(t) = 2 cm3 /sec

12.Approximations and Errors using Derivatives

Let the function, y = f(x), be a function of x

As we have derived derivatives earlier,

Δx is small change in x and corresponding change in y is Δy

As in the figure, point Q moves closer to point P on the curve, then dy is good approximation of Δy.

ERROR

Absolute Error

Relative Error

Percentage Error

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 13.Tangent and Normal
Slope and Equation of Tangent

Let P(xo, yo) be a point on the continuous curve y = f(x), then the slope of the tangent to the curve at point P is

Where is the angle which the tangent at P(xo, yo) makes with the positive direction of the x-axis as shown in the figure.

If the tangent is parallel to x-axis then = 0o.

If the tangent is perpendicular to x-axis then = 90o

Equation of Tangent
Let the equation of curve be y = f (x) and let point P (x0, y0) lies on this curve.

The slope of the tangent to the curve at a point P is

Hence, the equation of the tangent at point P is

Tangent from External Point

If a point Q(a, b) does not lie on the curve y = f(x), then the equation of possible tangent to the curve y = f(x) (tangent passing through point Q (a,
b)) can be found by first getting the point of contact P(xo, yo) on the curve.

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 By solving the above two equations we get point of contact point P.

Using P we can find the equation of tangent PQ

Slope and Equation of Normal

The normal to a curve at a given point say P(xo, yo) is a line perpendicular to the tangent at P and which passes through P.

So, let the continuous curve be y = f(x) and let the point P(xo, yo) lies on this curve.

Therefore the slope of normal to the curve at point P(xo, yo) is given by :

If normal is parallel to x-axis then

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 If normal is perpendicular to x-axis then

The equation of the Normal at point P(xo, yo) (which lies on the curve y = f(x)) is

Normal from External Point

If point Q(a, b) does not lie on the curve y = f(x), then the equation of possible normal to the curve y = f(x) passing through Q is given by

Where P(xo, yo) is the point where this normal cuts the curve

Also yo = f(xo)

We can solve these two equations to get point P first, and then get the equation of normal.

Angle of Intersection of Two Curves

Let y = f (x) and y = g (x) be two curves intersecting at a point P(x0, y0) . Then the angle of intersection of two curves is defined as the angle
between the tangent to the two curves at the point of intersection.

Let PT1 and PT2 be tangents to the curve y = f (x) and y = g (x) at their point of intersection.

Let Θ be the angle between two tangents PT1 and PT2, Θ1 and Θ2 are angles made by tangents PT1 and PT2 with the positive direction of x-axis,
then

Orthogonal Curves
If the angle of the intersection of two curves is a right angle then two curves are called orthogonal curves.

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 Condition for two curves to touch each other

Length of Tangent, Normal, Subtangent and Subnormal

Length of Tangent:
The length of the portion lying between the point of tangency i.e. the point on the curve from which a tangent is drawn and the point where the
tangent meets the x-axis. Here point of tangency is P(xo, yo)

In the figure, the length of segment PT is the length of the tangent.

In ΔPTS

Length of Normal:
A segment of normal PN is called length of Normal.

In ΔPSN

Length of Subtangent:

The projection of the segment PT along the x-axis is called the length of subtangent. In the figure, ST is the length of subtangent.

In ΔPST

Length of Subnormal:
The projection of the segment PN along the x-axis is called the length of subnormal. In the figure, SN is length of subnormal.

In ΔPSN

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 14.Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be a real-valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b] such that

1. it is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],

2. it is differentiable on the open interval (a, b), and

3. f (a) = f (b).

There then exists at least one c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′(c) = 0.

Geometrical interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem:

f (x) be a real-valued function defined on [a, b] such that the curve y = f (x) is a continuous in [a,b] and it is possible to draw a unique tangent at
every point on the curve y = f (x) between points A and B. Also, the ordinates at the endpoints of the interval [a, b] are equal. Then there exists at
least one point (c, f (c)) lying between A and B on the curve y = f (x) where the tangent is parallel to the x-axis. I.e. f’(c) = 0.

If the function is continuous and differentiable and if f(x) = 0 has two roots α and β, then from the Rolle's theorem there exists at least one root of
the equation f’(x) = 0 in the interval (α, β). Similarly, for twice differentiable function y = f(x), between any two roots of the equation f’(x) = 0,
there exists at least one root of the equation f”(x) = 0 and so on.

Note:

The converse of Rolle’s theorem need not be true.

For example,

Application of Rolle’s Theorem:

We can use Rolle’s theorem to study and calculate root of the equation as well as locating the roots, The equation must be continuous as well as
differentiable.

Let’s look at one example

Consider the equation f(x) = (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)(x - 4). Then how many roots of the equation f’(x) = 0 are positive.

Let f(x) = (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)(x - 4).

Since, f(x) is continuous and differentiable and f(1) = f(2) = f(3) = f(4) = 0

According to Rolle’s theorem there is at least one root of the equation f’(x) = 0 in each of the interval (1, 2), (2, 3) and (3, 4).

Since, f’(x) is a cubic function. So f’(x) = 0 has exactly one root in each interval (1, 2), (2, 3) and (3, 4)

Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem (LMVT)

Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem generalized Rolle’s theorem by considering functions that do not necessarily have equal value at the endpoints.

Statement

Let f (x) be a function defined on [a, b] such that

1. it is continuous on [a, b],

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 2. it is differentiable on (a, b).

Then there exists at least one real number c (a, b) such that

Geometrical Interpretation:
LMVT states that if f is continuous over the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval (a, b), then there exists a point c ∈ (a, b)
such that the tangent line to the graph of f at c is parallel to the secant line connecting (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) .

15.Monotonicity (Increasing and Decreasing Function)

A function is said to be monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing in its entire domain.

Increasing Function
A function f(x) is increasing in [a, b] if f(x2) ≥ f(x1) for all x2 > x1, where x1, x2 ∈ [a, b].

If a function is differentiable, then

A function is said to be increasing if it is increasing in its entire domain.

Example:

f(x) = x is increasing in R. (As f '(x) = 1, so f '(x) ≥ 0 for all values of x in R, so it is an increasing in R).
f(x) = tan-1x, is also an increasing function on R as f '(x) ≥ 0 for all real values of x.
f(x) = [x] is also an increasing function on R. Its differentiation is not defined at all points, but from its graph we can see that on giving higher
value of x to this function, it returns equal or higher value of y. For this function x2 > x1 implies f(x2) ≥ f(x1). Hence it is an increasing
function.

Note:
These functions are also simply called 'increasing functions' as they are increasing in their entire domains.

f(x) = ln(x) is increasing function as it is increasing in its entire domain but it is not increasing in R (as it is not defined for x < 0 and x = 0)

So tangent to the curve, f(x) at each point makes an acute angle with a positive direction of x-axis or parallel to the x-axis.

Strictly Increasing Function

A function f(x) is strictly increasing in interval [a,b] if f(x2) > f(x1) for all x2 > x1, where x1, x2 ∈ [a,b].

If a function is differentiable, then

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 So tangent to the curve, f(x) at each point makes an acute angle with the positive direction of the x-axis.

Example: f(x) = x is strictly increasing but f(x) = [x] is not strictly increasing

Note:
If f '(x) = 0 at some discrete points (if number of such points can be counted), and at other points f '(x) > 0, still the function is strictly increasing
function.

Example

Consider f(x) = [ x ], where [ . ] is the greatest integer function.

For this function x2 > x1 does not always implies f(x2) > f(x1)

However, x2 > x1 does imply f(x2) ≥ f(x1)

So, f(x) = [ x ] is increasing function but not a strictly increasing function.

Let’s look into some more examples,

Functions ex , ax (a > 1), x3 + x are strictly increasing functions in their entire domain.

Concavity
When you draw a tangent at any point on the curve, if the entire curve lies above the tangent, in this case, the curve is called a concave upward
curve.

And if the entire curve lies below the tangent then the curve is called a concave downward curve.

Strictly Increasing functions can be classified as:

1. Concave up: When f’(x) > 0 and f”(x) > 0 ∀ x ∈ domain

2. Concave down: When f’(x) > 0 and f“(x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ domain

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 3. When f’(x) > 0 and f”(x) = 0 ∀ x ∈ domain

Decreasing Function
A function f(x) is decreasing in the interval [a,b] if f(x2) ≤ f(x1) for all x2 > x1, where x1, x2 ∈ [a,b]

If a function is differentiable, then

Example

f(x) = - x is decreasing in R (As f '(x) = -1, so f '(x) < 0 for all real values of x. We can also see that it is decreasing from its graph)
f(x) = e-x is decreasing in R (As f '(x) = -e-x, so f '(x) < 0 for all real values of x. We can also see that it is decreasing from its graph)
f(x) = cot(x) is decreasing in
f(x) = cot-1(x) is decreasing in R

A function is said to be decreasing if it is decreasing in its entire domain.

So tangent to the curve, f(x) at each point makes an obtuse angle with the positive direction of x-axis or parallel to the x-axis.

Strictly Decreasing Function

A function f(x) is strictly decreasing in its domain (Df) if f(x2) < f(x1) for all x2 > x1, where x1, x2 ∈ Df.If a function is differentiable in domain
(Df) then

So tangent to the curve, f(x) at each point makes an obtuse angle with positive direction of x-axis.

For example, functions e-x and -x3 are strictly decreasing functions.

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 Note:

If f '(x) = 0 at some discrete points (if number of such points can be counted), and at other points f '(x) > 0, still the function is strictly increasing
function.

NOTE:

If a function is not differentiable at all points, this does not mean that function is not increasing or decreasing. A function may increase or
decrease on an interval without having a derivative defined at all points.

For example, y = x1/3 is increasing everywhere including x = 0, but the derivative is not defined at this point as the function has vertical tangent.

Decreasing functions can be classified as:

1. Concave up: When f’(x) < 0 and f”(x) > 0 ∀ x ∈ domain

2. Concave down: When f’(x) < 0 and f“(x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ domain

3. When f’(x) > 0 and f”(x) = 0 ∀ x ∈ domain

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 Monotonicity of Composite Function
The nature of monotonicity of composite function f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) depends on the nature of the function f(x) and g(x).

If f(x) is increasing function and g(x) is decreasing function, then for x2 > x1, we have f(x2) ≥ f(x1) and g(x2) ≤ g(x1).

So, for x2 > x1, we have f(g(x2)) ≤ f(g(x1)) and g(f(x2)) ≤ g(f(x1)) .

Thus, f(g(x)) is a decreasing function and also, g(f(x)) is also a decreasing function.

If both f(x) and g(x) are increasing or decreasing function, then f(g(x)) and g(f(x)), i.e., both composite functions are increasing.

For differentiable functions, we can prove it in another way

If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable function, with f(x) increasing and g(x) decreasing, then

Similarly, all the possibilities of the nature of the composite function f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) are given below

AID TO MEMORY:

Where (+) means strictly increasing and (-) means strictly decreasing.

Non-Monotonic Function and Critical Point

A function which are neither always increasing nor always decreasing in their domain are called non-monotonic functions.

For example,

f(x) = sin x, which is increasing in the first quadrant and the fourth quadrant and decreasing in second and third quadrant.

Consider another function, y = f(x) = |x2 - 2|

f(x) is increases in [-√2, 0] and [√2, ∞ ) and decreases in (-∞, -√2] and [0,√2]

Hence this function is a non-monotonic function.

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 Critical Points
A critical point of a function is a point where its derivative does not exist or its derivative is equal to zero.

All the values of ‘x’ obtained by below conditions are said to be the critical points.

1. f(x) does not exists

2. f’(x) does not exists

3. f’(x) = 0

Critical points are interior points of the intervals.

For the function f(x) = | x2 - 4|, critical points are x = +2, -2 and x = 0 where its derivative is zero.

16.Maxima and Minima of a Function

Let y = f(x) be a real function defined at x = a. Then the function f(x) is said to have a maximum value at x = a, if f(x) ≤ f(a) ∀ a ∈ R.

And also the function f(x) is said to have a minimum value at x = a, if f(x) ≥ f(a) ∀ a ∈ R

Concept of Local Maxima and Local Minima

The function f(x) is said to have a local maxima (or maxima) at a point ‘a’ if the value of f(x) at ‘a’ is greater than its values for all x in a small
neighborhood of ‘a’ .

In other words, f(x) has a maxima at x = ‘a’, if f(a + h) ≤ f(a) and f(a - h) ≤ f(a), where h > 0 (very small quantity).

The function f(x) is said to have a local minima (or minima) at a point ‘b’ if the value of f(x) at ‘b’ is less than its values for all x in a small
neighborhood of ‘b’ .

In other words, f(x) has a maximum at x = ‘b’, if f(b + h) ≥ f(b) and f(b - h) ≥ f(b), where h > 0 (very small quantity).

Critical Points:
Extremas of a fucntion always lie on the critical points only. A critical point is a point belonging to the domain of the function such that either the
function is non-differentiable at this point or the derivative of function at this point is zero.

Hence, a function f(x) has critical point at x=a, if f'(a) = 0 or f'(a) is not defined.

First Derivative Test to Get Extrema

(1) At critical point x = a

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 Let y = f(x) be a differentiable function and x = a be a critical point of y = f(x).

1. If f’(x) changes from positive to negative at x = a, then f has a Local Maxima at x = a.

2. If f’(x) changes from negative to positive at x = a, then f has a Local Minima at x = a.

3. If f’(x) does not change any sign at x = a, then f has neither Local maxima nor Local minima at x = a.

(2) At end points of the closed interval [a, b]

f(x) is defined on the interval [a, b] and if f’(x) < 0 for x then f(x) has a local maximum at x = a and local minimum at x = b.

Again if f’(x) > 0 then f(x) has a local minimum at x = a and local maximum at x = b.

nth derivative test

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 First find the value of x such that f '(x) = 0, let at x = a, f’(x) = 0

Now, find f ''(x) at x = a

1. If f '' (a) < 0, then f(x) has local maximum at x = a

2. If f '' (a) > 0, then f(x) has local minimum at x = a

3. If f '' (a) = 0

Then, find f ''' (x) at x = a

If f ''' (a) ≠ 0, then f(x) has neither maximum nor minimum (inflection point) at x = a.

But, if f ''' (a) = 0, then find fourth derivative of f(x) at x = a, i.e. f iv(x) at x = a.

If f iv(a) < 0, then f(x) is maximum at x = a and if f iv(a) > 0 then f(x) is minimum at x = a and so on.

SUMMARY

Maxima and Minima of Discontinuous and Non-Differentiable Functions

Discontinuous Function

If function f(x) is discontinuous at x = a with f(a) exists finitely

In this case we use most common definition of minima and maxima

I.e. if f(a) > f(a - h) and f(a) > f(a + h) , then x = a is point of maxima and if f(a) < f(a - h) and f(a) < f(a + h) , then x = a is point of minima.

We can also use the graph of the function to decide point of maxima or minima for such a function.

Non-Differentiable Function

When the function f(x) is continuous at x = a but f(x) is not differentiable at x = a

In this case we can check the change in the sign of derivative in the neighbourhood of x = a

i.e. if f’(a - h) > 0 and f’(a + h) < 0, then x = a is point of maxima

And if f’(a - h) < 0 and f’(a + h) > 0, then x = a is point of minima.

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 Global Maxima and Minima
Global Maxima and Minima in [a, b]

Let y = f(x) be a given function in the domain D and let [a, b] ⊆ D. Then, global maxima and minima of a function f(x) in the closed interval [a, b]
is basically the greatest and least value of f(x) in [a, b] respectively.

Global maxima and minima in [a, b] would always occur at critical points of the function f(x) within the [a, b] or at the end points of the interval.

First of all, we shall find out all the critical points of f(x) on (a, b) i.e. points where f '(x) = 0 or where f(x) is non-differentiable or discontinuous.

Let c1, c2, ... cn are the critical points of f(x) then we shall find the value of the function for all those critical points.

Let f(c1), f(c2), ..., f(cn) be the values of the function at critical points.

Then M1 is the Global Maximum or Absolute Maximum or the Greatest value of the function and

M2 is the Global Minimum or Absolute Minimum or the Least value of the function.

Global Maxima and Minima in (a, b)

The method for obtaining the greatest and least values of f(x) in (a, b) is almost the same as the method used for obtaining the greatest and least
values in [a, b] however with a caution.

Step 1

We do not take f(a) and f(b) into consideration in first step

Step 2

For example,

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 This function has no global maxima and no global minima.

Application of Monotonicity (Part 1)

(a) Finding Range of the function

We can use the concept of monotonicity to find the range of the function

Illustration

Find the range of the function

(b) Finding Number of Roots of a function

Illustration

Find the number of solutions of the equation

Nature of Roots of Cubic Polynomial

Let the cubic polynomial be f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d and f(x) = 0 is cubic equation where a, b, c and d ∈ R and a > 0.

Now, f’(x) = 3ax2 + bx + c

Now, we will have the following cases

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 Thus, the graph of y = f(x) could have five possibilities as shown below:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

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 Conclusion:

Integral Calculus
Important Formulae

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. In integration, we find the function whose differential coefficient is given.

For example,

In the above example, the function cos(x) is the derivative of sin(x). We say that sin(x) is an anti-derivative (or an integral) of cos(x). Similarly, x2
and ex are the anti derivatives (or integrals) of 2x and ex respectively.

Also note that the derivative of a constant (C) is zero. So we can write the above examples as:

Thus, anti derivatives (or integrals) of the above functions are not unique. Actually, there exist infinitely many anti-derivatives of each of these
functions which can be obtained by selecting C arbitrarily from the set of real numbers.

For this reason C is referred to as arbitrary constant. In fact, C is the parameter by varying which one gets different anti derivatives (or integrals) of
the given function.

If the function F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x), then the expression F(x) + C is the indefinite integral of the function f(x) and is denoted by the
symbol ∫ f(x) dx.

By definition,

Here,

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 1.Rules of integration
f(x) and g(x) are functions with antiderivatives ∫ f(x) and ∫ g(x) dx. Then,

Standard Integration Formulae

Based on this definition and various standard formulas (which we studied in Limit, Continuity and Differentiability) we can obtain the following
important integration formulae,

Trigonometric Functions

Integrals of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x

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 2. Integration By Substitution (Change of Variables)
The method of substitution is one of the basic methods for calculating indefinite integrals.

Substitution - change of variable

Some standard results using susbtitution

Integration of the function f(ax + b)

For example:

Also, Integrals of tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x all these can be evaluated using the result :

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 Fundamental Formulae (Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

You can derive all the above results using substitution method.
For example, to get result (1), substitute x = or and solve

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 Following are some important substitutions useful in evaluating integrals.

3.Integration of the type

Integration of the type

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 Find λ, μ and γ. These integrations reduces to integration of three independent functions.

Integration of the form

(here, k(x) is a polynomial of degree greater than 2)

To solve this type of integration, divide the numerator by the denominator and express the intagral as

Here, R(x) is a linear function of x.

(a) Integral of the form

Working Rule:

Step 1 : Divide numerator and denominator both by cos2x.

Step 2 : Put tan x = t, sec2x dx = dt

This substitution will convert the trigonometric integral into algebraic integral.

After employing these steps the integral will reduce to the form , where f(t) is a polynomial in t.

This integral can be evaluated by methods we studied in previous concepts.

(b) Integral of the form

Working Rule:
Write sin x and cos x in terms of tan (x/2) and then substitute for tan (x/2) = t

i.e.

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 (c) Integrals of the form

Working Rule:

where λ, μ and γ are constants to be determined by comparing the coefficients of sinx, cos x and constant
terms on both sides.

The last integral on RHS can be evaluated by the methods we studied in previous concept.

4.Integration By Parts Formula

To evaluate integration of a function which is a product of two functions, we use the method of integration by parts.

If two functions of x, u and v are given, then

i.e.

The integral of product of two functions =

( first function) X ( integral of second function ) - integral of (differential of first function X integral of second function).

Proof:

Let, h(x) = f(x) . g(x), then by using the product rule, we obtain, h′(x) = f ′(x) g(x) + g′(x) f(x). Let’s now integrate both sides of this equation:

Important point for selecting first function (u) and second function (v)
Usually we use the following preference order for selecting the first function. (Inverse, Logarithmic, Algebraic, Trigonometric, Exponential). In
the above stated order, the function on the left is always chosen as the first function. This rule is called as ILATE.

For example, if an integral contains a logarithmic function and an algebraic function, we should choose logarithmic function as the first function
(u).

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 One of the interesting application of integration by part is:

Proof:

5.General Formula

In the same way,

A rational function is of the form P(x) / Q(x), where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial function and Q(x) ≠ 0.

6.Partial fraction method is used to integrate rational functions.

Partial fraction decomposition can be applied to a rational function only if deg (P(x)) < deg (Q(x)).

In the case when deg (P(x)) ≥ deg(Q(x)), we must first perform long division to rewrite the quotient in the form of . where

deg (R(x)) < deg (Q(x)). We then do a partial fraction decomposition on .

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 Illustration on how to approach to integrals of rational functions of the form where, deg (P(x)) ≥ deg(Q(x))

If the rational function is proper (i.e. deg (P(x)) < deg (Q(x)) ), then three cases arises
Case 1:

When denominator (Q(x)) is expressed as the product of the non-repeated linear factor

Case 2:

When denominator (Q(x)) is expressed as the product of the linear factor such that some of them are repeating (Linear and repeated)

Case 3:
When some of the factors in denominator (Q(x)) are quadratic but non-repeating

Corresponding to each quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c, assume the partial fraction of the type

, where A and B are constants to be determined by comparing coefficients of similar power of x in the numerator of both sides. or
by substituting suitable values of x on both sides

To evaluate this type of integrals, put px + q = t2

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 To evaluate this type of integral, put px + q = 1/t

To evaluate this type of integral,

Working rule:

1. If one of them is odd, then substitute the term with even power as t.

2. If both are odd, substitute either of them as t.

3. If both are even, use trigonometric identities of multiple angles

4. If m and n are rational numbers and (m + n -2)/2 is a negative integer, then substitute cot x = p or tan x = p

Working Rule:

7.Reduction formula for Integral

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 Let In = !• smn xdx = J• smn-1 xsmx
• dx
take sinn-l x as first function and sin x as second function
= -sin"-1 xcosx+ j(n- l)sin"-2 xcos2 xdx
= -sinn-l xcosx + (n -1) / sin"-2x (1 - sin2x) dx
= -sinn-l xcosx + (n -1) / (sin"-2x - sin"x) dx
= -sinn-l xcosx + (n - l)In -2 - (n - l)In
nin = - sinn-l xcosx + (n - l)In -2
_ • n-1
sm x cos x n- 1

!.
⇒ In - -------+ -- In 2
n n -
-sin" - 1 xcosx
1 n-
n . -
Thus, sm xdx = ------- + --1smn 2 xdx
n n

(b) J tan"x dx

In =J tan" xdx

=! J
Let

In tann -2 x tan 2 xdx = tann -2 x (sec 2 x - 1 ) dx

=J J
⇒

tan"-2xsec 2x - In-2 = t"- 2dt - In-2

where, tan x = t ⇒ sec 2 x dx = dt
tn-1
In = -- - In- 2
n- 1
tan"-1 x
In = - In-2

! !
_
n l
tann - 1X
⇒ tann xdx = . -
n-l
tann -2 xdx

(c) J cos" x dx

Let In = J cos" xdx = J cosn -I x cos xdx

Take cosn-l x as first function and cosx as second function.

= cosn-l xsin x + J(n - 1) cos"-2 x sin2 xdx

= cosn-l xsin x + (n -1) J cos"-2 x (l - cos2 x) dx
= cosn -l xsinx + (n - l)In-2 - (n - l)In
:. nin = cosn-l xsinx + (n - l)In - 2

or ! cos
n d _ cos -l xsinx n - l
n
X X - ------+ -- / cos
n n
n- 2XX
d

(d) J cot" x dx

Let In = J cot" xdx = J cot''- 2 x cot2 xdx

=J cot"-2 x (csc 2 x - l) dx

=J cot"- 2 x csc xdx - In- 2

2

=! t"-2dt - In-2
where, cot x = t ⇒ csc 2 xdx = -dt

J cot"xdx =

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 NOTE :
In the simmilar way we can also prove the following result

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 Sometimes, to solve integration, it is useful to write the integral as a sum of two related integrals which can be evaluated by making suitable
substitutions.

Some examples of algeebraic Twins are

Integration of the form:

Some Examples of trigonometric Twins are

Some Illustriation to see see how to solve such questions.

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 8.Definite Integral

Let f be a function of x defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be another function such that for all x in the domain of f,
then

is called the definite integral of the function f(x) over the interval [a, b], where a is called the lower limit of the integral and b is called the upper
limit of the integral.

Geometrical Interpretation of Definite Integral

If the function f(x) ≥ 0 for all x in [a, b], then definite integral is equal to the area bounded by the curve f(x) at top, the x-axis at bottom, the line
x=a to the left, and the line x=b at right.

The area above the x-axis are taken with positive sign and area below the x-axis are taken with negative sign. For the figure given below,

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 Working Rule to evaluate definite Integral

Let f(x) be a continuous real-valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b] which is divided into n parts as shown in the figure.

On each subinterval, a rectangle is constructed with width Δx and height equal to f(xi−1), which is the function
value at the left endpoint of the subinterval. Then the area of this rectangle is f(xi−1)Δx. Adding the areas of all these rectangles, we get an
approximate value for A

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 Ln to denote that this is a left-endpoint approximation of A using n subintervals.

The second method for approximating area under a curve is the right-endpoint approximation. It is almost the same as the left-endpoint
approximation, but now the heights of the rectangles are determined by the function values at the right of each subinterval.

This time the height of the rectangle is determined by the function value f(xi) at the right endpoint of the subinterval. Then, the area of each
rectangle is f(xi)Δx and the approximation for A is given by

As n → ∞ strips become narrower and narrower, it is assumed that the limiting values of Ln and Rn are the same in both cases and the common
limiting value is the required area under the curve.

Symbolically, we write

NOTE:

1. If a = 0, b = 1, then

2. From the definition of definite integral, we have

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 For example:

Properties of Definite Integrals

Definite integrals have properties that relate to the limits of integration.

Property 1

If the upper and lower limits of integration are the same, the integral is just a line and contains no area, hence the value is 0

Alternatively

Property 2

The value of the definite integral of a function over any particular interval depends on the function and the interval but not on the variable of the
integration.

Property 3

If the limits of definite integral are interchanged, thenn its value changes by minus sign only.

Property 4 (King's Property)

This is one of the most important properties of definite integration.

Proof:

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 Corollary:

Property 5

This property is useful when function is in the form of piecewise or discontinuous or non-differentiable at x = c in (a, b).

The above property can be also generalized into the following form

Property 6

Proof:

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 Property 5

This property is useful when function is in the form of piecewise or discontinuous or non-differentiable at x = c in (a, b).

The above property can be also generalized into the following form

Property 6

Proof:

Property 5

This property is useful when function is in the form of piecewise or discontinuous or non-differentiable at x = c in (a, b).

The above property can be also generalized into the following form

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 Property 6

Proof:

9.Newton Leibnitz Theorem

If the functions u(x) and v(x) are defined and f(t) is a continuous function, then

Proof:

Property 1

If f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in [a, b], then

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 As from the figure, Area of ABDC ≤ Area of ABFE ≤ Area of ABHG

Property

If m is the least value (global minimum) and M is the greatest value (global maximum) of the function f(x) on the interval [a, b], then

Proof:

It is given that m ≤ f(x) ≤ M for all x in [a, b]

Property

Proof:

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 10.Area Bounded by Curve and Axes

In the previous concept we learned that if the function f(x) ≥ 0 ∀ x ∈ [a, b] then represents the area bounded by y = f(x), x-axis and
lines x = a and x = b.

If the function f(x) ≤ 0 ∀ x ∈ [a, b], then the area by bounded y = f(x), x-axis and lines x = a and x = b is .

Area along Y-axis

The area by bounded x = g(y) [with g(y)>0], y-axis and the lines y = a and y = b is

Area of Piecewise Function

If the graph of the function f(x) is of the following form, then

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 The area bounded by curve when curve intersects X-axis

The graph y = f(x) ∀ x ∈ [a, b] intersects x-axis at x = c.

If the function f(x) ≥ 0 ∀ x ∈ [a, c] and f(x) ≤ 0 ∀ x ∈ [c, b] then area bounded by curve and x-axis, between lines x = a and x = b is

Area bounded by the curves y=f(x), y=g(x) and the lines x = a and x = b, and it is given that f(x) ≤ g(x).

From the figure, it is clear that,

Area of the shaded region = Area of the region ABEF - Area of the region ABCD

Area bounded by the curves y = f(x), y = g(x) which intersect each other in the interval [a, b]
First find the point of intersection of these curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) by solving the equation f(x) = g(x), let the point of intersection be x = c

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 Area of the shaded region

When two curves intersects more than one point

Area bounded by the curves y=f(x), y=g(x) which intersect each other at three points at x = a, x = b and x = c.

To find the point of intersection, solve f(x) = g(x).

For x ∈ (a, c), f(x) > g(x) and for x ∈ (c, b), g(x) > f(x).

Area bounded by curves,

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 Differential Equations
Important Formulae

Consider the following examples,

We are already familiar with the equations of the type (1), (2) and (3) but equation (4) is new for us. An equation of
the form (4) is known as a differential equation. In this chapter, we will study some basic concepts related to the
differential equations.

Observe that the equations (1), (2) and (3) involve independent and/or dependent variables (variables) only but
equation (4) involves variables as well as derivative of the dependent variable y with respect to the independent
variable x. Such an equation is called a differential equation.

In general, an equation involving derivatives of the dependent variable with respect to independent variables is called
a differential equation.

The following relations are some of the examples of differential equations:

Now, a differential equation that involves derivatives with respect to a single independent variable is known as an
ordinary differential equation.

For example

In this chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of ordinary differential equations only

NOTE :

Now onward, we will use the term ‘differential equation’ or ‘DE’ for ‘ordinary differential equation’.

We will use the following notations for derivatives:

For derivatives of higher-order, we use the notation yn for nth order derivative .

1.Order and Degree of a Differential Equation

Order of a Differential Equation
The order of a differential equation is the highest order of any derivative of the dependent variable with respect to the
independent variable involved in the given differential equation.

Consider the following example:

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 Degree of a Differential Equation
Consider the following example:

Observe that equation (i) is a polynomial equation in derivatives: y''', y'', and y' in this case: these terms occur only
with some whole number power. So for this equations the degree of differential equation can be defined.

But equation (ii) is not a polynomial in y’, as sin(y') term is present , so degree of this equation is not defined.

Now, consider another example,

Here, derivatives has no integral power. We can rewrite the equation as

After expansion of these brackets, this will become a polynomial equation of derivatives. So, its degree is defined.

The degree of differential equation is the degree (power) of the highest order derivative present in the equation, after
the differential equation has been made free from the radicals and fractions as far as the derivatives are concerned.

So, degree of (i) is 1, as power of higest order derivative (y''') is 1.

And degree of is 3 (the power of highest order derivative, which is y'').

NOTE

Order and degree (if defined) of a differential equation are always positive integers.

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 Putting this value of 'a' in original equation of parabola

This is the Differential Equation for family of parabolas y2 = 4ax.

Note that there is one arbitrary constant in the original equation, and the order of the D.E. formed is also 1. This is an
important result: if an equation contains n arbitary constants, then its D.E. will have the order equal to n.

If we are given a relation between the variables x, y with n arbitrary constants C1, C2, .... Cn, then to form its D.E., we
differentiate the given relation n times in succession with respect to x, we have altogether n + 1 equations. Now using
these we eliminate the n arbitrary constants. The result is a differential equation of the nth order.

Consider the equation of the family of ellipses with a and b as arbitrary constants

This is the D.E. that represents the given family of ellipses

Note: If arbitrary constants appear in addition, subtraction, multiplication or division, then we can club them to reduce
into one new arbitrary constant. Hence, the differential equation corresponding to a family of curves will have order
exactly same as number of essential arbitrary constants (number of arbitrary constants in the modified form) in the
equation of the curve.

Illustration :

Here, the number of the arbitrary constant is 3: a, b, and c. But we can club arbitrary constants together

Solution of D.E.

If the given D.E. is

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 As c is constant of integration, so it can take any real value. We can write it as ln(4a) as well, where a is now the
arbitary constant.

This is the general solution of the differential equation, which represents the family of the parabola

If we put some real value of a in this equation, then we get a particular solution of the given differential equation.
For example if we put a = 2, then y2 = 8x is a particular solution of this equation.

Hence, the solution of the differential equation is a relation between the variables of the equation which satisfy the
D.E. and does not contain any derivatives or any arbitary constants.

A general solution of a differential equation is a relation between the variables (not involving
the derivatives) which contains the same number of the arbitrary constants as the order of the
differential equation.

Particular solution of the differential equation obtained from the general solution by assigning
particular values to the arbitrary constant in the general solution.

Rewrite the equation as

By this, we get the solution of differential equation

Let’s see one illustration for better understanding

Solution of the differential equation

Rewrite the differential equation as

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 2.A function f(x, y) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n if it
satisfies the property

Consider the following examples

Now, if the function is given as

We can define homogeneous differential equation as follows :

This equation can be solved by the substitution y = vx.

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 If the differential equation is of the form

It can be reduced to a homogeneous differential equation as follows:

Put x = X + h, y = Y + k ……. (2)

where X and Y are new variables and h and k are constants yet to be chosen

From (2)

dx = dX, dy = dY

Equation (1), thus reduces to

In order to have equation (3) as a homogeneous differential equation, choose h and k such that the following equations
are satisfied :

Now, (3) becomes

which is a homogeneous differential equation and can be solved by putting Y = vX.

Note:

If d/a = e/b (=t say) , the above method does not apply.

In such cases, Equation (1) becomes

which can be solved by putting ax + by = v

Separate the variables and integrate to get the required solution.

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 3.Linear Differential Equation:
The linear differential equations are those in which the variable and its derivative occur only in the first degree.

An equation of the form

Where P(x) and Q(x) are functions of x only or constant is called a linear equation of the first order.

To solve the differential equation (i)

Which is the required solution of the given differential equation.

NOTE :

Sometimes a given differential equation becomes linear if we take x as the dependent variable and y as the
independent variable.

When DE is not in the linear form, it can sometimes be converted into a linear form with the help of proper
substitution.

An equation of the form

Where P(x) and Q(x) are a function of x only, is known as Bernoulli’s equation.

(If we put n = 0, then the equation is in linear form.)

To reduce Eq (i) into linear form, divide both sides by yn,

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 Suppose that a family of curves f (x, y, a) = 0 is given. A curve that intersects every member of this family of curves at
90o, then it is called an orthogonal trajectory of the given family of curves.

4.Orthogonal Trajectory:
Consider the family of all circles having their center at origin (a few such
circles appear in figure below)

The orthogonal trajectories for this family of circles would be members of the family of straight lines passing through
the origin (shown by dashed lines).

Steps for finding Orthogonal Trajectory :

1. The equation of the family of curves is f(x, y, a) = 0, where ‘a’ is an arbitrary constant. Differentiate ‘f’ with
respect to ‘x’ and eliminate ‘a’.

2. The differential equation you get in step 1, substitute, . This will give the differential equation of
the orthogonal trajectory.

3. By solving this differential equation, we get the required orthogonal trajectory.

Illustration:

The orthogonal trajectories of the family y = x + ce-x

Differentiation of the given equation gives

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 Sometimes some differential equations can be solved using observation only. In such equations we can get differential
of a function of x and y both.

Illustration 1 :

Let us first separate terms containing only x with dx and terms containing only y with dy

Here first two terms have both x and y. We can make an observation that first two terms are the differentiation of x2y.
Hence we can write this equation as

Integrating this, we get

This is the solution of this equation

The presence of following exact differentials should be observed in a given differential equation

Illustration 2 :

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 Observe that

So the equation is

Integrating

Differential equations are used in a variety of disciplines, such as biology, economics, physics, chemistry, and
engineering.

5.Differential Equations Applications:

Growth and Decay Problem:

Let the amount of substance (or population) that is either growing or decaying is denoted by N(t). if we assume the
time rate of change of this amount of substance, dN / dt, is proportional to the amount of substance present, then

Where k is the constant of proportionality. We are assuming that N(t) is differentiable, hence continuous, function of
time.

Vector Algebra
Important Formulae
As we have learned, the two-dimensional rectangular coordinate system contains two perpendicular axes: the
horizontal x-axis and the vertical y-axis. We can add a third dimension, the z-axis, which is perpendicular to both the
x-axis and the y-axis. We call this system the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system.

The system displayed follows the right-hand rule. If we take our right hand and align the fingers with the positive x-
axis, then curl the fingers so they point in the direction of the positive y-axis, our thumb points in the direction of the
positive z-axis. In this text, we always work with coordinate systems set up in accordance with the right-hand rule.

The three axes, X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are mutually perpendicular which defines three-dimensional (3D) coordinate
system or space. Any point in this coordinate system has coordinates (x, y, z). Also, point in this system represents
ordered triplets of set of cartesian product R x R x R Where, R is the set of real numbers.

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 If we take three axes, two at a time, then it will form three mutually perpendicular planes, XY-plane, YZ-plane and
ZX-plane. This three plane divides space into eight regions called octants.

Coordinates of a Point in Space

Consider a point P(x, y, z) in three-dimensional system.

The x-coordinate of the point P is signed distance (OL) from the YZ-plane, i.e. a signed distance of P measured
parallel to X-axis.

The y-coordinate of the point P is signed distance (ML) from the XZ-plane, i.e. a signed distance of P measured
parallel to Y-axis.

The z-coordinate of the point P is signed distance (MP) from the XY-plane, i.e. a signed distance of P measured
parallel to Z-axis.

The coordinates of the origin O are (0,0,0). The coordinates of any point on the x-axis will be as (x,0,0) and the
coordinates of any point in the YZ-plane will be as (0, y, z).

The sign of the coordinates of a point determines the octant in which the point lies. The following table shows the
signs of the coordinates in eight octants.

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 Octant 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

X + - - + + - - +

Y + + - - + + - -

Z + + + + - - - -

1.Distance between Two Points:

Let P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two points in a three-dimensional system of rectangular axes OX, OY and
OZ.

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 Since, PAQ is right angled triangle with ∠PAQ as a right angle,

This gives us the distance between two points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 )

Distance of a point from the Axes and Origin

Distance from Origin

which gives the distance between the origin O and any point P(x1 , y1 , z1)

2.Physical quantities are divided into two categories- Scalar quantities and
Vector quantities
Scalar Quantity

A quantity which has magnitude but no direction is called scalar quantity (or scalar), e.g., mass, volume, density, speed
etc. A scalar quantity is represented by a real number along with a suitable unit.

Vector Quantity
A quantity which has magnitude as well as a direction in space and follows the triangle law of addition is called a
vector quantity, e.g., velocity, force, displacement etc.

In this text, we denote vectors by boldface letters, such as a or .

3.Representation of a Vector
A vector is represented by a directed line segment (an arrow). The endpoints of the segment are called the initial point
and the terminal point of the vector. An arrow from the initial point to the terminal point indicates the direction of the
vector.

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 The length of the line segment represents its magnitude. In the above figure, a = AB and the magnitude (or modulus)
of vector a is denoted as (Distance between Initial and terminal point).

The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.

4.Types Of Vectors:
Position Vector

In Two dimension system

Let P be any point in x-y plane, having coordinates (x, y) with respect to the origin O(0, 0, 0).

Then, the vector having O and P as its initial and terminal points, respectively, is called the position vector of the
point P with respect to O.

It can also be expressed as . The vectors are called the perpendicular components of
vector r. Where and are unit vectors (vectors of length equal to 1) parallel to positive X-axis and positive Y-axis
respectively.

In Three dimension system

Let P be any point in space, having coordinates (x, y, z) with respect to the origin O(0, 0, 0).

Then, the vector having O and P as its initial and terminal points, respectively, is called the position vector of the
point P with respect to O.

OP vector can also be expressed as

Using distance formula, the magnitude of is given by

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 Where , and are unit vectors parallel to positive X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis respectively.

Zero or Null Vector

A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero vector (or null vector) and it is denoted as . The
magnitude of zero vector is zero and the direction of zero vector is indeterminate.

It can also be denoted by etc.

Unit Vector

A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector.

The unit vector in the direction of a given vector is denoted by read as “a cap”. Thus, .

Coinitial Vectors
Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial vectors.

Collinear/Parallel Vectors

Two or more vectors are said to be collinear (or Parallel) if they are parallel to the same line, irrespective of their
magnitudes and directions

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 Like and Unlike Vectors
Vectors are said to be like when they have the same direction and unlike when they have opposite directions.

Both like and unlike vectors are parallel to each other.

Equal Vectors

Two vectors and are said to be equal, if they have the equal magnitude and same direction regardless of the
positions of their initial points, and written as .

Negative of a Vector
The vector which has the same magnitude as that of a given vector (say ) but having opposite direction.

It is denoted by .

Thus if

Coplanar Vector

A system of vector is said to coplanar if they lie on the same plane.

Note: 2 vectors are always coplanar.

5.Direction Cosines (DCs)

Let r be the position vector of a point P(x, y, z). Then, direction cosines of vector r are the cosines of angles α, β and γ
(i.e. cos α, cos β and cos γ) that the vector r makes with the positive direction of X, Y and Z -axes respectively.
Direction cosines are usually denote by l, m and n respectively.

From the figure, note that, ΔOAP is a right angled triangle and thus, we have

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 Also,

The coordinates of the point P may also be expressed as (lr, mr,nr).

Direction ratios (DRs)

Direction Ratios are any set of three numbers that are proportional to the Direction cosines.

If l, m, n are DCs of a vector then are DRs of this vector, where a can take any real value.

DRs are also denoted as a, b and c, respectively.

A vector has only one set of DCs, but infinite sets of DRs.

Note:
The coordinates of a point equal lr, mr and nr, which are proportional to the direction cosines. Hence the coordinates

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 of a point are also its DRs.

Since, each vector may have its own direction, the process of addition of vectors is different from adding two scalars.
The most common graphical method for adding two vectors is to place the initial point of the second vector at the
terminal point of the first, as in fig (a).

Suppose, for example, that both vectors represent displacement. If an object moves first from the initial point to the
terminal point of vector , then from the initial point to the terminal point of vector , the overall displacement is the
same as if the object had made just one movement from the initial point of to the terminal point of the vector .
Thus joins starting point of one vector to terminal point of other vector when they are placed one after the
other. For obvious reasons, this approach is called the triangle method

6.Parallelogram Law of Addition

A second method for adding vectors is called the parallelogram method. With this method, we place the two vectors so
they have the same initial point, and then we draw a parallelogram with the vectors as two adjacent sides, as in fig (b)

Here the sum of the vectors is given by the vector along the diagonal that passes through the common starting point of
both the vectors.

Polygon law of addition

If a number of vectors can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in the same
order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in the
opposite order.

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 OR,

Subtraction of Vectors

If a and b are two vectors, then their subtraction or difference, is defined as , where is the
negative of vector b having equal magnitude but opposite direction that of b. Graphically, it is depicted by drawing a
vector from the terminal point of b to the terminal point of a.

If the vectors are defined in terms of and ,

i.e.,

Properties of vector addition

The sum of two vectors is always a vector.

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 Properties of vector Subtraction

Let the points A(1, 0, 0), B(0, 1, 0) and C(0, 0, 1) on the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively. Then, clearly,

The vectors, and each having magnitude 1, are called unit vectors along the axes OX, OY and OZ,
respectively, and denoted by , , and respectively.

Now consider any point P(x, y, z) with position vector OP. Let P1 be the foot of the perpendicular from P on the plane
XOY. As, we observe that P1P is parallel to the z-axis. Also, , , and are the unit vectors along the x, y and z-axes,

respectively, thus, by the definition of the coordinates of P, we have .

Similarly,

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 Vector Joining Two Points

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 If a is a vector and "λ" is a scalar (i.e. a real number), then λa is a vector whose magnitude is |λ| times that of a and
whose direction is the same (or opposite) that of a according as the value of λ is positive (or negative).

Note that λa is collinear to the vector a.

If

Properties of multiplication of a vector by a scalar

a and b are vectors, λ and γ are scalars.

A geometric visualisation of multiplication of a vector by a scalar

Section Formula

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 Let A and B be two points represented by the position vectors and , respectively, with respect to the origin
O.

Let R be a point that divides the line segment joining the points A and B in the ratio m : n.

Internal Division

If R divides AB internally in the ratio m : n, then position vector of R is given by

Proof :

Hence, the position vector of the point R which divides A and B internally in the ratio of m : n is given by

External Division

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 If R divides AB externally in the ratio m : n, then position vector of R is given by

NOTE:

If R is the midpoint of AB, then m = n. And therefore, the midpoint R of , will have its position vector as

Linear Combinations of Vectors

For example:

Linear Independent Vectors

It can be easily verified that

1. A pair of non-collinear vectors ( say a1 and a2 ) are linearly independent.

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 2. A triad of non-coplanar vector is linearly independent

If a, b, c are three non-zero, non-coplanar vectors and x, y, z are three scalars such that

Proof: It is given that xa + yb + zc = 0 ......(i)

Suppose that

Then Eq. (i) can be written as

Now, and are scalars because x, y and are scalars. Thus, Eq. (ii) expresses a as a linear combination of b and c.
Hence, a is coplanar with b and c which is contrary to our hypothesis because a, b and c are given to be non-coplanar.
Thus, our supposition that is wrong.

Hence, x=0.

Similarly, we can prove that y=0 and z=0.

Note: 4 vectors are always linearly dependent

It can be easily verified that

1. A pair of collinear vectors is linearly dependent.

2. A triad of coplanar vectors is linearly dependent.

Test of collinearity of three points

Then the pointgs A, B and C are collinear

Proof:

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 Hence, the three point A, B and C are collinear.

Theorem 1:

Proof:

Theorem 2

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 NOTE:

1.

(Proof of this will be seen in the concept of Scalar triple Product)

2.

7.Vector Product
Multiplication (or product) of two vectors is defined in two ways, namely, dot (or scalar) product where the result is a
scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors,
we have various applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering.

Dot (scalar) Product

If and are two non-zero vectors, then their scalar product (or dot product) is denoted by and is defined as

where, θ is the angle between and

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 Observations:

Properties of Dot (Scalar) Product

Proof :

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 Angle between two vectors

Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Product

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 Let and be two vectors represented by OA and OB, respectively.

Draw BL ⊥ OA and AM ⊥ OB.

From triangles OBL and OAM we have OL= OB cos θ and OM = OA cos θ.

Here OL and OM are known as projections of on and on respectively.

Thus. geometrically interpreted, the scalar product of two vectors is the product of modulus of either vectors and the
projection of the other in its direction.

Thus,

Vector Projection Formula:

Let and be two vectors represented by and respectively and let be the angle between and . Then,

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 The vector product of two nonzero vectors and , is denoted by and defined as,

where is the angle between and , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and is a unit vector perpendicular to both and , such that ,
and form a right hand system.

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 Observe that, the direction of is opposite to that of as shown in the figure.

i.e.

So the vector product is not commutative.

Properties of Vector Product

8.Cross Product of Two Vectors

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 Proof:

Angle between Two Vectors

If is the angle between the vectors and , then

Vector perpendicular to the plane of two given vectors

The unit vector perpendicular to the plane of and is

Also note that is also a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of and .

Vectors of magnitude ‘λ’ perpendicular to the plane of and are given by

Area of Parallelogram:
If and , are two non-zero, non-parallel vectors represented by AD and AB respectively and let �be the angle
between them.

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 Area of Triangle:
If and , are two non-zero, non-parallel vectors represent as the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is given as

The area of a triangle is ½ (Base) x (Height)

From the figure,

NOTE:

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 9.Vector Triple Product:
The scalar triple product (also called the mixed or box product) is defined as the dot product of one of the vectors with
the cross product of the other two.

If , and are any three vectors, then their scalar product is defined as and it is denoted as .

The scalar triple product can be evaluated numerically using any one of the following

NOTE :

The necessary and sufficient condition for three non-zero, non-collinear

vectors and is coplanar is that .

For three vectors and vector triple product is defined as .

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 Here, the value of λ can be determined by taking specific values of and .

The simplest way to determine λ is by taking specific vectors , , .

We have,

NOTE:

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 Proof:

NOTE:

If we take the dot product of two system of vectors and get unity, then the system is called reciprocal system of
vectors.

Properties

1. If and and and are reciprocal system of vectors, then

Similarly,

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 Due to the above property, the two systems of vectors are called reciprocal system.

2.

3.

Proof:

4. The orthogonal triad of vectors and is self reciprocal.

5. and are non-coplanar iff and are non-coplanar.

As and are non-coplanar are non-

coplanar.

Volume of Parallelepiped Formula

Let vectors and represent the sides of a parallelepiped OA, OB and OC respectively. Then, is a vector
perpendicular to the plane of and . Let be the angle between vectors and and α be the angle between and
.

If is a unit vector along , then α is the angle between and .

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 Volume of Tetrahedron
Tetrahedron is a pyramid having a triangular base. Therefore

3D Geometry
Important Formulae
As we have learned, the two-dimensional rectangular coordinate system contains two perpendicular axes: the
horizontal x-axis and the vertical y-axis. We can add a third dimension, the z-axis, which is perpendicular to both the
x-axis and the y-axis. We call this system the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system. It represents the three
dimensions we encounter in real life.

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 The system displayed follows the right-hand rule. If we take our right hand and align the fingers with the positive x-
axis, then curl the fingers so they point in the direction of the positive y-axis, our thumb points in the direction of the
positive z-axis. In this text, we always work with coordinate systems set up in accordance with the right-hand rule. S

The three axes, X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are mutually perpendicular which defines three-dimensional (3D) coordinate
system or space. Any point in this coordinate system has coordinates (x, y, z). Also, point in this system represents
ordered triplets of set of cartesian product R x R x R Where, R is the set of real numbers.

If we take three axes, two at a time, then it will form three mutually perpendicular planes, XY-plane, YZ-plane and
ZX-plane. This three plane divides space into eight regions called octants.

Coordinates of a Point in Space

Consider a point P(x, y, z) in three-dimensional system.

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 The x-coordinate of the point P is signed distance (OL) from the YZ-plane, i.e. a signed distance of P measured
parallel to X-axis.

The y-coordinate of the point P is signed distance (ML) from the XZ-plane, i.e. a signed distance of P measured
parallel to Y-axis.

The z-coordinate of the point P is signed distance (MP) from the XY-plane, i.e. a signed distance of P measured
parallel to Z-axis.

The coordinates of the origin O are (0,0,0). The coordinates of any point on the x-axis will be as (x,0,0) and the
coordinates of any point in the YZ-plane will be as (0, y, z).

The sign of the coordinates of a point determines the octant in which the point lies. The following table shows the
signs of the coordinates in eight octants.

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 Octant 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th

X + - - + + - - +

Y + + - - + + - -

Z + + + + - - - -

Distance between Two Points:

Let P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two points in a three-dimensional system of rectangular axes OX, OY and
OZ.

Since, PAQ is right angled triangle with ∠PAQ a right angle ,

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 This gives us the distance between two points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 )

Distance of a point from the Axes and Origin

which gives the distance between the origin O and any point P(x1 , y1 , z1)

Section Formula:
The point R(x, y,z) divides the line joining the points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) internally in the ratio m:n, then the
coordinate of R(x, y, z) is given by

If the point R divides PQ externally in the ratio m : n, then its coordinates are obtained by replacing n by (– n) so that
coordinates of point R will be

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 NOTE:

1. The coordinates of the midpoint (m : n = 1 : 1 ) of the line joining the points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are

2. The coordinates of the point R which divides PQ in the ratio k : 1 are obtained by taking k = m/n which are as
given below:

3. The coordinates of the centroid of a triangle R with vertices A(x1, y1, z1) B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3) is

1.Direction Cosines and Direction Ratio

Let r be the position vector of a point P(x, y, z). Then, direction cosines of r are the cosines of angles α, β and γ (i.e.
cos α, cos β and cos γ ) that the vector r makes with the positive direction of X, Y and Z -axes respectively. Direction
cosines are usually denote by l, m and n respectively.

Direction ratios (DRs)

Direction Ratios are any set of three numbers that are proportional to the Direction cosines.

If l, m, n are DCs of a vector then are DRs of this vector, where can take any real value.

DRs are also denoted as a, b and c respectively.

A vector has only one set of DCs, but infinite sets of DRs.

NOTE :

If a vector has l, m, n as DC's, then a line parallel to this vector has l, m, n and -l, -m, -n as DCs. So a line has 2 sets of
DCs.

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 2.Equations for a Line in Space
A line is uniquely determined if

1. It passes through a given point and has given direction, or

2. It passes through two given points.

Equation of a line through a given point and parallel to a given vector

Let L be a line in space passing through point P(x0 , y0 , z0). Let be a vector parallel to L. Then,
for any point on line Q(x, y, z), we know that vector PQ is parallel to vector b. Thus, there is a scalar, λ, such that
, which gives,

Cartesian Form
Vector equation of a line shows that the following equations are simultaneously true:

If we solve each of these equations for the component variables x, y, and z, we get a set of equations in which each
variable is defined in terms of the parameter λ and that, together, describe the line. This set of three equations forms a
set of parametric equations of a line:

If we solve each of the equations for λ assuming a, b, and c are non-zero, we get a different description of the same
line:

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 These are parametric equations of the line. Eliminating the parameter λ from above equation, we get,

This is the Cartesian equation of the line.

NOTE:

If l, m, n are the direction cosines of the line, the equation of the line is

Equation of a line passing through two given points

Let P(x0 , y0 , z0) and Q(x1, y1, z1) be the points on a line, and let

Let be the position vector of an arbitrary point R(x, y, z) lying on this line

We want to find a vector equation for the line PQ.

Using P as our known point on the line, and as the direction

vector, equation gives

Cartesian Form

We can also find parametric equations for the line segment

As position vector of point R(x, y, z) is .

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 Vector Form:
Let the given lines be,

As equation (i) and equation (ii) are straight line in the directions of and , respectively.

Let be the angle between the vectors and

Using the dot product,

Cartesian Form:
Equation of straight line in cartesian form is

Condition for Perpendicularity:

The lines are perpendicular then cos= 90o

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 Condition for parallelism:
The lines are parallel then for some scalar λ.

Let L be a line in the plane and let M be any point not on the line. Then, we define distance d from M to L as the
length of the line segment , where P is a point on L such that is perpendicular to L.

Cartesian Form

The equation of line L is

Let P be the foot of perpendicular drawn from the point M(α, β, γ) on the line L.

Let the coordinates of P be

Then the direction ratio of MP are

Direction ratio of line L are (a, b, c)

Since, MP is perpendicular to line L,

Put the value of λ in .

we get the foot of the perpendicular. Now, we can get distance MP using distance formula.

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 Since P (foot of perpendicular) is the midpoint of M and N (image of a point M in the line), we can get N if P is found
out.

Cartesian Form

Let M(α, β, γ) be the point and be the equation of line L.

Let P be the foot of perpendicular from M to line L and let N be the image of the point in the given line, where MP =
PN

since, MP is perpendicular to the given line, whose direction ratios are a, b and c.

Substituting the value of λ we get coordinates of point P (foot of perpendicular)

As N (α’, β’, γ’) is image of point M(α, β, γ)

∴ mid-point of MN is point P

There are three possible types of relations that two different lines can have in a three-dimensional space. They can be

1. Parallel lines: when their direction vectors are parallel and the two lines never meet.

2. Intersecting lines: when their direction vectors are not parallel and the two lines intersect.

3. Skew lines: When two lines neither parallel nor intersecting at a point.

For example, consider a cuboid

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 Edges AB and CD are parallel. Edges AB and BC intersect at a single point B. Edges AB and EH are skew, since
they are not parallel and never meet.

For skew lines, the line of the shortest distance will be perpendicular to both the lines.

So, the shortest distance between edges AB and EH is |AE|.

Distance between two skew lines

If L1 and L2 are two skew lines, then there is one and only one line perpendicular to each of lines L1 and L2 which is
known as the line of shortest distance.

Vector form

Let S be any point on the line L1 with position vector and T on L2 with position vector . Then the magnitude of
the shortest distance vector will be equal to that of the projection of ST along the direction of the line of shortest
distance.

If is the shortest distance vector between L1 and L2, then it being perpendicular to both and , therefore, the

unit vector along would be

where "d" is the magnitude of the shortest distance vector. Let θ be the angle between and .

Then

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 Hence, the required shortest distance is

For Intersecting lines

Their shortest distance should be 0

Vector form

Distance between parallel lines

Let two lines L1 and L2 be parallel. Let the equation of lines be given by

where, is the position vector of a point S on L1 and is the position vector of a point T on L2.

Let θ be the angle between the vectors ST and .

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 where is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the lines L1 and L2.

3.Plane
We know that a line is determined by two points. In other words, for any two distinct points, there is exactly one line
that passes through those points, whether in two dimensions or three. Similarly, given any three points that do not all
lie on the same line, there is a unique plane that passes through these points. Just as a line is determined by two points,
a plane is determined by three.

This may be the simplest way to characterize a plane, but we can use other descriptions as well. For example, given
two distinct, intersecting lines, there is exactly one plane containing both lines. A plane is also determined by a line
and any point that does not lie on the line.

Equation of a plane in normal form:

Vector Form

The vector equation of a plane normal to unit vector and at a distance d from the origin is .

Proof:

Let O be the origin and let d be the length of perpendicular from origin (O) to the given plane.

If is the normal from the origin to the plane, and is the unit normal vector along . Then .

Let P be any point on the plane with position vector , so that .

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 Cartesian form:
is the vector form of the equation of a plane in the normal form where is the unit vector normal to the
plane.

Let P (x, y, z) is any point in the plane.

Then,

Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of . Then

Therefore, the equation gives

This is the cartesian equation of the plane in the normal form.

NOTE:

If is the vector equation of a plane, then ax + by + cz = d is the Cartesian equation of the

plane, where a, b and c are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane.

Imagine a pair of orthogonal vectors that share an initial point. Visualize grabbing one of the vectors and twisting it.
As you twist, the other vector spins around and sweeps out a plane. Here, we describe that concept mathematically.

Let be a vector and P (x0, y0, z0) be a point. Then the set of all point Q (x, y, z) such that
orthogonal to forms a plane.

We say that is a normal vector, or perpendicular to the plane. Remember, the dot product of orthogonal vectors is
zero. This fact generates the vector equation of a plane:

If position vector of point P is and position vector of point Q is , then

This is the vector equation of the plane.

Cartesian form:

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 Thus, the coefficients of x, y and z in the cartesian equation of a plane are the direction ratios of the normal to the
plane.

Equation of the plane in vector form:

Let A, B and C be three non-collinear points on the plane with position vectors and respectively.

The vectors, and are in the given plane. Therefore, the vector is
perpendicular to the plane containing points A, B and C.

Let P be any point in the plane with position vector .

Therefore, the equation of the plane passing through OP and perpendicular to the vector is

This is the equation of the plane in vector form passing through three noncollinear points.

Cartesian Form:
Let (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) be the coordinates of points A, B and C respectively.

Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the plane.

Then, the vectors and are coplanar.

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 Intercept form of the equation of a plane
Cartesian Form
The equation of a plane having intercepting lengths a, b and c with X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis, respectively is

Let the plane meets X, Y and Z-axes at (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0), (0, 0, c) respectively and P(x, y, z) be any point on the plane.

Since these three points are non-collinear points.

Then, the vectors and are coplanar. where P be any point in the plane ABC.

This is the equation of the plane in cartesian form when the plane makes Intercepts a, b and c on the coordinate axes.

Vector Form
Let a plane passes through a point A with position vector and parallel to two vectors and .

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 Let be the position vector of any point P on the plane.

Since, lies in the plane, hence, are coplanar.

We have,

Which is required equation of plane.

Cartesian Form

From

Which is required equation of plane in cartesian form where and

4.Angle between two planes:

The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their normals.

Let be the angle between two planes and then,

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 Condition for Perpendicularity of Two Plane

If the planes and are perpendicular, then and are perpendicular.

Therefore .

Condition for Parallelism of Two Plane

If the planes and are parallel, then there exists a scalar λ such that .

Cartesian Form
Let θ be the angle between the planes, a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 .

Then,

The direction ratios of the normal to the planes are a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2 c2 respectively.

Condition for Perpendicularity of Two Planes

If the planes are at right angles, then θ = 90o and so cos θ = 0. Hence, cos θ = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.

Condition for Parallelism of Two Plane

If the planes are parallel, then

Equation of plane parallel to a given plane

Parallel planes have the same normal vectors, so the equation of plane parallel to is of the form
, where d2 can be determined by using the given conditions.

In cartesian form, if ax + by +cz + d = 0 is given plane, then the plane parallel to this plane is ax + by + cz + k = 0,
where k is any scalar.

Plane passing through the intersection of two given planes

Vector Form

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 Equation of plane passing through the intersection of planes and is

Proof:

Let π1 and π2 be two planes with equations and respectively. The position vector of any
point on the line of intersection must satisfy both the equations.

If is the position vector of a point P on the line, then

Therefore, for all real values of λ, we have

Since, is arbitrary, it satisfies for any point on the line.

Hence, the equation represents a plane π3 which is such that if any vector satisfies
both the equations π1 and π2 , it also satisfies the equation π3 i.e. any plane passing through the intersection of the
planes.

Cartesian Form

In Cartesian system, let

which is the required Cartesian form of the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the given planes
for each value of λ.

Perpendicular distance:
The perpendicular distance (D) from a point having position vector to the plane is given by

Consider a point P with position vector and a plane π1 whose equation is

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 Let R be a point in the plane such that is orthogonal to the plane π1.

since, line PR passes through P(a) and is parallel to the vector which is normal to the plane π1. So, vector equation
of line PR is

Point R is the intersection of Eq. (i) and the given plane π1.

On putting the value of λ in Eq. (i), we obtain the position vector of R given by

Cartesian Form

Let P(x1, y1, z1) be the given point with position vector and ax + by + cz + d = 0 be the Cartesian equation of the
given plane. Then

Hence, from Vector form of the perpendicular from P to the plane is

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 Distance Between The Parallel Planes

The distance between the two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is given by

Let P(x1, y1, z1) be any point in the plane ax + by + cz + d1 = 0.

Then the distance of the point P from plane ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is

Image:
The image of the point P(x1, y1, z1) in the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is Q(x3, y3, z3) then coordinates of point Q is
given by

Proof:

Let point Q(x3, y3, z3) is the image of the point P(x1, y1, z1) in the plane π : ax + by + cz + d = 0

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 Let line PQ meets the plane ax+by+cz+d=0 at point R, direction ratio of normal to plane π are (a, b, c), since, PQ
perpendicular to plane π.

So direction ratio of PQ are a, b, c

Since, point R lies in the plane π, we get

In the similar method we can also find the coordinates of point R.

Let ax + by + cz + d = 0 be the plane, then the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) lie on the same side or opposite side
according as

Let the line segment joining the point P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) divided by a point R (which lies in the plane)
internally in the ratio m:n.

Point R lies in the plane ax+by+cz+d=0.

From the section formula

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 Since, point R lies in the plane

Therefore,

Now, if ax1+by1+cz1+d and ax2+by2+cz2+d are of same sign then m/n < 0 (external division) and if opposite sign then
m/n > 0 (internal division).

Therefore, if

Bisecting the angles between the planes:

Cartesian Form

Equation of the planes bisecting the angle between the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is

Proof:

Given planes are

Let P(x, y, z) be a point on the plane bisecting the angle between planes (i) and (ii).

Let PL and PM be the length of perpendiculars from P to planes (i) and (ii).

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 This is equation of planes bisecting the angles between the planes (i) and (ii).

Vector Form:
Equation of the planes bisecting the angle between the planes is

5.Bisector of the Angle between the Two Planes Containing the Origin
Let the equation of the two planes be

where d1 and d2 are positive.

Then the equation of the bisector of the angle between the planes (i) and (ii) containing the origin is

6.Angle Between a Line and a Plane

The angle between a line and a plane is the complement of the angle between the line and normal to the plane.

Vector Form

If the equation of the line is and the equation of the plane is . Then the angle θ between the
line and the normal to the plane is

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 and so the angle φ between the line and the plane is given by 900 – θ,

Cartesian Form
The angle between a line and a plane

If the line is

and the plane is is given by

NOTE:
Line and plane are perpendicular if or and parallel if or

Given equation of the line is and the equation of the plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0

Put the value of r in , you will get coordinates of point P.

Condition for a Line to be Parallel to a Plane

The line is parallel to plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 iff:

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 Condition for a Line to Lie in the Plane

Condition for the line to lie in the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 are:

We studied in the previous concept that a line to lie in the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0

iff

Thus, the general equation of the plane containing a straight line

The equation of the plane containing a straight line and parallel to the straight line

is

Hence, the equation of the plane containing two given straight lines

And, the condition of coplanarity of the given straight lines is given by:

In Vector Form:

If the line are coplanar then,

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 and the equation of plane containing them is

Permutations and Combinations

Important Formulae

The chapter 'Permutations and Combinations' is concerned with determining the number of different ways of
arranging and selecting objects out of a given number of objects, without actually listing them. These are generally
referred to as “PnC”. This chapter is all about logic and “counting”. PnC tests your ability to observe the pattern, your
mathematical reasoning, and creativity. From the exam point of view, PnC is one of the important chapters. Concepts
of Permutations and combinations are mostly used while solving the problems from probability. The problems of
probability are no longer as simple as they used to be in elementary standards. However, if you have a command on
Permutations and Combinations, the chapter probability will be a piece of cake for you.

In this chapter, we are going to study the concepts and applications of Permutations and combinations.

Following are the sub-topics that we are going to study:

1. Fundamental Principle of Counting: Addition Rule (OR Rule) and Multiplication Rule (AND Rule)

2. Permutations

3. Combinations

4. Grouping

5. Distribution

6. Derangements

1.Fundamental Principle Of Counting

Fundamental principle of counting is a rule used to find the total number of outcomes possible in a given situation.
Fundamental principle of counting can be classified into two types

1. Multiplication Rule (AND rule)

2. Addition Rule (OR rule)

Multiplication Rule

If a certain work W can be completed by doing 2 tasks, first doing task A AND then doing task B. A can be done in m
ways and following that B can be done in n ways, then the number of ways of doing the work W is (m x n) ways.

For example, let's say a person wants to travel from Noida to Gurgaon, and he has to travel via New Delhi. It is given
that the person can travel from Noida to New Delhi in 3 different ways and from New Delhi to Gurgaon in 5 different
ways.

So, in this case, to complete his work (reach Gurgaon) he has to do two tasks one after the other, first traveling from
Noida to New Delhi (task A) and then from New Delhi to Gurgaon (task B), as he has 3 different ways of reaching
New Delhi (doing task A), and he has 5 different ways to reach Gurgaon from New Delhi (doing task B), so in that
way, he has a total of 3×5 = 15 different ways to reach Gurgaon from Noida.

Addition Rule
If work W can be completed by doing task A OR task B, and A can be done in m ways and B can be done in n ways
(and both cannot occur simultaneously: in this case we call tasks A and B as mutually exclusive), then work W can be
done in (m + n) ways.

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 For example, let’s say that a person can travel from New Delhi to Noida in 3 different types of buses, and 2 different
types of trains, so, he can complete the work of going from New Delhi to Noida in 3 + 2 = 5 ways (As work can be
completed by going by bus (A) OR by going by train (B))

Permutation basically means the arrangement of things. And when we talk about arrangement then the order becomes
important if the things to be arranged are different from each other (when things to be arranged are the same then
order doesn’t have any role to play). So in permutations order of objects becomes important.

Arranging n objects in r places (Same as arranging n objects taken r at a time) is equivalent to filling r places from n
things.

So the number of ways of arranging n objects taken r at a time = n(n - 1) (n - 2) ... (n - r + 1)

Where

So, the number of ways arranging n different objects taken all at a time = .

If the number is EVEN

In this case,

One's place can be filled by three numbers (2,4,6) as even number can only end with (0,2,4,6,8). Hence we have
three different possibilities.

If one's place is occupied by 2 then remaining 6 digits can be arranged in remaining 4 places in ways

OR,

If one's place is occupied by 4 hence remaining can be arranged in ways

OR,

If one's place is occupied by 6 hence remaining can be arranged in ways

Hence the total possibilities are

Let us take another example

Using 0,1,2,3,4,5 how many 4-digit numbers can be formed if the repetition of digits is not allowed.

Here 0 cannot be at a leading place as in such a case the number will become a 3-digit number.
Hence the first place can be filled in 5 ways and the second place left with 5 possibilities (now we have one lesser
digit available as it is used up at leading place, but we have one more digit '0' that can be filled at second place) that's
why it can also be filled with 5 ways and the third-place left with 4 possibilities and the fourth place left with 3
possibilities.

So the total number of 4 digit numbers = 5×5×4×3=300

Solving the same question if repetition of digits was allowed

In that case, the first place (from left) has 5 choices (excluding 0 otherwise it will not be 4 digit number). 2nd, 3rd, and
4th place will have 6 choices (all choices available, repetition allowed), so the total number, in this case, = 5×6×6×6

Arrangements of Digits
Find the number of Distinct 4-digits numbers that can be formed using 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 for each of the following
condition:

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 1. If the number is greater than 3000.

The thousand’s digit can be filled in 5 ways (any one of 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7). Now one is left with 6 digits and has to
arrange 3 of them. This can be done in 6P3 = 6 × 5 × 4 ways. Thus a total of 5 × (6 × 5 × 4) = 600 such numbers can
be formed.

2. If the number is EVEN.

The unit’s digit can be filled in three ways (2, 4 or 6). Now we are left with 6 digits and have to arrange 3 of them.
This can be done in 6P3 = 6 × 5 × 4 ways. Thus a total of (6 × 5 × 4) × 3 = 360 such numbers can be formed.

3. If the number is EVEN and greater than 3000.

The unit digit could be 2 OR 4 OR 6

Considering the case that the units digit is 2:

The units digit can be filled in only 1 way, with a 2. Having filled this, all of 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 are available (so that the
number is greater than 3000) for the thousands place and thus it can be filled in 5 ways (3,4,5,6,7). Next, we are left
with 5 digits and two of which have to be arranged i.e. can be done in 5 × 4 ways. Thus total possible numbers with
units digit being 2 will be 5 × (5 × 4) × 1 = 100

Considering the case that the units digit is 4: The units digit can be filled in 1 way. Having filled this, the digits
available for the thousands place are 3, 5, 6, 7 i.e. there are further 4 possibilities. Next, we are left with 5 digits and
two of which have to be arranged i.e. can be done in 5 × 4 ways. Thus total possible numbers with unit’s digit being 4
or 6 will be 4 × (5 × 4) × 1 = 80.

Considering the case that the units digit is 6: The units digit can be filled in 1 way. Having filled this, the digits
available for the thousands place are 3, 4, 5, 7 i.e. there are further 4 possibilities. Next, we are left with 5 digits and
two of which have to be arranged i.e. can be done in 5 × 4 ways. Thus total possible numbers with unit’s digit being 4
or 6 will be 4 × (5 × 4) × 1 = 80.

Thus the total number of even numbers greater than 3000 that can be formed will be 100 + 80 + 80 = 260

2.ARRANGEMENT OF PEOPLE IN A ROW

Arranging 4 boys and 4 girls such that 4 girls have to be together:

Considering all the four girls as one unit, we have to arrange 5 units in 5 places and this can be done in 5! ways. Now
one of the units is of 4 girls, who can be arranged amongst themselves in 4! ways. Thus the total number of ways of
arranging is 5! × 4!.

Arranging 4 boys and 4 girls such that no two girls should stand together:

The four boys can first be arranged in 4! ways. Now there will be 5 places (Three between 4 boys and one at each end)
for the 4 girls and they could be arranged in 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 ways. Thus the total number of arrangements possible is 4!
× 5 × 4 × 3 × 2.

Arranging 4 boys and 4 girls such that girls and boys have to be alternate:

When girls and boys have to be alternate, it would just be either G B G B G B G B or B G B G B G B G. In each of
these ways, there are 4 places for the boys and 4 places for the girls and thus they can be arranged in 4! × 4! in each of
these. Thus, the total number of arrangements possible is 2 × 4! × 4!.

3.QUESTION-BASED ON FACTORS

Factors of a number N refer to all the numbers which divide N completely. These are also called divisors of a number.

Basic formula related to factors of a number:

These are certain basic formulas pertaining to factors of a number N, such that,

Where, p, q, and r are prime factors of the number n.

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 a, b and c are non-negative powers/ exponents

Number of factors of N = (a+1)(b+1)(c+1)

Sum of factors: ( pa+1-1)( qb+1-1)(rc+1-1)/ (p-1) (q-1) (r-1)

Product of factors:

Let a number be N

It's Prime factorization be N=2ax3bx5c

For example: Find the Product of the factors of 72

4.Exponent of Prime P in n!
Where [x] stands for greatest integer value of .

If m is the index of highest power of a prime p that divides n! then

Example: Find the number of trailing zeros in 20!

Solution:

10 can be written as 2 x 5

If you want to figure out the exact number of zeroes, you would have to check how many times the number N is
divisible by 10.

When dividing N by 10, factors of 10 will be the smaller of the power of 2 or 5.

Number of trailing zeros is going to be the power of 2 or 5, whichever is lesser.

Hence number of trailling zeros are 4

Let’s say there is a round table with 6 chairs all identical and 6 persons have to sit. For the first person there is only
one choice to make as all chairs are identical, so wherever he may sit doesn’t matter. Now when 1st person has sit, 2nd
person with respect to 1st have five choices to sit, directly opposite or left or 2nd from left or right or 2nd from right to
1st person, in the same ways 3rd person will have 4 choices, 4th person will have 3 choice, 5th person will have 2
choices, and last person 1 choice, so in that way total 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = ( 6 - 1 )! permutations are possible.

We can generalize this result as an object that can be arranged along with a circular table in (n-1)! Ways

Example: In how many ways 7 people can be arranged along a circular table having 7 identical chairs.

Solution: using the above concept, it can be done in (7-1)! = 6!.

Necklace, Garland Type Questions

If clockwise and anticlockwise permutations are same in a circular permutation, (as in case of garlands or necklace
formation), the number of permutations becomes (½)(n -1)!

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 Since as in the case of necklace and garland if we flip the bead or garland then anticlockwise arrangements become
clockwise but they are identical because the objects are identical, hence two arrangements are reduced to one causing
the total number of permutations to be halved.

Example: Find the ways in which 10 different beads can be arranged to form a necklace?

Solution: Using circular permutations the total number of permutations = (10-1)!

Now since clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements give the same permutation so the total number of permutations
becomes (½)(9!)

5.Circular Permutations
If clockwise and anticlockwise permutations are same in a circular permutation, (as in case of garlands or necklace
formation), the number of permutations becomes (½)(n-1)!.

Since as in the case of necklace and garland if we flip the bead or garland then anticlockwise arrangements become
clockwise but they are identical because the objects are identical, hence two arrangements are reduced to one causing
the total number of permutations to be halved.

Example: Find the ways in which 10 different beads can be arranged to form a necklace?

Solution: Using circular permutations the total number of permutations = (10-1)!

Now since clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements give the same permutation so the total number of permutations
becomes (½)(9!)

A common type of problem asked in many examinations is to find the 'rank' of a given word in a dictionary. What this
means is that you are supposed to find the position of that word when all permutations of the word are written in
alphabetical order.

6.Rank of a word - without repetition of letters

Example:

Find the rank of a word MATHS in a dictionary made using its letters

Step 1: Write down the letters in alphabetical order.

The order will be A, H, M, S, T.

Step 2: Find the number of words that start with a superior letter.

Any word starting from A will be above MATHS. So, if we fix A at the first position, we have 4! = 24 words.
(number of ways arranging H, M, S, T).

Similarly, there will be 24 words that will start with H.

Number of words start with MAH is 2! = 2

Number of words start with MAS is 2! = 2

Number of words start with MATHS is 1! = 1

Therefore, the overall rank of the word MATHS is 24 + 24 + 2 + 2 + 1 = 53

Rank of a word - with repetition of letters

Example

Find the rank of a word INDIA in a dictionary made using its letters

Write down the letters in alphabetical order, the order will be A, D, I, I, N.

Number of words start with A is 4!/2! = 12 (We are dividing by 2! because I is repeating itself)
Number of words start with D is 4!/2! = 12

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 Number of words start with IA is 3! = 6 (number of ways arranging I, D, N)
Number of words start with ID is 3! = 6
Number of words start with II is 3! = 6
Number of words start with INA is 2! = 2
Number of words start with INDA is 1! = 1
Number of words start with INDIA is 1! = 1

Therefore, the overall rank of the word INDIA is 12 + 12 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 2 + 1 + 1= 46

So far our task was always to “arrange” objects i.e. to place them in a specific order among themselves.

Sometimes we would be interested in only “selecting” few objects out of the given objects. In this case we just need to
“select” and we do not need to “arrange” them in an order.

E.g., we need to select 4 students out of the 15 students who will represent the college at a quiz or we need to form an
academic committee of 3 professors from 10 professors. In this case, who is selected “first”, who is selected “second”
and so on does not matter. The words “first” and “second” implicitly implies an “ordering”. What matters in the case
of selection is only the composition of the final “group”.

The notation of selecting r objects from n given object is . Let’s derive the value of , and it’s relation with
permutation notation.

Let's say we want to arrange 2 objects out of 5 objects : A,B,C,D,E then using the concept of permutation we can do
this in ways.

We can calculate the same thing by another method: by selecting 2 things out of 5, which can be done as and then
arrange the 2 selected thing which can be done in 2! ways. So we have

We can generalize this concept for r object to be selected from given n objects as

Where 0 ≤ r ≤ n, and r is a whole number.

Now we have the value of

Example: In ICC World Cup 2019 total 10 teams participated and each team has to play one game in the league stage
with all other teams before qualifying for the semifinals, so how many total games will be played in the league stage.

Solution: For playing a game we need to select two teams. So this is a simple problem of selecting two teams, so this
can be done in

Hence in total 45 games will be played in the league stage.

Let us take an example of selecting things from two or more different groups:

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 Out of 5 men and 6 women in how many ways can a committee of 5 members be selected such that at least 2
members are women?

Solution:

Following cases are possible for at least 2 women,

2 women + 3 men =

3 women + 2 men =

4 women + 1 men =

5 women =

So, the total number of ways

Restricted Combination

The number of selection of r objects from n different objects:

1. When k particular things are always included =

This can be comprehended as taking out those k things which have to be included which can be done in 1 way
and then finding the ways in which r-k objects can be selected from remaining n - k things, and putting those k
things (which are already taken out) in r-k selected objects.

2. k particular things are never included =

This can be comprehended as taking out k things which are not to be selected which can be done in 1 way and
then finding the ways of selecting r things from n-k things.

3. The number of ways selecting r things out of n different things such that p particular objects are always included
and q particular objects are always excluded =

This can be comprehended as taking out the q objects which should not be selected and putting it out and then
taking out p objects which have to be selected and then finding ways of selecting r-p objects out of n- p-q
objects and putting back p objects in r-p selected objects.

Example: In how many ways a cricket team can be selected out of 16 players such that 5 certain players must be
included in the team.

Solution: Since 5 certain player has to be included so be need to select 11-5 = 6 player from 16 - 5 = 11 player.

So we can select the team in

If there are n points in the plane and out of which no three are collinear then,

1. Total No. of lines that can be formed using these n points = nC2

2. Total No. of triangles that can be formed using these n points = nC3

3. Total no. of Diagonals that can be formed in n sided polygon = nC2 - n

If there are n points in the plane and out of which m points are collinear, then,

1. Total No. of different lines that can be formed by joining these n points is

2. Total No. of different triangles that can be formed by joining these n points is

3. Total No. of different quadrilaterals formed by joining these n points is

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 Number of Parallelograms

If m parallel lines in a plane are intersected by the family of other n parallel lines, then the total number of
parallelograms formed is

Number of rectangles and squares

1. Number of rectangles of any size in a square of size n x n is and number of squares of any size is .

2. In a rectangle of size n x p (n < p) number of rectangles of any size is .

To determine the number of ways to reach in the shortest way from point A to B.

When considering the possible paths or shortest path one can observe that the total number of steps in the forward
direction is 6-R(Right) and in the upward direction is 4-U(Upward)

Now, If we arrange these 6 Rs and 4 Us in any way, it comes out to be a shortest path.

Or one can say that first find all the possible steps and arrange them to get the total number of possible ways.

Using "u" and "r" we can write out a path:

r r r r r r u u u u

r r r u u u u r r r

and others......

Hence, the total number of ways is or,

In certain situations, one has the liberty of selecting any number of objects from n (say) given objects. In this case, one
can select 0 objects or 1 object or 2 objects or 3 objects or so on.... or all n objects.

Further, if the n objects are all different objects then not just how many objects are to be selected but a further question
of which objects are selected also assumes importance. Thus there are two cases viz. the n objects being distinct or
being identical.

Selections of any number of objects out of n DISTINCT objects:

Total no. of selections [Including Empty Selection]

Total no. of Non Empty selection =

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 Example: A buffet dinner consists of 5 different dishes. In how many different ways can one help oneself if he has to
take at least one dish?

Solution: The person can help himself to 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 dishes. Further, when he takes 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5, he
can also choose which of the dish he takes. Thus he can help himself in 5C1 + 5C2 + … + 5C5 i.e. 32 – 1 = 31 ways.

Selections of Any number of objects out of n IDENTICAL objects:

Total no. of selections [including Empty Selection] = n+1

Total no. of Non Empty selections = n ways

These both cases can be justified as selecting 1 or 2 or 3...or...n objects can be done in 1 way each (as each object is
identical), so total n ways and if we don’t select any then it adds one more way of selecting 0 objects, hence n+1 ways

Question: In how many different ways can a person make a purchase from a fruit seller who has 5 mangoes, 8 apples
and 10 oranges left with him and if the person has to purchase at least 1 mango, at least 1 apple and at least 1 orange?

Solution: Since at least 1 of each type has to be purchased, the number of ways with each of the different fruits can be
purchased is 5 ways, 8 ways and 10 ways respectively. Thus, the total number of ways in which the purchase can be
made is 5 × 8 × 10 = 400 ways.

Consider that 12 people have to be divided among the three groups of unequal sizes such as one group has 3
members, one group has 4 members and one group has 5 members?

We could have formed a group of 3 members in ways. Having formed a group of three, we would be left with 12
– 3 = 9 people. A group of 4 members can be formed from these 9 members in 9C4 ways. For each group of 3
members formed earlier, there would be further ways of forming a group of four. Thus, the total possible number
of ways of forming a group of 3 and a group of 4 would be . Now there would be 5 people left who are
the third group i.e. the third group can be formed in only 1 way. To maintain consistency, we will say that the third
group can be formed in ways (which is 1 anyways). Thus, the total number of ways of forming the groups is

. On expansion, this equals .

This concept can be generalized for (m+n+r) distinct objects which have to be grouped into three unequal groups
containing m,n and r objects. So this grouping can be done in

number of ways

This same concepts will apply for (m+n) distinct object which has to be grouped in two unequal containing m, and n
items.

Number of ways of dividing mn object into m groups such that all groups contain n objects

equals

Example: How many ways 12 people can be divided into 3 groups, such that all three of them contain 4 people each.

Solution: The number of ways of forming the three groups is . Since we are multiplying these three
factors, we are inadvertently also arranging the groups in a particular order. (Remember that if one position can be
filled in 5 ways, another can be filled in 4 ways, third can be filled in 3 ways, when we apply the rule of AND i.e. 5 ×
4 × 3, we are basically finding the number of “arrangements” of the three positions)

But the question requires us to just form groups and we do not have to “arrange” the groups. Since we have arranged 3
objects which did not have to be arranged, we have counted each unique way of forming the groups 3! times i.e. 6
times. Thus, the correct answer would be found by dividing the earlier found answer by 3! This will give you the
above formula itself.

To find the solutions of a + b + c = 6 such that a,b,c are non-negative integers

Since zero is included, we have a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 0

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 Number of solutions of a + b + c = 6 is equivalent to the number of ways of distributing 6 identical things into 3
different people, which can be achieved by arranging 6 objects and 3 - 1 = 2 partitions in a row. The number of objects
before the first partition is given to first person, the number of objects in between the two partitions is given to second
person and number of objects after second partition is given to third person.

Number of ways of doing this arrangement is , which can also be written as

Hence the total number of solutions

Generalized formula

For whole number solutions of , we have the formula .

Generalized formula
The natural number solutions of are

Q: Find the Natural number of solutions of a + b + c = 6 such that a,b,c are natural numbers

Solution:

Since zero is included, we have a ≥ 1, b ≥ 1, c ≥ 1

Let us define new variables

a' + 1 = a

b' + 1 = b

c' + 1 = c

Now if a', b', c' are whole numbers then a, b, c will be natural numbers.

So the equation becomes a' + 1 + b' + 1 + c' + 1 = 6

a' + b' + c' = 3

So whole number solutions of this equation equal natural number solutions of a + b + c = 6

Hence the total number of solutions

No restriction

To distribute n different things in r different boxes, such that there is no restriction on the number of objects a box can
have (some boxes can remain empty as well)

We have r options for each object, so number of ways is r.r.r......n times = rn

Non-empty restriction

To distribute n different things in r different boxes, such that none of the box is empty

Such problems can be done in following steps

1. Decide the number of objects in each group and make cases accordingly

2. In each case, first divide them into groups using grouping formula, then distibute these r groups in r people

Suppose we need to distribute 5 different hats in 3 different box such that no box is empty

Step 1:

To decide the group sizes, we should first distribute 1 hat to each 3 boxes so that none of them remain empty. Now we
will be left with 2 hats, those 2 hats can be distributed to

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 1 group forming group combination as 1 1 3

OR

1-1 hat to 2 different groups giving the combination 1 2 2.

So in that way we will get two cases

Step 2.

Case I:

Make group of sizes (1 1 3) combination in ways.

Now distribute these 3 groups in 3 people in 3! ways

So total number of ways for case 1 = = 60

Case II:

Following the same logic in this case

Total number of possible ways of distribution

Hence total ways = 60+90 = 150

This type of concept can be comprehended as arranging all n identical objects to be distributed and (r-1) marks of
partition. These (r-1) partitions will divide the objects in r groups. These r groups can be given to these r distinct
people in order.

As each person can get zero or more objects in such arrangement, so number of ways is

If each one has to get at least one object, then first distribute r objects to these r people (each one gets one, and any r
objects can be given as these are identical), then we can distribute remaining (n - r) objects in r people in
ways

Alternative:

This thing can also be comprehended as following

Let first group gets a1 objects

Second group gets a2 objects

.....

rth group gets ar objects

So, a1 + a2 + a3+...+ ar = n …....(i)

Now if empty groups are allowed we need to find the whole number solution of the equation (i)

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 So, whole number solutions of a1 + a2 + a3+...+ ar = n equals number of ways to distribute n distinct objects in r
people, and these both equal

If empty groups are not allowed, then each of these values has to be natural number. Number of ways of distribution
will thus equal natural number solutions of equation (i), which is

Example: In how many ways can 10 Identical chocolate be distributed among 3 children, such that each student can
get any number and at least one?

Solution: using the above concept, we use direct formula for this, so we have

Suppose we want to distribute 5 distinct hats in 3 Identical boxes such that each box receives at least 1 hat. This can be
done in 2 steps

Step 1: Decide the number of hats that each will get. Make cases depending on this

Step 2: Make groups in each case using the formula for grouping

Now,

Step 1: we can distribute 3 hats one-one each to all 3 groups, after that we can place remaining 2 hats in one group or
1-1 to 2 groups. So 2 cases: 1st = 1 1 3, 2nd = 1 2 2

Step 2: Now these cases are similar to the division of groups where group sizes are given

So, according to 1st case, we can be group hats in

Similarly for 2nd case,

So the total number of ways of distribution

In this type, it does not matter which object goes in which group as all objects are identical, the only thing that matters
is how many objects go into groups, and that means ordering or group does not matter

Example: In how many ways can 12 identical hats be put in 3 identical boxes such that each box has at least 2 hats?

Solution: First and foremost 2 hats should be put in each box (which hats does not matter as all are identical). Now
we are left with 6 hats to be put in 3 identical boxes. As learned earlier, in the case of identical boxes, we have only
concerned with dividing the 6 hats in 3 portions.

The hurdle is that the sizes could be anything. Thus again we individually consider all cases, with groups being every
possible size. The possibilities are {0, 0, 6}; {0, 1, 5}; {0, 2, 4}; {0, 3, 3}; {1, 1, 4}; {1, 2, 3}; {2, 2, 2} i.e. 7
possibilities.

7 is our answer because each possible way of grouping can be done in only 1 way. Why? Because all hats are
identical, so “which hat is in which group” does not matter.

Thus, the answer is 7 ways.

Binomial Theorem
Important Formulae

An algebraic expression consisting of only two terms is called a Binomial Expression

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 If we wanted to expand (x + y)52, we might multiply (x + y) by itself fifty-two times. This could take hours!

But if we examine some simple expansions, we can find patterns that will lead us to a shortcut for finding more
complicated binomial expansions.

On examining the exponents, we find that with each successive term, the exponent for x decreases by 1 and the
exponent for y increases by 1. The sum of the two exponents is n for each term.

Also the coefficients for (x+y)n are equal to

where,

These patterns lead us to the Binomial Theorem, which can be used to expand any binomial expression.

For any natural number n, binomial expansion is

The combination is called a binomial coefficient.

Note: n can be any rational number for binomial expansion, but formula for n that are not natural numbers is different
and will be covered in later sections.

Properties of Binomial Theorem and Binomial Coefficient

1. If n is a natural number, then the expansion (x + y)n has n + 1 terms.

2. In each term, the sum of the index of ‘x’ and ‘y’ is equal to ‘n’.

3. The sum of two consecutive binomial coefficients,

4.

Properties of Binomial Theorem and Binomial Coefficient

5. Binomial coefficients of the term equidistant from the beginning and end are equal.

Eg, second binomial coefficient from start = nC1, and second binomial coeffcient from the end = nCn-1

These are equal as 1 + (n-1) = n

6.

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 7.

We know the binomial expansion,

1. Replace ‘y’ with ‘-y’ in the binomial expansion, we get

2. In the binomial expansion, (x + y)n replace ‘x’ by 1 and ‘y’ by x

3. In the binomial expansion, (x + y)n replace ‘x’ by ‘1’ and ‘y’ by ‘-x’

4. Addition: (x + y)n + (x - y)n

5. Subtraction: (x + y)n - (x - y)n

1.General Term
Sometimes we are interested only in a certain term of a binomial expansion. We do not need to fully expand a
binomial to find a single specific term.

Term independent of x

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 It means term containing x0,

For example, to find term independent of x in

(p+1)th term from the end

The binomial expansion

From Starting

From the End

(Using relation )

Now,

Consider the binomial expansion

Just observe that, (p + 1)th term from the end of the expansion of (x + y)n = (p + 1)th term from the beginning of the
expansion of

(y + x)n = nCp yn-p xp

Rational term in the expansion of

General and Middle Terms

The middle term in the expansion (x + y)n, depends on the value of 'n'.

Case 1 When 'n' is even

If n is even, and number of terms in the expansion is n + 1, so n +1 is odd number therefore only one middle term is
obtained which is

term.

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 It is given by

Case 2 When 'n' is odd

In this case, the number of terms in the expansion will be n + 1. Since n is odd so, n + 1 is even. Therefore, there will

be two middle terms in the expansion, namely terms.

And it is given by

Note:

Binomial Coefficient of the middle term is greatest among all binomial coefficients in an expansion.

So if n is even, then nCr is largest if r = n/2

And if n is odd, then nCr is largest if r = or , and both these values of nCr are equal

If consecutive coefficients are given

If in the question, coefficients of consecutive terms, like rth, (r + 1)th and (r + 2)th and so on… are involed, then to
solve divide consecutive coefficients pairwise.

i.e.

And with the help of the given condition in the question, you get equations. Solve these equations to get the answer.

Let’s understand this by an example,

If the coefficients of rth, (r + 1)th and (r + 2)th terms of the expansion (1 + x)n are in AP, and the relation between n
and r is asked (where n is a positive integer), then

From the concept of the general term

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 If consecutive terms are given
If in the question, consecutive terms Tr , Tr + 1 , Tr + 2 , and so on…. are given. Then to divide consecutive

coefficients pairwise i.e.

Now divide α2 by α1 and α3 by α2 ...to solve the question

2.Numerically Greatest Value:

The number which has the highest modulus value is called the Numerically Greatest Value

Eg, out of 4, -7, -5, 6, 1

-7 has the Numerically Greatest Value because its mod value (=7) is the largest among all the mod values of the given
numbers

Method to find the Numerically Greatest Term of the expansion (a + b)n

First, find the value of m which is

If m is an integer, then Tm and Tm + 1 are numerically equal and both are greatest terms.

If m is not an integer, then T[m] + 1 is the greatest term, where [m] is an integral part of m.

Finding nature of an integral part of the expression.

If the given expansion is in the form of

Working rule:

Step 1:

Step 2: Use N + N’ or N - N’ such that result is an integer

I.e.

Step 3: Now use the concept greatest integer function and fractional part of a function, N = I + f, where I is an integral
part of N i.e., [N] and f is a fractional part of N, i.e. { N }.

For example, the integral part of is an even number.

Now consider,

Use,

Hence, integral part of is an even integer

Given Expression is divisible by an Integer

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 Divisibility: Important Results

1. The expression is divisible by , if is even.

2. The expression is divisible by , if n is even or odd.

3. The expression is divisible by , if n is odd.

In all the above cases n is a natural numbers.

Working rule to finding the last digit of an expression

After expanding (10k ± 1)m it will look like

Finding Remainder Using Binomial Theorem

If the number is given in the form of ‘an’ and which is divided by ‘b’. To find the remainder, adjust the power of ‘a’ to
am such that it is very close to ‘b’ with a difference of 1 (i.e. b + 1 or b - 1).

Also, when number of the type 7k - 1 is divided by 7, remainder cannot be -1, as remainder is always positive

So, in such cases, we have

Hence, the reminder is 6 (= 7 - 1)

As binomial has two terms raised to some power, similarly a multinomial has multiple terms raised to some
power.

eg, (Where n is a positive integer)

Expansion for the multinomial is

with α1 + α2 + α3 + …. + αk = n,

and α1, α2, α3, …., αk

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 3.In particular,

The number of distinct terms in the multinomial expansion is n + k - 1Ck - 1

Sum of Binomial Coefficients

Proof:

We have

Putting x = 1, we have

Sum of Binomial coefficients with alternate sign

Proof:

Sum of the Binomial coefficients of the odd terms & Sum of the Binomial coefficients of the
even terms

Adding the above two series we get,

Similarly, on subtracting we get,

Hence, sum of the binomial coefficients of the odd terms = Sum of the binomial coefficients of the even terms

I.e.

1. To get the value of

We know,

Differentiate both sides with respect to the x we get,

Put x=1 we get,

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 Note:

This result can also be written as

Students are advised to remember this result
Example- 1

The value of is

Method - 1: Differentiation

Differentiate both sides with respect to the x we get,

Put x=1 we get,

Method - 2: Sigma method

Example -2

Method - 1: Differentiation

On differentiating both sides w.r.t x

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 Hence, .

Method - 2: Sigma method

Important Results for Sigma Method

1.

2.

3.

If the numbers occur as the denominator of the binomial coefficient, then this method is applicable.

Working rule:

S.
Conditions Limits of integration
No.
1 If the binomial series contains all positive sign terms 0 to 1
2 If the binomial series contains alternate sign (+ and -) -1 to 0
If the binomial series contains odd coefficients (C0, C2,
3 -1 to 1
C4,.....)
If the binomial series contains even coefficients (C1, C3, subtract (2) from (1) then divide by 2
4
C5,.....)

Note:

If in the denominator of a binomial coefficient product of two numerical, then integrate two times first times taken
limits between 0 to x and second times take suitable limits.

Some Binomial Series using Integration

Example

Proof:

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 Series Involving Product of two Binomial Coefficients
Example

Here, the sum of lower suffixes in each term is constant

Shortcut formula

To get the value of

Observe that upper indices are constant in each term, and sum of lower indices = constant = (n-r)

So this expression equals

So the given expression equals

If the difference of lower suffixes of binomial coefficients in each term is the same
Example

Prove that

Here the difference of lower indices is constant in each term

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 We can convert it to a form where sum of the lower indices in each term is same, then apply the shortcut formula that
we learnt in previous concept

Using the relation in second coefficients of each term

Now observe that sum of lower indices is constant, so we can apply the shortcut formula that we learnt in previous
concept

Upper Index variable

Let's see some examples to understand how to solve such type of questions

How do we find the summation of the series where upper index also varies

e.g.,

[put value of r = 0, 1, 2, ……,upto n]

By using the property of the binomial coefficient

4.Binomial Theorem for any Index

Note:

1. If n is negative or fractional index then the condition |x| < 1 is essential.

2. There is an infinite number of terms in the expansion of (1 + x)n, when n is negative or fractional index.

If the first term is not unity and the index of the binomial is either a negative integer or a fraction, then we expand as
follows:

If

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 And when |x| > |a|

Important Results of Binomial Theorem for any Index

In the above expansion replace ‘n’ with ‘-n’

If -n is a negative integer (so that n is a positive integer), then we can re-write this expression as

Now replace ‘x’ with ‘-x’ and ‘n’ with ‘-n’ in the binomial expansion (1 + x)n.

Important Note:

The coefficient of xr in (1 - x)-n, (when n is a natural number) is n+r-1Cr

Some Important Binomial Expansion

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 Statistics and Probability
Important Formulae

Representation of Data
Any bit of information that is expressed as a numerical number is data. For example, the marks you obtained in your
Math exam is data. Data is basically a collection of information, measurements or observations.

The data once collected must be arranged or organised in a way so that inferences or conclusions can be made out
from it.

The following are the ways to represent data

1. Ungrouped distribution
2. Ungrouped frequency distribution
3. Grouped frequency distribution

The frequency of any value is the number of times that value appears in a data set.

Ungrouped distribution

Consider the marks obtained (out of 100 marks) by 30 students of Class XI of a school:

This representation is called Ungrouped distribution, as all the values are simply mentioned separated by comma.

Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

Observe that, 4 students got 70 marks. So the frequency of 70 marks is 4.

To make the data more easily understandable, we create a table,

The above table is called a Ungrouped Frequency Distribution.

Grouped Frequency Distribution

We can show data as ranges of marks and the number of students that obtained markes in that range.

So we can represent this data as

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 Here we have taken groups (range) of marks. This is why it is called Grouped distribution.

Also the difference of marks in each interval is 15 (25-10 = 15, 70-55=15,...). This number is called width of class-
interval. Here width is 15, but we can take any width as per our convenience.

The above table is called a Grouped frequency distribution

1.Central value of Data

A measure of central tendency (or central value) is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying
the central position within that set of data. Apart from mean (often called the average), there are other central values
such as the median and the mode.

The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under different conditions, some measures
of central tendency become more appropriate to use than others.

Mean
The mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided by the number of values in the data set. If we
have n values in a data set, i.e. , then its mean, usually denoted by (pronounced "x bar"), is:

Median
The median is the middle value for a set of data that has been arranged in asscending or descending order.

For example, to find the median of the following data

We first rearrange that data into order (ascending)

Median mark is the value exactly at the middle - in this case, 56

When the n is even in the data set, then simply you have to take the middle two scores and average them.

Mode
The mode is the most frequent value in our data set.

Normally, the mode is used for categorical data where we wish to know which is the most common category,

in the above case, mode of the data set is 55

MEAN (Arithmetic Mean)

The mean is the sum of the value of each observation in a dataset divided by the number of observations.

For example, to calculate the mean weight of 50 people, add the 50 weights together and divide by 50. Technically this
is the arithmetic mean.

Mean of the Ungrouped Data

If n observations in data are x1, x2, x3, ……, xn, then arithmetic mean is given by

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 Mean of Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
If observations in data are x1, x2, x3, ……, xn with respective frequencies f1, f2, f3, ……, fn ; then

The mean in this case is given by

Grouped Frequency Distribution

is taken as mid-point of respective classes (or interval).

i.e.,

MEDIAN
The median is the "middle value" of the data when arranged in ascending or descending order.

It is a number that separates ordered data into 2 equal halves. Half the values are the same number or smaller than the
median, and half the values are the same number or larger.

Median of Ungrouped Data

If the number of observations is n,

First arrange the observations in ascending or descending order.

If n is odd :

If n is even :

Median of Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

To find the median, first arrange the observations in ascending order. After this the cumulative frequencies are
obtained.

Let the sum of frequencies is denoted by N.

Now if N is odd, then identify the observation whose cumulative frequency equal to or just greater than . This
value of the observation lies in the middle of the data and therefore, it is the required median.

If N is even, then find two observations, first whose cumulative frequency equal to or just greater than (N/2) and
second whose cumulative frequency equal to or just greater than (N/2 + 1). The median is the average of these two

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 observations

Median of Continuous Frequency Distribution

In this case, the following formula can be used

a. When observations arranged in ascending order

where,

l = lower limit of median class,

N = number of observations,

cf = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class,

f = frequency of median class,

h = class size (width) (assuming class size to be equal).

MODE
Mode is that value among the observations which occurs most often, that is, the value of the observation having the
maximum frequency.

In a grouped frequency distribution, it is not possible to determine the mode by looking at the frequencies. Here, we
can only locate a class with the maximum frequency, called the modal class. The mode is a value inside the modal
class, and is given by the formula:

where

l = lower limit of the modal class,

h = size of the class interval (assuming all class sizes to be equal),

f1 = frequency of the modal class,

f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class,

f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.

Measures of the Spread of the Data

An important characteristic of any set of data is the variation in the data. The degree to which the numerical data tends
to vary about an average value is called the dispersion or scatteredness of the data.

The following are the measures of dispersion:

1. Range

2. Mean Deviation

3. Standard deviation and Variance

Range

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 Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest value in a set of observations.

The range of data gives us a rough idea of variability or scatter but does not tell about the dispersion of the data from a
measure of central tendency.

2.Mean Deviation
Mean deviation for ungrouped data

Let n observations are x1 , x2 , x3 , ...., xn .

If x is a number, then its deviation from any given value a is |x - a|

To find the mean deviation about mean or median or any other value M of ungrouped data, following steps are
involved:

1. Calculate the measure of central tendency about which we need to find the mean deviation. Let it be

2. Find the deviation of each from , i.e.,

3. Find the mean of these deviations. This mean is the mean deviation about , i.e.,

Mean deviation for ungrouped frequency distribution

Let the given data consist of n distinct values x1 , x2 , ..., xn occurring with frequencies f1 , f2 , ..., fn respectively.

1. Mean Deviation About Mean

First find the mean, i.e.

N is the sum of all frequencies

Then, find the deviations of observations from the mean and take their absolute values, i.e.,

After this, find the mean of the absolute values of the deviations

2. Mean Deviation About any value 'a'

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 Mean deviation for grouped frequency distribution
The formula for mean deviation are the same as in the case of ungrouped frequency distribution. Here, is the mid
point of each class.

Note

The mean deviation about the median is the lowest as compared to mean deviation about any other value.

3.Variance and Standard Deviation

The mean of the squares of the deviations from the mean is called the variance and is denoted by σ2 (read as sigma
square).

Variance is a quantity which leads to a proper measure of dispersion.

The variance of n observations x1 , x2 ,..., xn is given by

4.Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a number that measures how far data values are from their mean.

The positive square-root of the variance is called standard deviation. The standard deviation is usually denoted by σ
and it is given by

Variance and Standard Deviation of a Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

The given data is

Variance and Standard deviation of a grouped frequency distribution

The formula for variance and standard deviation are the same as in the case of ungrouped frequency distribution. Here,
is the mid point of each class.

Another formula for Standard Deviation

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 5.Coefficients of Dispersion
The measure of variability which is independent of units is called coefficient of dispersion

We have three such measures

Coefficients of Range

It equals

Where is the highest observation, and is the lowest observation

Coefficients of Standard Deviation

It equals

where σ and are the standard deviation and mean of the data.

Coefficients of Variation (denoted as C.V.)

The coefficient of variation is defined as

where σ and are the standard deviation and mean of the data.

For comparing the variability or dispersion of two series, we calculate the coefficient of variance for each series. The
series having greater C.V. is said to be more variable than the other. The series having lesser C.V. is said to be more
consistent than the other and thus is considered better.

Some Important Points Regarding Statistics

1. The sum of the deviation of an observation from their mean is equal to zero. i.e. .

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 2. The sum of the square of the deviation from the mean is minimum, i.e.
3. The mean is affected accordingly if the observations are given a mathematical treatment i.e. addition,
subtraction multiplication by a constant term.
4. If set of n1 observations has mean and a set of n2 observations has mean , then their combined mean is

5. If set of n1 observations has mean and set of n2 observations has mean then their combined variance is
given by

where,

are the means and are the standard deviations of two series.

6.Relation between Mean, Mode and Median

If the distribution is symmetric, the value of mean, mode and median coincide. In symmetric distribution, frequencies
are symmetrically distributed on the both side of the center point of the frequency curve.

Distribution which are not symmetric is called a skewed-distribution.

The empirical relation between mean, mode and median in such distributions is:

First we learn some important elementary technical terms related to probability and discuss some examples
concerning these.

7.Probability
Random Experiment
An experiment is called random experiment if it satisfies the following two conditions:

1. It has more than one possible outcome.

2. It is not possible to predict the outcome in advance.

An experiment whose all possible outcomes are known but the outcome in one experiment cannot be predicted with
certainty.

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 For example, when a coin is tossed it may turn up a head or a tail (so we know the possible outcomes), but we are not
sure which one of these results will actually be obtained.

Sample Space
A possible result of a random experiment is called its outcome and the set of all possible outcomes of a random
experiment is called Sample Space. Generally, sample space is denoted by S.

Each element of the sample space is called a sample point. In other words, each outcome of the random experiment is
also called a sample point.

1. Rolling of an unbiased die is a random experiment in which all the possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Hence,
the sample space for this experiment is, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

2. When two coin is tossed simultaneously, then possible outcomes are

Heads on both coins = (H,H) = HH

Head on first coin and Tail on the other = (H,T) = HT
Tail on first coin and Head on the other = (T,H) = TH
Tail on both coins = (T,T) = TT

Thus, the sample space is S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

Event
The set of outcomes from an experiment is known as an Event.

When a die is thrown, sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Let A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {1, 3, 5}, C = {2, 4, 6}

Here, A is the event of occurrence of prime numbers, B is the event of occurrence of odd numbers and C is the event
of occurrence of even numbers.

Also, observe that A, B and C are subsets of S.

Now, what is Occurrence of an event ?

From the above example, experiment of throwing a die. Let E denotes the event “ a number less than 4 appears”. If
any of ‘1’ or '2' or '3' had appeared on the die then we say that event E has occurred.

Thus, the event E of a sample space S is said to have occurred if the outcome ω of the experiment is such that ω ∈ E.
If the outcome ω is such that ω ∉ E, we say that the event E has not occurred.

Mutually Exclusive Events

Two or more than two events are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one of the
events excludes the occurrence of the other

Independent Events
Events can be said to be independent if the occurrence or non-occurrence of one event does not
influence the occurrence or
non-occurrence of the other.

Simple Event

If an event has only one sample point of a sample space, it is called a simple (or elementary) event.

1. When a coin is tossed, sample space S = {H, T}

The event of an occurrence of a head = A = {H}

The event of an occurrence of a tail = B = {T}

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 Here, A and B are simple events.

2. When a coin is tossed two times, sample space S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

The event of an occurrence of two head = A = {HH}

The event of an occurrence of two tail = B = {TT}

Here, A and B are simple events.

Compound Event
If an event has more than one sample point, it is called a Compound event.

For example, in the experiment of “tossing a coin thrice” the events

A: ‘Exactly one tail appeared’

B: ‘Atleast one head appeared’

C: ‘Atmost one head appeared’ etc.

are all compound events.

The subsets of S associated with these events are

S = {HHH, HHT, HTT, HTH, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}

A = {HHT, HTH, THH}

B = {HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}

C = {TTT, THT, HTT, TTH}

Each of the above subsets contain more than one sample point, hence they are all compound events

Impossible and Sure Events

Consider the experiment of rolling a die. The associated sample space is

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Let E be the event “ the number appears on the die is greater than 7”.

Clearly no outcome satisfies the condition given in the event, i.e., no element of the sample space ensures the
occurrence of the event E.

Thus, the event E = φ is an impossible event.

Now let us take up another event F “the number that turns up is less than 7”.

Clearly, F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = S i.e., all outcomes of the experiment ensure the occurrence of the event F. Thus, the
event F = S is a sure event.

Complimentary Event
For every event A, there corresponds another event A′ which contains all outcomes in sample space that are not
covered in A. Such event is called the complementary event to A. It is also called the event ‘not A’.

For example, take the experiment ‘of tossing two coins’. The sample space is

S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

Let A={HT, TH} be the event ‘only one tail appears’

Thus the complementary event ‘not A’ to the event A is

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 A’ = {HH, TT}

or A’ = {ω : ω ∈ S and ω ∉A} = S - A

The Event ‘A or B’

As we have studied in the first chapter, ‘Sets’, the union of two sets A and B denoted by A ∪ B contains all those
elements which are either in A or in B or in both.

When the sets A and B are two events associated with a sample space, then A ∪ B is the event ‘either A or B or both’.
This event A ∪ B is also called ‘A or B’.

Therefore

The Event ‘A and B’

The intersection of two sets A ∩ B is the set of those elements which are common to both A and B. i.e., which belong
to both ‘A and B’.

If A and B are two events, then the set A ∩ B denotes the event ‘A and B’.

The Event ‘A but not B’

The A – B is the set of all those elements which are in A but not in B. Therefore, the set A – B may denote the event ‘A
but not B’.

Also, A - B = A ∩ B´ or A - ( A ∩ B).

Equally Likely Events

Equally likely means that each outcome of an experiment occurs with equal probability. For example, if you toss a
fair, six-sided die, each face (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) is as likely to occur as any other face. If you toss a fair coin, a Head
(H) and a Tail (T) are equally likely to occur. If you randomly guess the answer to a true/false question on an exam,
you are equally likely to select a correct answer or an incorrect answer.

8.Exhaustive events
Consider the experiment of rolling a die. The associated sample space is

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Let us define the following events

A: ‘a prime number number less than 6 appears’,

B: ‘a number less than 2 appears’

and C: ‘a number greater than 3 appears’.

Then A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {1} and C = {4, 5, 6}.

Observe that, A ∪ B ∪ C = {2, 3, 5} ∪ {1} ∪ {4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = S

So if union of given events equals sample space, then these events are called a system of exhaustive events.
Thus events A, B and C are called exhaustive events in this case.

In general, if E1 , E2 , ..., En are n events of a sample space S and if

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 then E1 , E2 , ..., En are called exhaustive events.

Mutually exclusive events

Consider the experiment of rolling a die. The associated sample space is

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Consider events, A ‘an odd number appears’ and B ‘an even number appears’

A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}

Clearly A ∩ B = φ, i.e., A and B are disjoint sets.

In general, two events A and B are called mutually exclusive events if the occurrence of any one of them excludes the
occurrence of the other event, i.e., if they can not occur simultaneously. In this case the sets A and B are disjoint.

The Addition Rule of Probability

(Probability of the event ‘A or B’ )

If A and B are any two events defined on a sample space, then the probability of occurrence of at least one of the event
A and B is P(A ∪ B) and it equals P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B) .

Special case

If A and B are disjoint sets, i.e., they are mutually exclusive events, then A ∩ B = φ. Therefore P(A ∩ B) = P (φ) = 0

Thus, for mutually exclusive events A and B, we have P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B),

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 If A and B are two events, then

(A - B) ∩ (A ∩ B) = φ and A = (A - B) ∪ (A ∩ B)

So, P(A) = P(A - B) + P(A ∩ B) - 0

= P(A ∩ B’) + P(A ∩ B)

or P(A) - P(A ∩ B) = P(A ∩ B’) = P(A - B)

Similarly, P(B) - P(A ∩ B) = P(B ∩ A’) = P(B - A)

If A, B and C are any three events in a sample space S, then

P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) - P(A ∩ B) - P(A ∩ C) - P(B ∩ C) + P(A ∩ B ∩ C)

If A, B and C are any three mutually exclusive events in a sample space S, then

P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C)

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 Probability of event ‘not A’ or Complementary Event
If E is the any event and E’ be the complement of the event E. Since, E and E’ are disjoint and exhaustive sets.

9.Conditional Probability
Conditional probability is a measure of the probability of an event given that another event has already occurred. If A
and B are two events associated with the same sample space of a random experiment, the conditional probability of

the event A given that B has already occurred is written as P(A|B), P(A/B) or .

The formula to calculate P(A|B) is

For example, suppose we toss one fair, six-sided die. The sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let A = face is 2 or 3 and
B = face is even number (2, 4, 6).

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 Here, P(A|B) means that the probability of occurrence of face 2 or 3 when an even number has occurred which means
that one of 2, 4 and 6 has occurred.

To calculate P(A|B), we count the number of outcomes 2 or 3 in the modified sample space B = {2, 4, 6}: meaning the
common part in A and B. Then we divide that by the number of outcomes in B (rather than S).

Properties of Conditional Probability

Let A and B are events of a sample space S of an experiment, then

Property 1 P(S|A) = P(A|A) = 1

Proof:

Property 2 If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and C is an event of S such that P(C) ≠ 0, then

P((A ∪ B)|C) = P(A|C) + P(B|C) – P((A ∩ B)|C)

In particular, if A and B are disjoint events, then

P((A∪B)|C) = P(A|C) + P(B|C)

Proof:

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 Property 3 P(A’|B) =1 - P(A|B) , if P(B) ≠ 0

Proof:

From Property 1, we know that P(S|B) = 1

⇒ P((A ∪ A’)|B) = 1 (as A ∪ A’ = S )

⇒ P(A|B) + P(A’|B) = 1 (as A and A’ are disjoint event)

⇒ P(A’|B) = 1 - P(A|B)

Mathematical Induction
Important Formulae

Mathematical induction is one of the techniques which can be used to prove a variety of mathematical statements
which are formulated in terms of n, where n is a positive integer (natural number)

Principle of Mathematical Induction:

Suppose there is a given statement P(n) involving the natural number n such that

1. The statement is true for n = 1, i.e., P(1) is true, and

2. If the statement is true for n = k (where k is some positive integer), then the statement is also true for n = k + 1,
i.e., truth of P(k) implies the truth of P (k + 1).

Then, P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

Property (i) is simply a statement of fact. There may be situations when a statement is true for all n ≥ 2. In this case,
step 1 will start from n = 2 and we shall verify the result for n = 2, i.e., P(2).

Property (ii) is a conditional property. It does not assert that the given statement is true for n = k, but only that if it is
true for n = k, then should also be true for n = k +1 for this principle to be applicable. So, to prove that the property
holds, only prove that conditional proposition:

If the statement is true for n = k, then it is also true for n = k + 1.

Prove the statement:

Proof:

Step 1: Check if P(1) is true

For n = 1, we have

So, formula is true for n = 1.So P(1) is true

Step 2: Assume P(k) to be true and using that check if P(k+1) is true

Suppose that P (k) is true for some positive integer k

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 Now we need to prove that P (k + 1) is also true.

Therefore, P (k + 1) is true and the inductive proof is now completed.

Hence P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

Mathematical Reasoning and Statements

Important Formulae

A mathematical statement is the basic unit of any mathematical reasoning. A sentence is called a
mathematical statement if it is either true or false but not both.

For example,

1. ‘Mumbai is in India’ is a statement because it is true.

2. ‘Two plus five equals ten’ is a statement because it is false.

3. ‘All prime numbers are odd numbers’ is a statement because it is false.

4. 'x is a prime number' is NOT a mathematical statement as it can either be true or false depending on the value
that the variable x takes. Such statements are also called Open statements.

Note:

A true statement is also called Valid statement and a false statement is also called an Invalid
statement.

Logical Connectives
The words which combine or change simple statements to form new statements or compound statements are called
Connectives. The basic connectives (logical) conjunction corresponds to the English word ‘and’, disjunction
corresponds to the word ‘or’, and negation corresponds to the word ‘not’.

Name of Connective Connective Word Symbol

Conjunction And
Disjunction Or
Negation Not
Conditional ‘if-then' or 'implication'
Biconditional ‘If and only if' or 'double implication'

Negation of a Statement
The denial of a statement is called the negation of the statement. The negation of a statement is generally formed by
introducing the word “not” at some proper place in the statement or by prefixing the statement with “It is not the case
that” or “It is false that”.

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 The negation of a statement p in symbolic form is written as “∼ p” and read as “not p”.

p : New Delhi is the capital of India.

The negation of this statement is

∼p : New Delhi is not the capital of India.

Or, ∼p : It is not the case that New Delhi is the capital of India.

Or, ∼p : It is false that New Delhi is the capital of India.

Conjunction
If two simple statements p and q are connected by the word ‘and’, then the resulting compound statement “p and q” is
called a conjunction of p and q and is written in symbolic form as “p ∧ q”.

For example,

p : Delhi is in India and 2 + 3 = 5.

The statement can be broken into two component statements as

q : Delhi is in India.

r:2+3=5

The compound statement with ‘And’ is true if all its component statements are true.

The component statement with ‘And’ is false if any of its component statements are false.

Note:

A statement with “And” is not always a compound statement.

For example,

p: A mixture of alcohol and water can be separated by chemical methods

Here the word “And” refers to two things – alcohol and water.

Disjunction
If two simple statements p and q are connected by the word ‘or’, then the resulting compound statement “p or q” is
called a disjunction of p and q and is written in symbolic form as “p �q”.

For example,

p : Delhi is in India or 2 + 3 = 5.

The statement can be broken into two component statements as

q : Delhi is in India.

r:2+3=5

The compound statement with ‘or’ is true if any of its component statements are true.

The component statement with ‘or’ is false if all of its component statements are false.

Types of OR statements

1. Inclusive OR: If p and q can simultaneously be true, then we say that 'p or q' has an inclusive OR.

Eg, 'Bangalore is in Karnataka or India'

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 Here both component statements 'Bangalore is in Karnataka' and ' 'Bangalore is in India' can be true
simultaneously. Hence this compound statement has an inclusive OR.

2. Exclusive OR: If p and q cannot be true simultaneously, then we say that 'p or q' has an exclusive OR.

Eg, 'Bangalore is in Karnataka or Maharashtra'

Here both component statements 'Bangalore is in Karnataka' and ' 'Bangalore is in Maharashtra' cannot be true
simultaneously. Hence this compound statement has an exclusive OR.

Conditional Statement
If p and q are any two statements, then the compound statement “if p then q” formed by joining p and q by a
connective ‘if then’ is called a conditional statement or an implication and is written in symbolic form as p → q or p
⇒ q.

r : If you are born in some country, then you are a citizen of that country

p : you are born in some country.

q : you are a citizen of that country.

Then the sentence “if p then q” says that in the event if p is true, then q must be true.

The conditional statement p ⇒ q can be expressed in several different ways. Some of the common expressions are

1. p implies q

2. p is a sufficient condition for q

3. p only if q

4. q is necessary condition for p.

5. ∼q implies ∼p

The statement p → q is false only when p is true and q is false. In all other cases this statement is true.

The Biconditional Statement

If two statements p and q are connected by the connective ‘if and only if’ then the resulting compound statement “p if
and only if q” is called a biconditional of p and q and is written in symbolic form as p ↔ q or p ⇔ q.

Eg, 'Two line segments are congruent if and only if they are of equal length'

It is a combination of two conditional statements, “if two line segments are congruent then they are of equal length”
and “if two line segments are of equal length then they are congruent”. Which means

p ↔ q is same as ' p → q AND q → p '

A biconditional is true if and only if both the statements p → q and q → p are true

Also a biconditional is true if p and q both are true or when both p and q are false.

Truth Value of a Statement

As we know that a statement is either true or false. The truth or falsity of a statement is called truth value.

If the statement is true, then truth value is “T”

If the statement is false, then truth value is “F”

Truth Table

A table indicating the truth value of one or more statements is called a truth table.

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 Truth table of one statement ‘p’ is

Truth table for two statement ‘p’ and ‘q’ is

In the case of n statements, there are 2n distinct possible arrangements of truth values of statements.

Truth Table for Negation of a Statement

The truth value of negation of a statement is always opposite to the truth value of the original statement.

Truth Table of Conjunction and Disjunction:

Negation of a Negation

Negation of negation of a statement is the statement itself. Equivalently, we write: ~ ( ~ p) = p

Truth Table

Truth Table for Conditional Statement:

A Conditional Statement is false only when p is true and q is false. In all other cases this is true.

Truth Table for Biconditional Statements:

A biconditional statement is true when both p and q are true or when both p and q are false

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 Sets can be used to identify basic logical structure of statements.

Let us understand with an example of two sets p {1,2} and q {2,3}

Using this relation we get

Given a statement of the form: "if p then q", then we can create three related statements:

Converse
To form the converse of the conditional statement, interchange p and q.

The converse of “If you are born in some country, then you are a citizen of that country” is “If you are a citizen of
some country, then you are born in that country.”

Inverse

To form the inverse of the conditional statement, take the negation of both the p and q.

The inverse of “If you are born in some country, then you are a citizen of that country” is “If you are not born in some
country, then you are not a citizen of that country.”

Contrapositive

To form the contrapositive of the conditional statement, interchange the p and q and take negation of both.

The Contrapositive of “If you are born in some country, then you are a citizen of that country” is “If you are not a
citizen of that country, then you are not born in some country.”

These can be summarized as

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 Note:

1. A given statement and its contrapositive have the same meaning

2. As inverse is the contrapositive of converse, so it has the same meaning as the converse
3. A given statement (= contrapositve) is NOT the same as its converse (=Inverse)

Tautology
A compound statement is called tautology if it is always true for all possible truth values of its component statement.

For example, p ∨ ~p , ( p ⇒ q ) ∨ ( q ⇒ p )

It is denoted by the letter ' t '

Contradiction (fallacy)
A compound statement is called a contradiction if it is always false for all possible truth values of its component
statement.

For example, p ∧ ~p, ∼(( p ⇒ q ) ∨ ( q ⇒ p ))

It is denoted by letter ' c ' or ' f '

Truth Table

Quantifiers

Quantifiers are phrases like ‘These exist’ and “for every”. We come across many mathematical statements containing
these phrases.

For example

p : For every prime number x, √x is an irrational number.

q : There exists a triangle whose all sides are equal.

There are two types of quantifiers

1. Universal: In this words like 'For all', 'All', 'For every', "Every' etc, are used and it denotes that all members of a set
has that property.

For example, p : 'For every prime number x, √x is an irrational number' tells us that the property mentioned is
applicable to all the prime numbers

2. Existential: In this words like 'There exist a', 'Some', 'There is at least one' etc, are used and it denotes that there is
at least one member in the set that has that property.

For example, q : 'There exists a triangle whose all sides are equal' tells us that the property mentioned is applicable to
at least one triangle.

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 Negation of statement containing a quantifier

To find the negation of a statement with a quantifier, apart from adding 'not' at appropriate place (as we usually do for
finding negation of a mathematical statements), we also interchange the quantifier from universal to existential and
vice versa

For example,

1.

Negation of p : 'For every prime number x, √x is an irrational number'

is ~p : 'There is at least one prime number x such that √x is an not an irrational number'

Notice that apart from adding 'not', we have also changed the type of quantifier

2.

Negation of q : 'There exists a triangle whose all sides are equal'

is ' ~q : 'For every triangle, all sides are not equal'

Idempotent Law

1. p ∨ p ≡ p

2. p ∧ p ≡ p

Associative Law

1. ( p ∨ q ) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r )

2. ( p ∧ q ) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r )

Distributive Law

1. p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ ( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p ∧ r )

2. p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ ( p ∨ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ r )

Commutative Law

1. p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p

2. p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p

Identity Law

1. p ∧ T ≡ p

2. p ∧ F ≡ F

3. p ∨ T ≡ T

4. p ∨ F ≡ p

Syllogism has been defined as “A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed
propositions”. It is deductive reasoning rather than inductive reasoning.

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 Let us begin by taking an example: All girls love to dress up.

There are two set here, (a) that of girls and (b) that of those who love to dress up. Note that in this case girls are a part
of a bigger set of those who love to dress up. The concept becomes clearer with the help of Venn diagrams.

If the statement had been: Some girls love to dress up, it would mean that a part of the bigger set of girls would love to
dress up. The diagrammatical representation would have been like:

In this diagram, the shaded area represents girls who love to dress up.

Now, if we have a statement like: Only girls love to dress up, it means that no one else can love to dress up. However,
it does not mean that all girls love to dress up. The statement can be diagrammatically represented as:

Let us now move on to situations where there are two statements instead of one. Statements like: All boys love to play
football, all girls love to play football. The diagrammatic representation of this will be:

As shown in the Venn diagram, you will see that boys and girls are parts or elements of a larger set of those who love
to play football.' And also that boys and girls are two separate sets. As shown in the Venn diagram, you will see that
boys and girls are parts or elements of a larger set of 'those who love to play football'. And, also that boys and girls are
two separate sets.

Had the statement been, some boys love to dress up and some girls love to dress up, but no boy is girl and vice versa,
it would have been represented as:

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 Let us now find out whether a third statement can be drawn or concluded from two given statements. All girls love to
dress up. Some boys are girls. Let us again take the help of Venn diagrams to represented these.

Tips and Tricks to solve syllogism – questions:

1. Always represent the sentences diagrammatically with the use of Venn diagrams. This will help you be accurate
and will save time once you are comfortable using this way to solve questions.
2. Commonly known facts have to be disregarded. So, even if the premise says all blue is red, the conclusion must
be derived from the given information.
3. Do not assume any prior knowledge. The conclusion in a syllogism must be derived from the premises given,
and not from any prior knowledge on the subject.
4. The conclusion must give some new information based on the two premises, and not simply reiterate the given
facts.

5. One syllogism question can test the relationship among three elements only. This will help you in eliminating
options and marking the right answers quickly.

6. Use initials to represented by H and C respectively. If there are two elements eg. hat and hair and comb, these
can be represented by H and C respectively. If there are two elements eg. 'hat' and 'hair' avoid using a single
alphabet or represent both. Instead use the abbreviation 'ht' for hat and 'hr' for 'hair' to avoid confusion while
drawing the diagrams.

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 JEE Main Previous 10-Year Questions with Detailed Solutions (2014-2023)
This ebook contains JEE Main 10-year previous year question papers with detailed solutions. It
contains 4 Sets of JEE Main 2014, 4 Sets of JEE Main 2015, 3 Sets of JEE Main 2016, 3 Sets of
JEE Main 2017, 3 Sets of JEE Main 2018, 8 Sets of JEE Main 2019 (Jan Session), 8 Sets of JEE
Main 2019 (April Session), 6 Sets of JEE Main 2020 (Jan Session), 10 Sets of JEE Main 2020
(Sep Session), 6 Sets of JEE Main 2021 (Feb Session), 6 Sets of JEE Main 2021 (March Session),
7 Sets of JEE Main 2021 (July Session), 7 Sets of JEE Main 2021 (August Session), 12 Sets of
JEE Main 2022 (June Session),10 Sets of JEE Main 2022 (July Session),12 Sets of JEE Main
2023 (January Session),12 Sets of JEE Main 2023 (April Session). In total 10650 questions of
Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics with Detailed Solutions.

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