v.

Mechanical Engineering Principles

Third Edition

Why are competent engineers so vital?

Engineering is among the most important of all professions. It is the authors’ opinions that engineers save more
lives than medical doctors (physicians). For example, poor water, or the lack of it, is the second largest cause
of human death in the world, and if engineers are given the ‘tools’, they can solve this problem. The largest
cause of human death is caused by the malarial mosquito, and even death due to malaria can be decreased by
engineers – by providing helicopters for spraying areas infected by the mosquito and making and designing
medical syringes and pills to protect people against catching all sorts of diseases. Most medicines are produced
by engineers! How does the engineer put 1 mg of ‘medicine’ precisely and individually into millions of pills, at
an affordable price?
Moreover, one of the biggest contributions by humankind was the design of the agricultural tractor, which
was designed and built by engineers to increase food production many-fold, for a human population which
more-or-less quadruples every century! It is also interesting to note that the richest countries in the world are
very heavily industrialized. Engineers create wealth! Most other professions don’t!
Even in blue sky projects, engineers play a major role. For example, most rocket scientists are chartered
engineers or their equivalents and Americans call their chartered engineers (and their equivalents), scientists.
Astronomers are space scientists and not rocket scientists; they could not design a rocket to conquer outer
space. Even modern theoretical physicists are mainly interested in astronomy and cosmology and also nuclear
science. In general a theoretical physicist cannot, without special training, design a submarine structure to
dive to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, which is 11.52 km or 7.16 miles deep, or design a very long bridge, a
tall city skyscraper or a rocket to conquer outer space. It may be shown that the load on a submarine pressure
hull of diameter 10 m and length 100 m is equivalent to carrying the total weight of about 7 million London
double-decker buses!
This book presents a solid foundation for the reader in mechanical engineering principles, on which s/he
can safely build tall buildings and long bridges that may last for a thousand years or more. It is the authors’
experience that it is most unwise to attempt to build such structures on shaky foundations; they may come
tumbling down – with disastrous consequences.

John Bird is the former Head of Applied Electronics in the Faculty of Technology at Highbury College, Portsmouth,
U.K. More recently, he has combined freelance lecturing at the University of Portsmouth, with Examiner
responsibilities for Advanced Mathematics with City and Guilds, and examining for the International Baccalaureate
Organisation. He is the author of over 125 textbooks on engineering and mathematical subjects with worldwide
sales of one million copies. He is currently a Senior Training Provider at the Defence School of Marine Engineering
in the Defence College of Technical Training at H.M.S. Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire, U.K.

Carl Ross gained his first degree in Naval Architecture, from King’s College, Durham University; his PhD in
Structural Engineering from the Victoria University of Manchester; and was awarded his DSc in Ocean Engineering
from the CNAA, London. His research in the field of engineering led to advances in the design of submarine pressure
hulls. His publications and guest lectures to date exceed some 290 papers and books, etc., and he is Professor of
Structural Dynamics at the University of Portsmouth, UK.

See Carl Ross’s website below, which has an enormous content on science, technology and education.
http://tiny.cc/6kvqhx
 Some quotes from Albert Einstein (14 March 1879–18 April 1955)

‘Scientists investigate that which already is; Engineers create that which has never been’

‘Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand,
while imagination embraces the entire world, and all there ever will be to know and understand’

‘Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing
that it is stupid’

‘To stimulate creativity, one must develop the childlike inclination for play’
Mechanical Engineering Principles

Third Edition

John Bird BSc(Hons), CEng, CMath, CSci, FIMA, FIET, FCollT

Carl Ross BSc(Hons), PhD, DSc, CEng, FRINA, MSNAME
Third edition published 2015
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2015 John O. Bird and Carl T. F. Ross

The right of John O. Bird and Carl T. F. Ross to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

This publication presents material of a broad scope and applicability. Despite stringent efforts by all concerned in the
publishing process, some typographical or editorial errors may occur, and readers are encouraged to bring these to our
attention where they represent errors of substance. The publisher and author disclaim any liability, in whole or in part,
arising from information contained in this publication. The reader is urged to consult with an appropriate licensed
professional prior to taking any action or making any interpretation that is within the realm of a licensed professional
practice.

First edition published by Elsevier in 2002

Second edition published by Routledge in 2012

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Bird, J. O.
Mechanical engineering principles / John Bird and Carl Ross. -- 3rd edition.
pages cm

ISBN 978-1-138-78157-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-315-76980-6 (ebook)

1. Mechanical engineering--Textbooks. 2. Mechanical engineering--Problems,
exercises, etc. I. Ross, C. T. F., 1935- II. Title.
TJ159.B49 2015
621--dc23
2014024745

ISBN: 9781138781573 (pbk)

ISBN: 9781315769806 (ebk)

Typeset in Times by
Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire
Contents
Prefaceix 3.9 Ductility, brittleness and malleability 57
3.10 Modulus of rigidity 57
3.11 Thermal strain 57
Part One Revision of Mathematics 1 3.12 Compound bars 58
1 Revisionary mathematics 3
4 Tensile testing 64
1.1 Introduction 3
4.1 The tensile test 64
1.2 Radians and degrees 4
4.2 Worked problems on tensile testing 66
1.3 Measurement of angles 4
4.3 Further worked problems on tensile testing 67
1.4 Triangle calculations 5
4.4 Proof stress 69
1.5 Brackets 8
1.6 Fractions 8
5 Forces acting at a point 71
1.7 Percentages 10
5.1 Scalar and vector quantities 71
1.8 Laws of indices 12
5.2 Centre of gravity and equilibrium 72
1.9 Simultaneous equations 14
5.3 Forces 72
5.4 The resultant of two coplanar forces 73
Revision Test 1 Revisionary mathematics 18
5.5 Triangle of forces method 74
5.6 The parallelogram of forces method 75
2 Further revisionary mathematics 20 5.7 Resultant of coplanar forces by
2.1 Units, prefixes and engineering notation 21 calculation 76
2.2 Metric – US/Imperial conversions 24 5.8 Resultant of more than two coplanar forces 76
2.3 Straight line graphs 28 5.9 Coplanar forces in equilibrium 78
2.4 Gradients, intercepts and equation of a graph 30 5.10 Resolution of forces 80
2.5 Practical straight line graphs 32 5.11 Summary 83
2.6 Introduction to calculus 34
2.7 Basic differentiation revision 34 6 Simply supported beams 86
2.8 Revision of integration 36 6.1 The moment of a force 86
2.9 Definite integrals 38 6.2 Equilibrium and the principle of moments 87
2.10 Simple vector analysis 39 6.3 Simply supported beams having
point loads 89
Revision Test 2 Further revisionary mathematics 43 6.4 Simply supported beams with couples 93

Revision Test 3 Forces, tensile testing

and beams  97
Part Two Statics and Strength
of Materials 45
7 Forces in structures 98
3 The effects of forces on materials 47 7.1 Introduction 98
3.1 Introduction 48 7.2 Worked problems on mechanisms
3.2 Tensile force 48 and pin-jointed trusses 99
3.3 Compressive force 48 7.3 Graphical method 100
3.4 Shear force 48 7.4 Method of joints (a mathematical method) 104
3.5 Stress 49 7.5 The method of sections (a mathematical
3.6 Strain 50 method)109
3.7 Elasticity, limit of proportionality
and elastic limit 52 8 Bending moment and shear force diagrams 112
3.8 Hooke’s law 53 8.1 Bending moment (M)112
vi Contents
8.2 Shearing force (F)113 13.4 Further equations of motion 174
8.3 Worked problems on bending 13.5 Relative velocity 176
moment and shearing force diagrams 113
8.4 Uniformly distributed loads 122 14 Linear momentum and impulse 180
14.1 Linear momentum 180
9 First and second moments of area 127 14.2 Impulse and impulsive forces 183
9.1 Centroids 127
9.2 The first moment of area 128 15 Force, mass and acceleration 188
9.3 Centroid of area between a curve 15.1 Introduction 188
and the x-axis128 15.2 Newton’s laws of motion 189
9.4 Centroid of area between a curve and 15.3 Centripetal acceleration 192
the y-axis128 15.4 Rotation of a rigid body about
9.5 Worked problems on centroids of a fixed axis 193
simple shapes 129 15.5 Moment of inertia (I)194
9.6 Further worked problems on centroids
of simple shapes 130 16 Work, energy and power 197
9.7 Second moments of area of regular 16.1 Work 197
sections131 16.2 Energy 201
9.8 Second moment of area for ‘built-up’ 16.3 Power 202
sections138 16.4 Potential and kinetic energy 205
16.5 Kinetic energy of rotation 208
Revision Test 4 Forces in structures,
bending moment and shear Revision Test 6 Linear and angular motion,
force diagrams, and second momentum and impulse,
moments of area 144 force, m
 ass and acceleration,
work, energy and power 211
10 Bending of beams 145
10.1 Introduction 145 17 Friction 212
σ M E 17.1 Introduction to friction 212
10.2 To prove that = =  146 17.2 Coefficient of friction 213
y I R
10.3 Worked problems on the bending 17.3 Applications of friction 214
of beams 147 17.4 Friction on an inclined plane 215
17.5 Motion up a plane with the pulling
11 Torque 151 force P parallel to the plane 215
11.1 Couple and torque 151 17.6 Motion down a plane with the
11.2 Work done and power transmitted pulling force P parallel to the plane 216
by a constant torque 152 17.7 Motion up a plane due to a horizontal
11.3 Kinetic energy and moment of inertia 154 force P 216
11.4 Power transmission and efficiency 157 17.8 The efficiency of a screw jack 219

12 Twisting of shafts 161 18 Motion in a circle  223

τ T Gθ 18.1 Introduction 223
12.1 To prove that = =  161
r J L 18.2 Motion on a curved banked track 225
12.2 Worked problems on the 18.3 Conical pendulum 226
twisting of shafts 163 18.4 Motion in a vertical circle 228
18.5 Centrifugal clutch 230
Revision Test 5 Bending of beams, torque
and twisting of shafts 167 19 Simple harmonic motion 232
19.1 Introduction to simple harmonic
motion (SHM) 232
19.2 The spring-mass system 233
Part Three Dynamics 169 19.3 The simple pendulum 235
19.4 The compound pendulum 236
13 Linear and angular motion 171 19.5 Torsional vibrations 237
13.1 The radian 171
13.2 Linear and angular velocity 171 20 Simple machines 239
13.3 Linear and angular acceleration 173 20.1 Machines 239
 Contents vii

20.2 Force ratio, movement ratio 24 Fluid flow 290

and efficiency 239 24.1 Differential pressure flowmeters 290
20.3 Pulleys 241 24.2 Orifice plate 291
20.4 The screw-jack 243 24.3 Venturi tube 292
20.5 Gear trains 243 24.4 Flow nozzle 292
20.6 Levers 245 24.5 Pitot-static tube 292
24.6 Mechanical flowmeters 293
Revision Test 7 Friction, motion in a circle, 24.7 Deflecting vane flowmeter 293
simple harmonic motion and 24.8 Turbine type meters 294
simple machines 249 24.9 Float and tapered-tube meter 294
24.10 Electromagnetic flowmeter 295
24.11 Hot-wire anemometer 296
Part Four Heat Transfer and Fluid 24.12 Choice of flowmeter 296
Mechanics 251 24.13 Equation of continuity 296
24.14 Bernoulli’s equation 297
21 Heat energy and transfer 253 24.15 Impact of a jet on a stationary plate 298
21.1 Introduction 253
25 Ideal gas laws 301
21.2 The measurement of temperature 254
25.1 Boyle’s law 301
21.3 Specific heat capacity 255
25.2 Charles’ law 303
21.4 Change of state 256
25.3 The pressure or Gay-Lussac’s law 304
21.5 Latent heats of fusion and vaporisation 257
25.4 Dalton’s law of partial pressure 305
21.6 A simple refrigerator 259
25.5 Characteristic gas equation 306
21.7 Conduction, convection and radiation 259
25.6 Worked problems on the
21.8 Vacuum flask 260
characteristic gas equation 306
21.9 Use of insulation in conserving fuel 260
25.7 Further worked problems on the
characteristic gas equation 308
22 Thermal expansion 263
22.1 Introduction 263 26 The measurement of temperature 312
22.2 Practical applications of thermal 26.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometer 312
expansion 264 26.2 Thermocouples 314
22.3 Expansion and contraction of water 264 26.3 Resistance thermometers 315
22.4 Coefficient of linear expansion 264 26.4 Thermistors 317
22.5 Coefficient of superficial expansion 266 26.5 Pyrometers 317
22.6 Coefficient of cubic expansion 267 26.6 Temperature indicating paints
and crayons 319
Revision Test 8 Heat energy and transfer, 26.7 Bimetallic thermometers 319
and thermal expansion 271 26.8 Mercury-in-steel thermometer 319
26.9 Gas thermometers 319
23 Hydrostatics 272 26.10 Choice of measuring devices 320
23.1 Pressure 272
23.2 Fluid pressure 274 Revision Test 9 Hydrostatics, fluid flow,
23.3 Atmospheric pressure 275 gas laws and temperature
23.4 Archimedes’ principle 276 measurement 322
23.5 Measurement of pressure 278
23.6 Barometers 278 A list of formulae for mechanical
23.7 Absolute and gauge pressure 280 engineering principles 323
23.8 The manometer 280
Metric to Imperial conversions and vice versa 328
23.9 The Bourdon pressure gauge 281
23.10 Vacuum gauges 282 Greek alphabet 329
23.11 Hydrostatic pressure on submerged
surfaces282 Glossary of terms 330
23.12 Hydrostatic thrust on curved surfaces 284
Answers to multiple-choice questions 335
23.13 Buoyancy 284
23.14 The stability of floating bodies 284 Index 337
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

Mechanical Engineering Principles 3rd Edition aims to Although pre-requisites for the modules covered in this
broaden the reader’s knowledge of the basic principles book include Foundation Certificate/diploma, or similar,
that are fundamental to mechanical engineering design in Mathematics and Science, each topic considered in
and the operation of mechanical systems. the text is presented in a way that assumes that the
reader has little previous knowledge of that topic.
Modern engineering systems and products still rely
upon static and dynamic principles to make them work. Mechanical Engineering Principles 3rd Edition
Even systems that appear to be entirely electronic have a contains over 400 worked problems, followed by over
physical presence governed by the principles of statics. 700 further problems (all with answers). The further
In this third edition of Mechanical Engineering problems are contained within some 150 Exercises;
Principles, a further chapter has been added on each Exercise follows on directly from the relevant
revisionary mathematics; it is not possible to progress in section of work, every few pages. In addition, the
engineering studies without a reasonable knowledge of text contains 298 multiple-choice questions (all
mathematics, a fact that soon becomes obvious to both with answers), and 260 short answer questions,
students and teachers alike. It is therefore hoped that this the answers for which can be determined from the
further chapter on mathematics revision will be helpful preceding material in that particular chapter. Where at
and make engineering studies more comprehensible. all possible, the problems mirror practical situations
Minor modifications, some further worked problems, found in mechanical engineering. 387 line diagrams
a glossary of terms and famous engineers’ biographies enhance the understanding of the theory.
have all been added to the text. At regular intervals throughout the text are some
More has been added to the website for this new e­ dition – 9 Revision Tests to check understanding. For example,
such as full solutions being made available to both stu- Revision Test 1 covers material contained in Chapter 1,
dents and staff, and much more besides – see page x. Test 2 covers the material in Chapter 2, Test 3 covers
the material in Chapters 3 to 6, and so on. No answers
For clarity, the text is divided into four sections, these are given for the questions in the Revision Tests, but
being: an Instructor’s guide has been produced giving full
Part 1 Revision of Mathematics solutions and suggested marking scheme. The guide is
Part 2 Statics and Strength of Materials offered online free to lecturers/instructors – see below.
Part 3 Dynamics At the end of the text, a list of relevant formulae is
Part 4 Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics included for easy reference, together with a glossary
Mechanical Engineering Principles 3rd Edition is of terms.
suitable for the following: ‘Learning by Example’ is at the heart of Mechanical
(i) National Certificate/Diploma courses in Engineering Principles, 3rd Edition.
Mechanical Engineering
(ii) Undergraduate courses in Mechanical, JOHN BIRD
Civil, Structural, Aeronautical & Marine Defence College of Technical Training,
Engineering, together with Naval Architecture HMS Sultan, formerly
(iii) Any introductory/access/foundation course University of Portsmouth and
involving Mechanical Engineering Principles Highbury College, Portsmouth
at University, and Colleges of Further and CARL ROSS Professor, University of Portsmouth
Higher education.
x Preface

Free Web downloads 6. Video links to practical demonstrations by

The following support material is available Professor Carl Ross http://tiny.cc/6kvqhx
from http://www.routledge.com/cw/bird
For Lecturers/Instructors:
For Students:
1– 6. As per students 1–6 above.
1. Full worked solutions to all 700 further ques-
7. Full solutions and marking scheme for each
tions contained in the 150 Practice Exercises
of the 9 Revision Tests; also, each test may be
2. A list of Essential Formulae
downloaded for distribution to students.
3. A full glossary of terms
8. All 387 illustrations used in the text may be
4. Multiple-choice questions
downloaded for use in PowerPoint presentations.
5. Information on 20 Famous Engineers men-
tioned in the text
 Part One
Revision of Mathematics
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Revisionary mathematics
Why it is important to understand: Revisionary mathematics
Mathematics is a vital tool for professional and chartered engineers. It is used in mechanical & manufacturing
engineering, in electrical & electronic engineering, in civil & structural engineering, in naval architecture &
marine engineering and in aeronautical & rocket engineering. In these various branches of engineering, it is
very often much cheaper and safer to design your artefact with the aid of mathematics – rather than through
guesswork. ‘Guesswork’ may be reasonably satisfactory if you are designing an artefact similar to one that
has already proven satisfactory; however, the classification societies will usually require you to provide the
calculations proving that the artefact is safe and sound. Moreover, these calculations may not be readily
available to you and you may have to provide fresh calculations, to prove that your artefact is ‘roadworthy’.
For example, if you design a tall building or a long bridge by ‘guesswork’, and the building or bridge do not
prove to be structurally reliable, it could cost you a fortune to rectify the deficiencies. This cost may dwarf
the initial estimate you made to construct these artefacts, and cause you to go bankrupt. Thus, without
mathematics, the prospective professional or chartered engineer is very severely handicapped.

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• convert radians to degrees
• convert degrees to radians
• calculate sine, cosine and tangent for large and small angles
• calculate the sides of a right-angled triangle
• use Pythagoras’ theorem
• use the sine and cosine rules for acute-angled triangles
• expand equations containing brackets
• be familiar with summing vulgar fractions
• understand and perform calculations with percentages
• understand and use the laws of indices
• solve simple simultaneous equations

1.1 Introduction knowledge of mathematics. This chapter highlights

some areas of mathematics which will make the
As highlighted above, it is not possible to understand understanding of the engineering in the following
aspects of mechanical engineering without a good chapters a little easier.

Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850

 4 Mechanical Engineering Principles

[
1.2 Radians and degrees �
Part One

(a)
rad or 0.7854 rad
4
There are 2π radians or 360° in a complete circle, thus:
�
(b) rad or 1.5708 rad
π radians = 180°   from which, 2
2�
180° � (c) rad or 2.0944 rad
1 rad =   or  1° = rad 3
� 180
where π = 3.14159265358979323846 .... to 20 decimal
(d) π rad or 3.1416 rad ]
places!

Problem 1. Convert the following angles to

degrees correct to 3 decimal places: 1.3 Measurement of angles
(a) 0.1 rad (b) 0.2 rad (c) 0.3 rad
Angles are measured starting from the horizontal ‘x’
axis, in an anticlockwise direction, as shown by θ1 to
180°
(a) 0.1 rad = 0.1 rad × = 5.730° θ4 in Figure 1.1. An angle can also be measured in a
� rad
clockwise direction, as shown by θ5 in Figure 1.1, but
180° in this case the angle has a negative sign before it. If,
(b) 0.2 rad = 0.2 rad × = 11.459°
� rad for example, θ4 = 300° then θ5 = – 60°.
180°
(c) 0.3 rad = 0.3 rad × = 17.189°
� rad ・
90
y

Problem 2. Convert the following angles to

radians correct to 4 decimal places:
(a) 5° (b) 10° (c) 30° 9

1
80.
-" 0.x L
，
•
� rad � 9
e
(a) 5° = 5° × = rad = 0.0873 rad
180° 36
� rad � y270・
(b) 10° = 10° × = rad = 0.1745 rad
180° 18
Figure 1.1
� rad �
(c) 30° = 30° × = rad = 0.5236 rad
180° 6 Problem 3. Use a calculator to determine the
cosine, sine and tangent of the following angles,
Now try the following Practice Exercise each measured anticlockwise from the horizontal
‘x’ axis, each correct to 4 decimal places:
(a) 30° (b) 120° (c) 250°
Practice Exercise 1 Radians and degrees
(d) 320° (e) 390° (f) 480°
1. 
Convert the following angles to degrees
correct to 3 decimal places (where necessary):
(a) cos 30° = 0.8660 sin 30° = 0.5000
(a) 0.6 rad (b) 0.8 rad tan 30° = 0.5774
(c) 2 rad (d) 3.14159 rad

[(a) 34.377°  (b) 45.837°

(c) 114.592° (d) 180° ] (b) cos 120° = – 0.5000
tan 120° = – 1.7321
sin 120° = 0.8660

2. 
Convert the following angles to radians (c) cos 250° = – 0.3420 sin 250° = – 0.9397
correct to 4 decimal places: tan 250° = 2.7475
(a) 45° (b) 90°
(d) cos 320° = 0.7660 sin 320° = – 0.6428
(c) 120° (d) 180°
tan 320° = – 0.8391
 Revisionary mathematics 5

(e) cos 390° = 0.8660 sin 390° = 0.5000 Now try the following Practice Exercise
tan 390° = 0.5774

Part One
(f) cos 480° = – 0.5000 sin 480° = 0.8660 Practice Exercise 2 Measurement of
tan 480° = – 1.7321 angles
1. 
Find the cosine, sine and tangent of the
These angles are now drawn in Figure 1.2. Note that following angles, where appropriate each
cosine and sine always lie between –1 and +1 but ­correct to 4 decimal places:
that tangent can be >1 and <1 (a) 60° (b) 90° (c) 150°
y (d) 180° (e) 210° (f) 270°
・， ・
B=120 0 480 (g) 330° (h) – 30° (i) 420°
(j) 450° (k) 510°
・， ・
θ=30 0 390
[(a) 0.5, 0.8660, 1.7321
(b) 0, 1, ∞
-
x x
(c) – 0.8660, 0.5, – 0.5774
(d) –1, 0, 0
B=-4 ・， ・
0 0 320 (e) – 0.8660, – 0.5, 0.5774
θ=250 ・7 (f) 0, –1, – ∞
(g) 0.8660, – 0.5000, – 0.5774
Figure 1.2 (h) 0.8660, – 0.5000, – 0.5774
(i) 0.5, 0.8660, 1.7321
Note from Figure 1.2 that θ = 30º is the same as (j) 0, 1, ∞
θ = 390º and so are their cosines, sines and tangents. (k) – 0.8660, 0.5, – 0.5774]
Similarly, note that θ = 120º is the same as θ = 480º
and so are their cosines, sines and tangents. Also, note
that θ = – 40º is the same as θ = + 320º and so are their
cosines, sines and tangents.
It is noted from above that 1.4 Triangle calculations
• in the first quadrant, i.e. where θ varies from 0º
to 90º, all (A) values of cosine, sine and tangent are (a) Sine, cosine and tangent
positive
in the second quadrant, i.e. where θ varies from bc ab
• From Figure 1.4, sin θ = cos θ =
90º to 180º, only values of sine (S) are ­positive ac    ac
• in the third quadrant, i.e. where θ varies from bc
180º to 270º, only values of tangent (T) are positive tan θ =
ab
• in the fourth quadrant, i.e. where θ varies from
270º to 360º, only values of cosine (C) are positive
c
These positive signs, A, S, T and C are shown in
­Figure 1.3.
・
90 θ
a b

s A Figure 1.4

・ 0・
180
・
360
T c Problem 4. In Figure 1.4, if ab = 2 and ac = 3,
determine the angle θ.
270 ・
Figure 1.3 It is convenient to use the expression for cos θ, since
‘ab’ and ‘ac’ are given.
 6 Mechanical Engineering Principles

ab 2 Now try the following Practice Exercise

Hence, cos θ = ac = 3 = 0.66667
Part One

Practice Exercise 3 Sines, cosines and

from which, θ = cos–1(0.66667) = 48.19º tangents and
Pythagoras’ theorem
Problem 5. In Figure 1.4, if bc = 1.5 and
ac = 2.2, determine the angle θ. In problems 1 to 5, refer to Figure 1.5.
1. If ab = 2.1 m and bc = 1.5 m, determine
It is convenient to use the expression for sin θ, since angle θ.[35.54°]
‘bc’ and ‘ac’ are given. 2. If ab = 2.3 m and ac = 5.0 m, determine
bc 1.5 angle θ.[62.61°]
Hence, sin θ = = = 0.68182
ac 2.2 3. If bc = 3.1 m and ac = 6.4 m, determine
angle θ.[28.97°]
from which, θ = sin–1(0.68182) = 42.99º
4. If ab = 5.7 cm and bc = 4.2 cm, determine
Problem 6. In Figure 1.4, if bc = 8 and ab = 1.3, the length ac [7.08 cm]
determine the angle θ. 5. If ab = 4.1 m and ac = 6.2 m, determine
length bc. [4.65 m]
It is convenient to use the expression for tan θ, since
‘bc’ and ‘ab’ are given.
bc 8 (c) The sine and cosine rules
Hence, tan θ = = = 6.1538 For the triangle ABC shown in Figure 1.6,
ab 1.3
from which, θ = tan–1(6.1538) = 80.77º

(b) Pythagoras’ theorem

Pythagoras’ theorem* states that:
(hypotenuse)2 = (adjacent side)2 + (opposite side)2
i.e. in the triangle of Figure 1.5,
ac2 = ab2 + bc2
c

e
a b

Figure 1.5

Problem 7. In Figure 1.5, if ab = 5.1 m and

bc = 6.7 m, determine the length of the
hypotenuse, ac.

From Pythagoras, ac2 = ab2 + bc2

= 5.12 + 6.72 = 26.01 + 44.89
*Pythagoras of Samos (born approximately 570BC and
= 70.90 died around 495BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and
mathematician, best known for the Pythagorean Theorem. To
from which, ac = 70.90 = 8.42 m
find out more go to www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Revisionary mathematics 7

A 8.04 8.2
i.e. =
sin 70° sin B

Part One
C b
from which, 8.04 sin B = 8.2 sin 70°
8.2sin 70°
a c and sin B = = 0.95839
B 8.04
−1
Figure 1.6 and B = sin (0.95839) = 73.41°

a b c Since A + B + C = 180°, then

the sine rule states: = =
sin A sin B sin C C = 180° – A – B = 180° – 70° – 73.41° = 36.59°

and the cosine rule states: a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A

Now try the following Practice Exercise
Problem 8. In Figure 1.6, if a = 3 m, A = 20° and
B = 120°, determine lengths b, c and angle C. Practice Exercise 4 Sine and cosine rules
In problems 1 to 4, refer to Figure 1.6.
a b
Using the sine rule, =
sin A sin B 1. If b = 6 m, c = 4 m and B = 100°, determine
angles A and C and length a.
3 b
i.e. = [A = 38.96°, C = 41.04°, a = 3.83 m]
sin 20° sin120°
2. If a = 15 m, c = 23 m and B = 67°, determine
3sin120° 3 × 0.8660 length b and angles A and C.
from which, b = =
sin 20° 0.3420 [b = 22.01 m, A = 38.86°, C = 74.14°]
= 7.596 m
3. If a = 4 m, b = 8 m and c = 6 m, determine
Angle, C = 180° – 20° – 120° = 40° angle A.[28.96°]
c a 4. If a = 10.0 cm, b = 8.0 cm and c = 7.0 cm,
Using the sine rule again gives: =
sin C sin A determine angles A, B and C.
a sin C 3 × sin 40° [A = 83.33°, B = 52.62°, C = 44.05°]
i.e. c = =
sin A sin 20° 5. In Figure 1.7, PR represents the inclined jib
= 5.638 m of a crane and is 10.0 m long. PQ is 4.0 m
long. Determine the inclination of the jib to the
Problem 9. In Figure 1.6, if b = 8.2 cm. c = 5.1 cm vertical (i.e. angle P) and the length of tie QR.
and A = 70°, determine the length a and angles B
R
and C.

From the cosine rule,

n
w
M

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
um 帥
刊

~
d
pr
o

= 8.2 2 + 5.12 − 2 × 8.2 × 5.1 × cos70°

aaT

= 67.24 + 26.01 – 2(8.2)(5.1)cos70°

= 64.643
P
Hence, length, a = 64.643 = 8.04 cm
Figure 1.7
a b
Using the sine rule: = [P = 39.73°, QR = 7.38 m]
sin A sin B
 8 Mechanical Engineering Principles

1.5 Brackets Expand the brackets in problems 3 to 7.

Part One

3. 2(x – 2y + 3) [2x – 4y + 6]

The use of brackets, which are used in many engi-
neering equations, is explained through the following 4. (3x – 4y) + 3(y – z) – (z – 4x)
worked problems. [7x – y – 4z]
5. 2x + [y – (2x + y)][0]
Problem 10. Expand the bracket to determine A,
given A = a(b + c + d) 6. 24a – [2{3(5a – b) – 2(a + 2b)} + 3b]
 [11b – 2a]
Multiplying each term in the bracket by ‘a’ gives:
7. ab[c + d – e(f – g + h{i + j})]
A = a(b + c + d) = ab + ac + ad
[abc + abd – abef + abeg – abehi – abehj]
Problem 11. Expand the brackets to determine A,
given A = a[b(c + d) – e(f – g)]

When there is more than one set of brackets the 1.6 Fractions
innermost brackets are multiplied out first. Hence,
A = a[b(c + d) – e(f – g)] = a[bc + bd – ef + eg] 2
An example of a fraction is where the top line, i.e.
 Note that –e × –g = +eg 3
the 2, is referred to as the numerator and the bottom
Now multiplying each term in the square brackets by line, i.e. the 3, is referred to as the denominator.
‘a’ gives: A proper fraction is one where the numera-
tor is smaller than the denominator, examples being
A = abc + abd – aef + aeg
2 1 3 5
, , , , and so on.
Problem 12. Expand the brackets to determine A, 3 2 8 16
An improper fraction is one where the denomi-
given A = a[b(c + d – e) – f (g – h{j – k})]
nator is smaller than the numerator, examples being
The inner brackets are determined first, hence 3 2 8 16
, , , , and so on.
2 1 3 5
A = a[b(c + d – e) – f (g – h{j – k})] Addition of fractions is demonstrated in the follow-
= a[b(c + d – e) – f (g – hj + hk)] ing worked problems.
= a[bc + bd – be – fg + fhj – fhk]
i.e. A = abc + abd – abe – afg + afhj – afhk 1 1
Problem 14. Evaluate A, given A = +
2 3
Problem 13. Evaluate A, given
A = 2[3(6 – 1) – 4(7{2 + 5} – 6)] The lowest common denominator of the two denomi-
nators 2 and 3 is 6, i.e. 6 is the lowest number that both
A = 2[3(6 – 1) – 4(7{2 + 5} – 6)] 2 and 3 will divide into.
= 2[3(6 – 1) – 4(7 × 7 – 6)] 1 3 1 2 1 1
Then = and = i.e. both and have the
= 2[3 × 5 – 4 × 43] 2 6 3 6 2 3
common denominator, namely 6.
= 2[15 – 172] = 2[– 157] = – 314
The two fractions can therefore be added as:
1 1 3 2 3+ 2 5
A= + = + = =
Now try the following Practice Exercise 2 3 6 6 6 6

Practice Exercise 5 Brackets 2 3

Problem 15. Evaluate A, given A = +
In problems 1 and 2, evaluate A 3 4
1. A = 3( 2 + 1 + 4) [21] A common denominator can be obtained by multiply-
2. A = 4[5(2 + 1) – 3(6 – 7)] [72] ing the two denominators together, i.e. the common
denominator is 3 × 4 = 12.
 Revisionary mathematics 9

The two fractions can now be made equivalent, i.e.

2 8 3 9 1 2
Problem 18. Evaluate

Part One
= and = +
3 12 4 12 4 3
so that they can be easily added together, as follows:

2 3 8 9 8 + 9 17 (i) Press function
A= + = + = = 
3 4 12 12 12 12
(ii) Type in 1
2 3 5
i.e. A= + =1 (iii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 4
3 4 12
1
(iv) appears on the screen
1 2 3 4
Problem 16. Evaluate A, given A = + +
6 7 2 (v) Press → on the cursor key and type in +

A suitable common denominator can be obtained by (vi) Press function
multiplying 6 × 7 = 42, because all three denominators 
divide exactly into 42. (vii) Type in 2
1 7 2 12 3 63 (viii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 3
Thus, = , = and =
6 42 7 42 2 42 (ix) Press → on the cursor key
1 2 3 11
Hence, A = + + (x) Press = and the answer appears
6 7 2 12
7 12 63 7 + 12 + 63 82 41 (xi) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes
= + + = = =
to a decimal 0.9166666....
42 42 42 42 42 21
1 2 3 20 1 2 11
i.e. A = + + =1 Thus, + = = 0.9167 as a decimal, correct to
6 7 2 21 4 3 12
4 decimal places.
Problem 17. Determine A as a single fraction,
1 2
given A = + It is also possible to deal with mixed numbers on the
x y calculator.
 
A common denominator can be obtained by multiply- Press Shift then the function and  appears
 
ing the two denominators together, i.e. xy
1 3
1 y 2 2x Problem 19. Evaluate 5 − 3
Thus, = and = 5 4
x xy y xy
1 2 y 2x  
Hence, A = + = + (i) Press Shift then the function and 
x y xy xy  
appears on the screen
y + 2x
i.e. A = (ii) Type in 5 then → on the cursor key
xy
(iii) Type in 1 and ↓ on the cursor key
Note that addition, subtraction, multiplication and divi- 1
(iv) Type in 5 and 5 appears on the screen
sion of fractions may be determined using a calculator 5
(for example, the CASIO fx-83ES or fx-991ES). (v) Press → on the cursor key
  
Locate the and  functions on your calculator (vi) Type in - and then press Shift then the
  
(the latter function is a shift function found above 1 
function and 5 –  appears on the screen
5 

the function) and then check the following worked (vii) Type in 3 then → on the cursor key

problems. (viii) Type in 3 and ↓ on the cursor key
 10 Mechanical Engineering Principles

1 3 of commercial life, as well as in engineering. Interest

(ix) Type in 4 and 5 − 3 appears on the screen rates, sale reductions, pay rises, exams and VAT are all
Part One

5 4
29 examples where percentages are used.
(x) Press = and the answer appears Percentages are fractions having 100 as their
20
denominator.
(xi) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes 40
to a decimal 1.45 For example, the fraction is written as 40% and is
100
1 3 29 9 read as ‘forty per cent’.
Thus, 5 − 3 = =1 = 1.45 as a decimal. The easiest way to understand percentages is to go
5 4 20 20
through some worked examples.
Now try the following Practice Exercise Problem 20. Express 0.275 as a percentage.

Practice Exercise 6 Fractions 0.275 = 0.275 × 100% = 27.5%

In problems 1 to 3, evaluate the given fractions
Problem 21. Express 17.5% as a decimal number.
1.
1
3
+
1
4
 [ ]
7
12 17.5% =
17.5
= 0.175

[ ]
1 1 9 100
2. + 
5 4 20 5

[ ]
1 1 1 7 Problem 22. Express as a percentage.
3. + −  8
6 2 5 15
5 5 500
In problems 4 and 5, use a calculator to evaluate = × 100% = % = 62.5%
the given expressions 8 8 8

4.
1 3 8
– ×
3 4 21
 [ ]
1
21
Problem 23. In two successive tests a student
gains marks of 57/79 and 49/67. Is the second mark

[ ]
3 4 2 4 9 better or worse than the first?
5. × – ÷  –
4 5 3 9 10
3 5 1 57 = 57 × 100% 5700
57/79 = = %
6. Evaluate + − as a decimal, correct to 79 79 79
8 6 2
4 decimal places. [ 17
24
= 0.7083 ] = 72.15% correct to 2 decimal places.

49/67 =
49 49
= × 100% =
4900
%
8 2 67 67 67
7. Evaluate 8 ÷ 2 as a mixed number.
9 3
[ ] 1 = 73.13% correct to 2 decimal places.
 3
3 Hence, the second test is marginally better than the
1 1 7 first test.
8. Evaluate 3 × 1 − 1 as a decimal, cor-
5 3 10
This question demonstrates how much easier it is
rect to 3 decimal places. [2.567]
to compare two fractions when they are expressed as
2 3
9. Determine + as a single fraction. percentages.
x y
 [ 3x + 2 y
xy ] Problem 24. Express 75% as a fraction.

75 3
75% = =
100 4
75
1.7 Percentages The fraction is reduced to its simplest form
100
by cancelling, i.e. dividing numerator and denominator
Percentages are used to give a common standard. The by 25.
use of percentages is very common in many aspects
 Revisionary mathematics 11

Problem 25. Express 37.5% as a fraction. Problem 30. A drilling speed should be set to

Part One
400 rev/min. The nearest speed available on the
37.5 machine is 412 rev/min. Calculate the percentage
37.5% = over-speed.
100
375 % over-speed
= by multiplying numerator and
1000 available speed − correct speed
denominator by 10  = × 100%
correct speed
15
=  by dividing numerator and 412 − 400
40 = × 100%
denominator by 25 400
3 12
=  by dividing numerator and
8 = 400 × 100% = 3%
denominator by 5

Problem 26. Find 27% of £65. Now try the following Practice Exercise

27 Practice Exercise 7 Percentages

27% of £65 = × 65 = £17.55 by calculator
100
In problems 1 and 2, express the given numbers
as percentages.
Problem 27. A 160 GB iPod is advertised as
costing £190 excluding VAT. If VAT is added at 1. 0.057 [5.7%]
20%, what will be the total cost of the iPod?
2. 0.374  [37.4%]
20 3. Express 20% as a decimal number [0.20]
VAT = 20% of £190 = × 190 = £38
100
11
4. Express as a percentage [68.75%]
Total cost of iPod = £190 + £38 = £228 16
A quicker method to determine the total cost is: 5
1.20 × £190 = £228 5. 
Express as a percentage, correct to 3
13
decimal places [38.462%]
Problem 28. Express 23 cm as a percentage of
72 cm, correct to the nearest 1%. 6. Place the following in order of size, the
smallest first, expressing each as percent-
23 ages, correct to 1 decimal place:
23 cm as a percentage of 72 cm =
 × 100% 12 9 5 6
72 (a) (b) (c) (d)
= 31.94444...% 21 17 9 11
= 3 2% correct
to the nearest
[(b) 52.9%, (d) 54.5%,
(c) 55.6%, (a) 57.1% ]
1% 7. Express 65% as a fraction in its simplest

Problem 29. A box of screws increases in price

form [ ]
13
20
from £45 to £52. Calculate the percentage change 8. Calculate 43.6% of 50 kg [21.8 kg]
in cost, correct to 3 significant figures.
9. Determine 36% of 27 m [9.72 m]
new value − original value 10. Calculate correct to 4 significant figures:
% change = × 100%
original value (a) 18% of 2758 tonnes
52 − 45 7 (b) 47% of 18.42 grams
= × 100% = × 100
45 45 (c) 147% of 14.1 seconds
[(a) 496.4 t (b) 8.657 g (c) 20.73 s]
= 15.6% = percentage change in cost
 12 Mechanical Engineering Principles
Law 3: When a number which is raised to a power is
11. Express: (a) 140 kg as a percentage of 1 t raised to a further power, the indices are multiplied.
Part One

(b) 47 s as a percentage of 5 min (c) 13.4 cm 3

as a percentage of 2.5 m For example, ( 22 ) = 22× 3 = 26
[(a) 14% (b) 15.67% (c) 5.36%]
2
12. A computer is advertised on the internet at
and ( 34 ) = 34 × 2 = 38
£520, exclusive of VAT. If VAT is payable More generally, (am)n = amn
at 20%, what is the total cost of the com-
3
puter? [£624] For example, ( d 2 ) = d 2× 3 = d 6
13. 
Express 325 mm as a percentage of 867
mm, correct to 2 decimal places. Law 4: When a number has an index of 0, its value is 1.
[37.49%]
For example, 30 = 1
14.  hen signing a new contract, a Premiership
W
and   170 = 1
footballer’s pay increases from £15,500 to
£21,500 per week. Calculate the percentage More generally, a0 = 1
pay increase, correct to 3 significant figures.
[38.7%] Law 5: A number raised to a negative power is the
15. A metal rod 1.80 m long is heated and its reciprocal of that number raised to a positive power.
length expands by 48.6 mm. Calculate the 1 1
percentage increase in length. [2.7%] For example, 3–4 = and = 23
34 2 −3
1
More generally, a–n =
an
1.8 Laws of indices 1
For example, a −2 =
The manipulation of indices, powers and roots is a cru- a2
cial underlying skill needed in algebra. Law 6: When a number is raised to a fractional
Law 1: When multiplying two or more numbers power the denominator of the fraction is the root
having the same base, the indices are added. of the number and the numerator is the power.
2
3
For example, 2 2 × 2 3 = 2 2+ 3 = 2 5 For example, 83 = 8 2 = (2)2 = 4
5 4 × 5 2 × 5 3 = 5 4+ 2 + 3 = 5 9 1
and 2
and 25 2 = 251 = 251
More generally, am × an = am+n 2
= ± 5 (Note that ≡ )
For example, a3 × a4 = a 3+ 4 = a7 m
n
More generally, an = am
Law 2: When dividing two numbers having the
same base, the index in the denominator is subtract- 4
3
ed from the index in the numerator. For example, x3 = x4

25
For example, = 2 5− 3 = 2 2 Problem 31. Evaluate in index form 53 × 5 × 52
23
78
and = 7 8− 5 = 7 3 53 × 5 × 52 = 53 × 51 × 52 (Note that 5 means 51)
75
= 53+1+ 2 = 56 from law 1
am
More generally, = am–n
an
c5 35
For example, = c 5− 2 = c 3 Problem 32. Evaluate
c2 34
 Revisionary mathematics 13

35 (a) 41/2 = 4 = ±2
From law 2: = 35− 4 = 31 = 3

Part One
34 (b) 163/4 = 4
16 3 = (2)3 = 8
24 (Note that it does not matter whether the 4th root
Problem 33. Evaluate of 16 is found first or whether 16 cubed is found
24
first; the same answer will result)
24
4 = 2 4 − 4 from law 2 (c) 272/3 = 3
27 2 = (3)2 = 9
2
= 2 0 = 1 from law 4 1 1 1 1
(d) 9–1/2 = = = = ±
Any number raised to the power of zero equals 1 91/ 2 9 ±3 3

3 × 32 Problem 39. Simplify a 2b 3c × ab 2c 5

Problem 34. Evaluate
34
a 2b 3c × ab 2c 5 = a 2 × b 3 × c × a × b 2 × c 5
3 × 32 31 × 32 31+ 2 33
4
= 4
= = 4 = a 2 × b 3 × c1 × a1 × b 2 × c 5
3 3 34 3
Grouping together like terms gives:
= 33− 4 = 3−1  from laws 1 and 2
a 2 × a 1 × b 3 × b 2 × c1 × c 5
1
= from law 5 Using law 1 of indices gives:
3
10 3 × 10 2 a 2+1 × b 3+ 2 × c1+5 = a 3 × b5 × c 6
Problem 35. Evaluate
10 8 i.e. a 2b 3c × ab 2c 5 = a 3 b 5 c 6

10 3 × 10 2 10 3+ 2 10 5
= = from law 1 x 5 y 2z
10 8 10 8 10 8 Problem 40. Simplify
x2y z3
= 10 5−8 = 10 −3 from law 2
1 1 x 5 y 2z x 5 × y 2 × z x5 y 2 z
= = from law 5 2 3
=
2 3 = 2
×
1
×
10 + 3 1000 x yz x × y×z x y z3
10 3 × 10 2 1 = x 5− 2 × y 2 −1 × z 1− 3 by law 2
Hence, = 10 −3 = = 0.001
10 8 1000 3
= x3 × y1 × z −2 = x3 y z−2 or x y
Problem 36. Simplify: (a) (23)4 (b) (32)5 z2
expressing the answers in index form.
Now try the following Practice Exercise
From law 3: (a) (23)4 = 23×4 = 212
(b) (32)5 = 32×5 = 310 Practice Exercise 8 Laws of indices
In questions 1 to 18, evaluate without the aid of
(10 2 ) 3 a calculator
Problem 37. Evaluate
10 4 × 10 2
1. Evaluate 2 2 × 2 × 2 4 [2 7 = 128]
(10 2 ) 3 10 (2 × 3) 2. Evaluate 35 × 33 × 3 in index form
From laws 1, 2, and 3:  =
10 4 × 10 2 10 (4 + 2) [ 39 ]
10 6 27
= 6 = 106–6 3. Evaluate [2 4 = 16]
10 23
= 100 = 1
4. Evaluate
33
35
 [ 3−2 =
1
32
=
1
9 ]
Problem 38. Evaluate: (a) 41/2 (b) 163/4
(c) 272/3 (d) 9–1/2 5. Evaluate 7 0 [1]
 14 Mechanical Engineering Principles

4
23 × 2 × 26
( x 3 )  [x12]
Part One

6. Evaluate [2 3 = 8] 27.

27
7.
6
Evaluate 10 × 10 [10 2 = 100]
10 5
28.
−3
( y2 )  [ y −6 or y16 ]
2
8. Evaluate 10 4 ÷ 10 [10 3 = 1000] 29. (t × t 3) [t 8]
3 4 −2
9. Evaluate 10 × 10  30. (c −7 )  [ c14]
10 9
 [ 10 −2 =
1
10 2
=
1
100
= 0.01 ] 31.
 a 2 3
  
5
a 
[ a −9 or
a9
1
]
10. Evaluate 56 × 52 ÷ 57 [5]  1 4
11. Evaluate (72)3 in index form [7 6 ]
32.  3 
b  [ b12
1
or b −12 ]
12. Evaluate (33)2[36 = 729]  b 2 −2
33.   [b10]
7
b 
37 × 34
13. Evaluate in index form [36 ]
35 34.
1

( )
s3
3
 [ 1
s9
or s −9 ]
(9 × 32 ) 3
14. Evaluate in index form [ 34 ]
(3 × 27) 2 35. p 3qr 2 × p 2q 5r × pqr 2 [ p 6q 7 r 5 ]
(16 × 4) 2
15. Evaluate
(2 × 8) 3
[1] 36.
x3 y 2z
x5 y z 3
 [ x −2 y z −2 or
y
x2 z2
]
5−2
16. Evaluate [52 = 25]
5−4

17. Evaluate
32 × 3−4
33
 [ 3−5 =
35
1
=
1
243 ] 1.9 Simultaneous equations

The solution of simultaneous equations is demonstrat-

7 2 × 7 −3
18. Evaluate [7 2 = 49] ed in the following worked problems.
7 × 7 −4
In problems 19 to 36, simplify the following, Problem 41. If 6 apples and 2 pears cost £1.80
giving each answer as a power and 8 apples and 6 pears cost £2.90, calculate how
much an apple and a pear each cost.
19. z 2 × z 6 [ z 8 ]
20. a × a 2 × a 5 [ a 8] Let an apple = A and a pear = P, then:
21. n8 × n −5 [ n 3] 6A + 2P = 180 (1)
22. b4 × b7 [ b11] 8A + 6P = 290 (2)

23. b 2 ÷ b5  [ b −3 or
1
b3
] From equation (1), 6A = 180 – 2P

and
180 − 2 P
A= = 30 – 0.3333P(3)
24. c 5 × c 3 ÷ c 4 [c 4 ] 6
m5 × m 6 From equation (2), 8A = 290 – 6P
25. [m 4]
4
m ×m 3 290 − 6 P
and A= = 36.25 – 0.75P(4)
8
26.
( x 2 )( x)
x6
 [ x −3 or
1
x3 ] Equating (3) and (4) gives:
30 – 0.3333P = 36.25 – 0.75P
 Revisionary mathematics 15

i.e. 0.75P – 0.3333P = 36.25 – 30 and 6s + 12b = 18 (2)

Part One
and 0.4167P = 6.25 Multiplying equation (1) by 3 gives:

6.25 6s + 60b = 30 (3)

and P= = 15
0.4167 Equation (3) – equation (2) gives: 48b = 12
12
Substituting in (3) gives: A = 30 – 0.3333(15) from which, b= = 0.25
48
= 30 – 5 = 25
Hence, an apple costs 25p and a pear costs 15p Substituting in (1) gives: 2s + 20(0.25) = 10
The above method of solving simultaneous equations i.e. 2s = 10 – 20(0.25)
is called the substitution method.
i.e. 2s = 5
Problem 42. If 6 bananas and 5 peaches cost 5
£3.45 and 4 bananas and 8 peaches cost £4.40, and s = = 2.5
2
calculate how much a banana and a peach each
cost. Therefore, a spanner costs £2.50 and a bolt costs
£0.25 or 25p
Let a banana = B and a peach = P, then:
6B + 5P = 345 (1) Now try the following Practice Exercises
4B + 8P = 440 (2)
Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives: Practice Exercise 9 Simultaneous
equations
12B + 10P = 690 (3)
1. If 5 apples and 3 bananas cost £1.45 and
Multiplying equation (2) by 3 gives: 4 apples and 6 bananas cost £2.42, deter-
mine how much an apple and a banana each
12B + 24P = 1320 (4) cost. [apple = 8p, banana = 35p]
Equation (4) – equation (3) gives: 14P = 630 2. If 7 apples and 4 oranges cost £2.64 and
3 apples and 3 oranges cost £1.35, determine
630 how much an apple and an orange each cost.
from which, P= = 45
14  [apple = 28p, orange = 17p]
Substituting in (1) gives: 6B + 5(45) = 345
3. 
Three new cars and four new vans sup-
i.e. 6B = 345 – 5(45) plied to a dealer together cost £93000, and
five new cars and two new vans of the same
i.e. 6B = 120 models cost £99000. Find the respective
costs of a car and a van.
120
and B= = 20  [car = £15000, van = £12000]
6
4. 
In a system of forces, the relationship
Hence, a banana costs 20p and a peach costs 45p between two forces F1 and F2 is given by:
The above method of solving simultaneous equations
is called the elimination method. 5F1 + 3F2 = – 6
3F1 + 5F2 = – 18
Problem 43. If 20 bolts and 2 spanners cost £10, Solve for F1 and F2
and 6 spanners and 12 bolts cost £18, how much [F1 = 1.5, F2 = – 4.5]
does a spanner and a bolt cost?
5. Solve the simultaneous equations:
a+b=7
Let s = a spanner and b = a bolt. a – b = 3 [a = 5, b = 2]
Therefore, 2s + 20b = 10  (1)
 16 Mechanical Engineering Principles

p
6. Solve the simultaneous equations:
Part One

8a – 3b = 51
3a + 4b = 14 [a = 6, b = – 1] 3αn

Q
4cm R

Practice Exercise 10 Multiple-choice Figure 1.9

questions on
revisionary 8. In the triangle ABC shown in Figure 1.10,
mathematics side ‘a’ is equal to:
(Answers on page 335) (a) 61.27 mm
1. 73º is equivalent to: (b) 86.58 mm
(a) 23.24 rad (b) 1.274 rad (c) 96.41 mm
(c) 0.406 rad (d) 4183 rad (d) 54.58 mm
2. 0.52 radians is equivalent to: A
(a) 93.6º (b) 0.0091º
(c) 1.63º (d) 29.79º ・
52
30町田3
3. 3π/4 radians is equivalent to: 75mm
(a) 135º (b) 270º
(c) 45º (d) 67.5º
c
4. In the right-angled triangle ABC shown in B
a
Figure 1.8, sine A is given by:
(a) b/a (b) c/b Figure 1.10
(c) b/c (d) a/b
9. In the triangle ABC shown in Figure 1.10,
A
angle B is equal to:
b
c (a) 0.386º (b) 22.69º
(c) 74.71º (d) 23.58º
c a B
Figure 1.8 10. Removing the brackets from the expres-
sion: a[b + 2c – d{(e – f) – g(m – n)}] gives:
5. In the right-angled triangle ABC shown in
Figure 1.8, cosine C is given by: (a) ab + 2ac – ade – adf + adgm – adgn
(a) a/b (b) c/b (b) ab + 2ac – ade – adf – adgm – adgn
(c) a/c (d) b/a (c) ab + 2ac – ade + adf + adgm – adgn
6. In the right-angled triangle ABC shown in (d) ab + 2ac – ade – adf + adgm + adgn
Figure 1.8, tangent A is given by:
5 1 2
(a) b/c (b) a/c 11. + − is equal to:
(c) a/b (d) c/a 6 5 3

7. In the right-angled triangle PQR shown in 1 11

(a) (b)
Figure 1.9, angle R is equal to: 2 30
1 7
(a) 41.41º (b) 48.59º (c) − (d) 1
(c) 36.87º (d) 53.13º 2 10
 Revisionary mathematics 17

1 2 2 1 is equal to: (16 × 4) 2

Part One
12. 1 +1 ÷ 2 − 18. The engineering expression is
3 3 3 3 (8 × 2) 4
2 19 equal to:
(a) 1 (b)
7 24 (a) 4 (b) 2 −4
1 5 1
(c) 2 (d) 1 (c) 2 (d) 1
21 8 2
3 3 1 2
13. ÷ 1 is equal to: 19. (16
−
4 – 27
−
3) is equal to:
4 4
3 9 7
(a) (b) 1 (a) (b) – 7
7 16 18
5 1 8 1
(c) 1 (d) 2 (c) 1 (d) – 8
16 2 9 2
14. 
11 mm expressed as a percentage of 20. 
The solution of the simultaneous equa-
41 mm is: tions: 3a – 2b = 13 and 2a + 5b = – 4
(a) 2.68, correct to 3 significant figures is:
(b) 2.6, correct to 2 significant figures (a) a = – 2, b = 3
(c) 26.83, correct to 2 decimal places (b) a = 1, b = – 5
(d) 0.2682, correct to 4 decimal places (c) a = 3, b = – 2
2 −3 (d) a = – 7, b = 2
15. The value of − 1 is equal to:
2 −4
(a) 1 (b) 2
1 1
(c) –
2
(d)
2
References
4
16. In an engineering equation 3 = 1 . The There are many aspects of mathematics needed in engineering
3r 9 studies; a few have been covered in this chapter. For
value of r is: further engineering mathematics, see the following
(a) – 6 (b) 2 references:
(c) 6 (d) – 2 [1] BIRD J. O. Basic Engineering Mathematics 6th Edition,
Taylor & Francis, 2014
3
− [2] BIRD J. O. Engineering Mathematics 7th Edition, Taylor &
17. 16 4 is equal to: Francis, 2014
1
(a) 8 (b) –
23
1
(c) 4 (d)
8

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 1 to 10 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Revision Test 1 Revisionary mathematics
Part One

This Revision Test covers the material contained in Chapter 1. The marks for each question are shown in brackets
at the end of each question.
1. Convert, correct to 2 decimal places: A triangular plot of land ABC is shown in
5. 
Figure RT1.4. Solve the triangle and determine its
(a) 76.8° to radians
area
(b) 1.724 radians to degrees (4)

、
A
2. In triangle JKL in Figure RT1.1, find:
s 、
折
(a) length KJ correct to 3 significant figures 1
7 ・
B
(b) sin L and tan K, each correct to 3 decimal places
K
5
1.'
. "
c
.
>
.
; Figure RT1.4
>
!
l
'
' (9)

6. Figure RT1.5 shows a roof truss PQR with rafter

J
.
591 L PQ = 3 m. Calculate the length of (a) the roof rise
PP′ (b) rafter PR, and (c) the roof span QR. Find
Figure RT1.1 also (d) the cross-sectional area of the roof truss
(4)
p
3. In triangle PQR in Figure RT1.2, find angle P in
decimal form, correct to 2 decimal places
>
1
'<
<'
p Q

~8
5
1.2
。 0
4・
'
P
2・
3
R
Figure RT1.5

R
(10)
Figure RT1.2
 olve triangle ABC given b = 10 cm, c = 15 cm
7. S
(2) and ∠A = 60°.(7)
4. In triangle ABC in Figure RT1.3, find lengths AB 8. Remove the brackets and simplify
and AC, correct to 2 decimal places 2(3x – 2y) – (4y – 3x)(3)
A
9. Remove the brackets and simplify
10a – [3(2a – b) – 4(b –a) + 5b](4)
10. Determine, correct to 2 decimal places, 57% of
17.64 g(2)
11. 
Express 54.7 mm as a percentage of 1.15 m,
B ・ 5
40 3'
c
correct to 3 significant figures. (3)
s 12. Simplify:
Figure RT1.3 3 7 5 1 5
(a) − (b) 1 − 2 + 3  (8)
(4) 4 15 8 3 6
 Revisionary mathematics 19

13. Use a calculator to evaluate: 2

(23 × 16)

Part One
7 3 3 (b) 3
(a) 1 × × 3
9 8 5 (8 × 2)
2 1
(b) 6 ÷ 1  1 −1
3 3 (c)  2  (7)
4 
1 1 2
(c) 1 × 2 ÷  (10)
3 5 5
17. Evaluate:
14. Evaluate:  2 −2 2
  −
(a) 3 × 2 3 × 2 2 1  3 9
(a) (27) − (b) (5)
1 3  2 2
(b) 49 2 (4)  
 3
15. Evaluate: 18. Solve the simultaneous equations:
27 10 4 × 10 × 10 5 (a) 2 x + y = 6
(a) (b) (4)
22 10 6 × 10 2 5x – y = 22
16. Evaluate: (b) 4 x – 3y = 11
23 × 2 × 22 3x + 5y = 30 (10)
(a)
24

For lecturers/instructors/teachers, fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Revision Test 1,
together with a full marking scheme, are available at the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
References

1 Revisionary mathematics

P a

r t

O n

e Revision Test 1 Revisionary mathematics This Revision

Test covers the material contained in Chapter 1. The marks
for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each
question. 1. Convert, correct to 2 decimal places: (a)
76.8° to radians (b) 1.724 radians to degrees (4) 2. In
triangle JKL in Figure RT1.1, find: (a) length KJ
correct to 3 significant figures (b) sin L and tan K,
each correct to 3 decimal places Figure RT1.1 (4) 3. In
triangle PQR in Figure RT1.2, find angle P in decimal
form, correct to 2 decimal places Figure RT1.2 (2) 4.
In triangle ABC in Figure RT1.3, find lengths AB and AC,
correct to 2 decimal places Figure RT1.3 (4) 5. A
triangular plot of land ABC is shown in Figure RT1.4.
Solve the triangle and determine its area Figure RT1.4 (9)
6. Figure RT1.5 shows a roof truss PQR with rafter PQ = 3
m. Calculate the length of (a) the roof rise PP′ (b)
rafter PR, and (c) the roof span QR. Find also (d) the
cross-sectional area of the roof truss Figure RT1.5 (10)
7. Solve triangle ABC given b = 10 cm, c = 15 cm and ∠A =
60° . (7) 8. Remove the brackets and simplify 2(3x –
2y) – (4y – 3x) (3) 9. Remove the brackets and simplify
10a – [3(2a – b) – 4(b –a) + 5b] (4) 10. Determine,
correct to 2 decimal places, 57% of 17.64 g (2) 11.
Express 54.7 mm as a percentage of 1.15 m, correct to 3
significant figures. (3) 12. Simplify: (a) − 3 4 7 15
(b) − +1 5 8 2 1 3 3 5 6 (8)

P a

r t

O n

e J p A K . > . ; ' l ! > 5 . 9 1 L ~ 8 R Q 1 5 . 2 B 4 0 ・

3 5 ' c s A 、 s 折 、 7 1 ・ B 1 5 . ' " c p ' 1 > < ' 4 0 ・ 3
2 ・ 。 P ' R P a r t O n e 13. Use a calculator to
evaluate: (a) 1 7 9 3 8 3 3 5 × × (b) ÷6 2 3 1 1 3
(c) 1 1 3 2 1 5 2 5 × ÷ (10) 14. Evaluate: (a) 3 2 2
3 2 × × (b) 49 1 2 (4) 15. Evaluate: (a) 2 2 7 2
(b) 10 10 10 10 10 4 5 6 2 × × × (4) 16. Evaluate: (a)
2 2 2 2 3 2 4 × × (b) 2 16 8 2 3 2 3 ( ) ( ) × × (c)
� � � � � � − 1 4 2 1 (7) 17. Evaluate: (a) (27) − 1 3
(b) � � � � � � − � � � � � � − 2 3 2 9 2 3 2 2 (5) 18.
Solve the simultaneous equations: (a) 2x + y = 6 5x – y
= 22 (b) 4x – 3y = 11 3x + 5y = 30 (10) For
lecturers/instructors/teachers, fully worked solutions to
each of the problems in Revision Test 1, together with a
full marking scheme, are available at the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
4 Tensile testing

STRESS

帥 o.2~ 同署OOF ST時ESS 0.1弛 同司XlP SJRES輯 1 P 6 o 0.眼目

o.c脱且関昌弘樹揖 事TRAlN(0)
7 Forces in structures

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in

Practice Exercises 46 to 50 in this chapter, go to the
website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird
12 Twisting of shafts

1. A beam simply supported at its ends, is of length 1.4

m. If the beam carries a centrally-placed downward
concentrated load of 50 kN, determine the minimum
permissible dimensions of the beam’s cross-section, given
that the maximum permissible stress is 40 MPa, and the beam
has a solid circular cross-section. (6)

2. Determine the force applied tangentially to a bar of a

screw-jack at a radius of 60 cm, if the torque required
is 750 N m. (3)

3. Calculate the torque developed by a motor whose spindle

is rotating at 900 rev/min and developing a power of 4.20
kW. (5)

4. A motor connected to a shaft develops a torque of 8 kN

m. Determine the number of revolutions made by the shaft
if the work done is 7.2 MJ. (6) 5. Determine the angular
acceleration of a shaft that has a moment of inertia of 32
kg m 2 produced by an accelerating torque of 600 N m. (5)
6. An electric motor has an efficiency of 72% when running
at 1400 rev/min. Determine the output torque when the
power input is 2.50 kW. (5) 7. A solid circular section
shaft is required to transmit 60 hp at 1000 rpm. If the
maximum permissible shear stress in the shaft is 35 MPa,
determine the minimum permissible diameter of the shaft.
Determine the resulting angle of twist of the shaft per
metre, assuming that the modulus of rigidity, G = 70 GPa
and 1 hp = 745.7 W (10)

Revision Test 5 Bending of beams, torque and twisting of

shafts

This Revision Test covers the material contained in

Chapters 10 to 12. The marks for each question are shown in

brackets at the end of each question. For

lecturers/instructors/teachers, fully worked solutions to
each of the problems in Revision Test 5, together with a
full marking scheme, are available at the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird This page intentionally left
blank
23 Hydrostatics

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in

Practice Exercises 126 to 133 in this chapter, go to the
website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird