RESUMEN FUNDAMENTOS

The chapter "Mistakes and Feedback" from "The Practice of English Language Teaching" by Harmer (2007) discusses
various aspects of mistakes, errors, assessment, and feedback in language learning.
Here's a summary of the key points:

1. Sources of Mistakes: The two main sources of mistakes in language learning are L1 interference, where
students' first language interferes with the rules of English grammar and phonetics (For example, "Do you
like pizza?" in Spanish would be "¿Te gusta la pizza?" Literally translated, this question in English becomes
"You like pizza?" instead of the correct "Do you like pizza?"), and developmental errors, which occur naturally
as learners overgeneralize rules or apply them incorrectly until they gain a deeper understanding (instead of
saying "I saw two children," they might mistakenly say "I saw two childs." This error occurs because the
learner is overgeneralizing the regular plural rule to irregular nouns, resulting in an incorrect form.)

2. Explicit vs. Implicit Assessment: Assessment of performance can be explicit, involving active feedback such
as praise or correction, or implicit, where feedback is not directly given. Implicit assessment may involve
giving less attention to proficient students and more attention to those needing extra help.

3. Negative Effects of Over-Complimenting: Too much praise, especially when students know they didn't do
well, can make them rely too much on compliments and not pay attention to the work they need to do. They
might also get good at telling when compliments are real or fake."

4. Methods of Assessment: Besides traditional tests and exams, assessment methods include providing
comments on performance, assigning marks or grades, and writing detailed reports. Clear criteria for grading
and balanced feedback in reports are essential.

5. Self-Assessment: Self-assessment involves students monitoring and judging their own language production.
Encouraging self-assessment enhances learner autonomy and reflective skills. Self-assessment can be made
formal by prompting students to reflect on what they have learned at the end of a unit of work.

6. Factors Influencing Assessment: Teachers are advised to consider various factors when assessing oral
performance, such as the stage of the lesson, the nature of the activity, the type of mistake made, and the
individual making the mistake.

7. Difference Between Accuracy and Fluency: Accuracy refers to minimizing mistakes in speech, while fluency
emphasizes natural, continuous speech flow, prioritizing rhythm and pace over perfect accuracy.

8. Two Stages of Correction: Correction involves first pointing out mistakes to students and allowing them to
self-correct. If they are unable to do so, teachers intervene by providing the correct form and explaining
grammar rules if necessary.

9. Accuracy Work: Teachers employ various techniques to indicate errors to students, including asking for
repetition, emphasizing mistakes, or providing subtle hints. If students cannot correct themselves, teachers
proceed to the second stage of correction, offering the correct form and explanations if needed.

10. Fluency Work: Corrections during fluency-focused activities should be subtle to avoid disrupting the flow.
Teachers may interrupt students to correct minor mistakes or provide feedback after the activity. Various
approaches to responding to students' work, such as making comments during speech or recording for later
analysis, are discussed.

11. Feedback on Written Work: Constructive feedback on written work involves highlighting areas for
improvement while acknowledging students' efforts. Correction codes are suggested as a less intrusive and
neater alternative to marking up the entire text with comments.

The importance of training students to understand feedback lies in its potential to be truly beneficial for their
learning and improvement. Feedback, whether from teachers or peers, serves as a crucial tool for students to
enhance their understanding and application of various concepts.
Understanding Feedback:

 Training students to understand feedback is essential because it ensures that feedback is not only
received but also comprehended and utilized effectively.

 Students need to grasp not just the meaning of feedback but also recognize its form and how it can
be applied to enhance their learning.

2. Positive Effects of Peer Correction:

 Peer correction offers distinct advantages over teacher feedback.

 Unlike feedback from teachers, which is often accepted without question, feedback from peers
encourages reflection and debate, leading to deeper understanding.

 Peer correction fosters self-assessment skills in students, as they learn to evaluate their own work
using similar standards as those applied to their peers.

3. Formative Assessment:

 Formative feedback goes beyond mere assessment; it aims to help students improve and learn from
their mistakes.

 Effective formative feedback prompts students to implement corrections and produce improved
versions of their work.

4. Variation in Marking Methods:

 Teachers can vary the amount and style of marking to optimize learning outcomes.

 Selective marking focuses on specific types of errors in each feedback session to prevent
overwhelming students.

 Different error codes cater to the task requirements or student proficiency levels.

 Teachers can reduce workload by correcting only a sample of papers or by involving students in the
correction process through peer assessment.

5. Feedback, Assessment, and Correction:

 Feedback involves both assessment (evaluating performance) and correction (providing specific
guidance for improvement).

 Assessment without correction lacks actionable guidance for improvement.

 Correction presupposes assessment, as it addresses identified errors or areas for improvement.

6. Different Opinions on Providing Assessment:

 Various educational theories propose different approaches to assessment, ranging from avoiding
negative feedback to providing constant and honest assessment.

 The preferred approach may vary depending on individual perspectives and contextual factors.

7. Different Opinions on Correcting Mistakes:

 Educational theories offer contrasting views on the role of correcting mistakes in learning.

 While some advocate for minimal correction to avoid inhibiting learning, others emphasize the
importance of addressing mistakes to facilitate language acquisition.

 The communicative approach suggests focusing correction on mistakes that hinder effective
communication rather than all inaccuracies of language usage.
In summary, training students to understand feedback, incorporating peer correction, utilizing formative assessment,
varying marking methods, and considering diverse perspectives on assessment and correction are essential aspects
of effective language teaching and learning.
Feedback helps students learn, but only if they understand it. Teaching students to understand feedback is crucial
because it helps them know how to use it to get better at their work. When students get feedback from their
classmates, they may think about it more and learn from it because they're not just accepting it without question like
they might with feedback from a teacher.

Getting feedback is like getting advice on how to improve. Formative assessment is when teachers give feedback to
help students learn from their mistakes and do better next time. It's not just about grading the work; it's about
helping students understand where they went wrong and how to fix it.

Teachers can give feedback in different ways. They might focus on specific types of mistakes or use codes to show
what needs to be fixed. They don't have to correct every single mistake; sometimes, they can give feedback on just
one paper and have students learn from that.

There are different opinions about giving feedback. Some people think only positive feedback is good, while others
believe both positive and negative feedback are important for learning. Similarly, some people think all mistakes
should be corrected, while others believe only mistakes that affect communication need to be fixed.

In the end, the goal of feedback is to help students learn and improve. Whether it comes from teachers or peers,
understanding and using feedback is a key part of getting better at anything, including learning a new language.

Tanner and Green. "Tasks for Teacher Education".

We all make mistakes"

1. Teachers should only correct students' mistakes if it's the right time to do so. Correcting right away can interrupt
the flow of speech and discourage the student.

2. Feedback can be given later if students are practicing speaking without interruptions.

3. In some activities, it's okay not to correct mistakes, especially if a student is shy or expressing complex ideas.

4. Teachers correct students differently depending on the activity. During fluency exercises, mistakes are usually
ignored.

5. Teachers adjust their correction methods based on students' personalities. Shy students are corrected less, while
stronger students may correct their own mistakes more.

6. Teachers help students correct each other by giving guidance and examples. They can also use gestures or repeat
sentences.

7. Self-correction and peer correction help students learn independently and feel confident.

8. However, there are downsides too, like students not understanding assessment criteria or feeling pressured by
peers.

9. There are different ways to give feedback on spoken errors, like not reacting or providing a correct model.

10. From this task, I learned that it's important to take notes during oral work instead of interrupting students.
Feedback should focus on important issues, and every student needs individualized feedback.
POSSIBLE EXAM QUESTIONS (ANSWERS)

1. The importance of training students to understand feedback lies in its usability for enhancing learning. For
instance, if students comprehend feedback, they can apply it to improve their work and develop critical
thinking skills.

2. Peer correction can have profound effects on learning. While teacher feedback is often accepted without
question, peer feedback encourages reflection and debate, leading to a deeper understanding of the subject.
Additionally, it fosters self-assessment skills and promotes a more critical evaluation of one's own work.

3. Formative assessment aims to aid students in improving and learning from their mistakes. Unlike summative
assessment, which evaluates final learning, formative assessment focuses on ongoing progress and
improvement by providing feedback that students can implement to produce a new version of their work.

4. Teachers can vary the amount of marking and the way they mark through selective marking, different error
codes, marking only a selection of papers, and involving students in the correction process. For example, by
focusing on specific types of mistakes in each assignment, teachers can provide targeted feedback.

5. According to Ur, feedback involves providing information to learners about their performance, including
assessment (informing how well or poorly they have performed) and correction (providing specific
information on aspects of the learner’s performance and how to improve).

6. The three different opinions about providing assessment proposed by the author include Audio-lingualism,
Humanistic methodologies, and Skill theory. The most aligned opinion may vary but understanding the
nuances and impact of positive and negative assessments can provide a well-rounded perspective.

7. The differing opinions about correcting mistakes include Audio-lingualism, Cognitive code-learning,
Interlanguage, Communicative approach, and Monitor theory. Each opinion presents valid points, yet the
most agreed-upon perspective is often based on the view that mistakes are integral to the learning process
and should be corrected to foster improvement.

Formative assessment, in simple terms, is a process where teachers provide feedback to students during the learning
process to help them improve. It's not about grading, but rather about identifying areas for improvement and
guiding students on how to enhance their work. This type of assessment focuses on ongoing progress and aims to
support students in their learning journey.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a way of teaching languages that focuses on helping students
communicate effectively in real-life situations.
The way we teach languages through Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has changed over the years. We can
see some of these changes by looking at how CLT is done, how lessons are planned, and how teachers teach in the
classroom.

1. Approach: This means the big ideas behind how we teach. Different ways of thinking about language
teaching have come up over time, and they affect how teachers teach in the classroom.

2. Design: This is about how teachers plan their lessons and what materials they use. Teachers think about
what to teach, when to teach it, and how to help students learn best.

3. Procedure: This is all about what actually happens in the classroom. It's about the activities and methods
teachers use to help students learn, like games, group work, or role-playing.

So, when we say that CLT has evolved, we mean that it's changed over time in how it's approached, planned, and
taught in classrooms. Looking at these changes can help us understand how CLT has developed and how effective it
is in helping students learn languages.

1. Talking is Key: CLT is all about getting students to talk and use the language they're learning to have real
conversations.
 2. Real-Life Practice: Instead of just memorizing rules and vocabulary, CLT encourages students to practice
using the language in realistic situations, like ordering food in a restaurant or asking for directions.

3. Working Together: Students often work in pairs or groups to practice speaking and solve problems together,
which helps them learn from each other.

4. Understanding Cultures: CLT also teaches students about different cultures and how to communicate
respectfully with people from other backgrounds.

5. Mistakes Are Okay: In CLT, making mistakes is seen as part of learning, so students are encouraged to keep
talking even if they're not perfect.

Overall, CLT is about making language learning fun, practical, and focused on actually using the language to
communicate with others.
1. Learning by Doing: In CLT, you learn a language by using it in real situations, like talking to people or doing
activities.

2. Practice Makes Perfect: CLT believes that the more you practice speaking, listening, reading, and writing in
the language, the better you'll get at it.

3. Learn from Mistakes: It's okay to make mistakes when learning a language in CLT. Teachers help you
understand your mistakes so you can get better.

4. Learning Together: You often work with other students in CLT. This helps you learn from each other and
practice speaking with different people.

5. Meaningful Learning: CLT focuses on learning things that are important to you. Lessons are about topics you
care about, so you're more interested in learning.

The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes called ‘’communicative competence’’. Hymes created this
term to contrast it with Chomsky’s theory of competence, which had the main objective of listing the cognitive
abilities that a speaker required to successfully communicate in a language, without taking into account any external
factors that might intervene with the process. This theory has been highly criticized, and to contrast it, Hymes’
theory started including some social elements into the equation. His theory stated that a person who acquires
linguistic competence gains knowledge and ability in regards to:
●Whether something is possible or not
●Whether something is feasible based on the options available
●Whether something is appropriate for the context in which it is used
●Whether something is actually done, successful and what doing it entails.

The notional-functional syllabus is a way of teaching language that focuses on real-life situations and the meanings
we want to convey when we talk.

1. Notions: Notions are the ideas or meanings we want to express when we talk. For example, saying "I'm
hungry" or "I want to go to the store" are notions.

2. Functions: Functions are the purposes or reasons why we talk. For example, we talk to ask questions, give
directions, or make requests. These are all functions of language.

3. Real-Life Situations: The notional-functional syllabus teaches language based on the situations we use it in
real life. For example, ordering food at a restaurant or talking to a doctor are real-life situations where we
use language.

4. Learning by Doing: In this approach, you learn language by doing activities related to real-life situations. For
example, you might practice ordering food by role-playing with a classmate or listening to a dialogue in a
restaurant setting.

5. Focused on Meaning: The notional-functional syllabus focuses on the meaning of what we say rather than
just memorizing grammar rules or vocabulary. It helps you learn how to communicate effectively in different
situations.
Overall, the notional-functional syllabus is about learning language in a way that's practical, meaningful, and based
on the situations we use language in real life.

Types of learning and teaching activities: The main principle behind CLT, as its name might suggest, is the
development and improvement of language skills through communication. This is why CLT activities in general are
expected to follow some -if not all- of these principles:
●Make real communication the focus of language learning.
●Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know.
●Be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the learner is building up his or her communicative
competence.
●Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency.
●Link the different skills such as speaking, reading, and listening together, since they usually occur together in the
real world-.
●Let students induce or discover grammar rules. Further information about ‘’accuracy vs fluency activities’’ and
‘’functional communication vs social interaction activities
ROLES:
Learners:

 In CLT, learners are like negotiators. They talk with their classmates to understand things better.

Teachers:

 Teachers in CLT create activities where students can talk and understand each other.

 They also help students figure out what they need to learn and support them in their learning.

 Teachers watch how students work together and give feedback to help them learn better.
Here's a simple example of a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) lesson for learning English.

EXAMPLE OF A CLT LESSON PLAN

Topic: Ordering Food at a Restaurant

Objective: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to order food in English at a restaurant.
Lesson Plan:
Warm-Up
Teacher shows pictures of different types of food and asks students what they are and if they like them.
Vocabulary Introduction
Teacher introduces new vocabulary related to food items and phrases for ordering (e.g., "I would like," "Can I have,"
"Please").
Role-Play Activity
Students work in pairs to role-play ordering food at a restaurant. One student plays the waiter/waitress, and the
other plays the customer.
They use the new vocabulary and phrases they learned to order and serve food.
Students work in small groups to plan and act out a restaurant scene. They take turns being customers,
waiters/waitresses, and chefs.
Each group performs their scene in front of the class.
Feedback and Discussion
Teacher provides feedback on students' performances, praising their efforts and offering suggestions for
improvement.
Students discuss their experiences and what they learned about ordering food in English.
Teacher reviews key vocabulary and phrases related to ordering food.
Students practice saying them aloud together as a class.
Materials Needed: Pictures of food, flashcards with vocabulary words, props for role-play (e.g., menus, aprons), and
a whiteboard or flipchart for writing key vocabulary.

This CLT lesson focuses on real-life communication by engaging students in interactive activities where they practice
using English to order food at a restaurant. It incorporates speaking, listening, and role-playing to help students
develop their communicative competence in English.
CONCLUSION
1. Approach vs. Method: CLT is described as an approach rather than a method because it's more about the
underlying views and ideas about teaching rather than specific procedures or steps.
2. Importance of Accuracy and Fluency: The speaker believes that both accuracy (using correct grammar and
vocabulary) and fluency (speaking smoothly without pauses) are important in communication.
3. Balancing Accuracy and Fluency: In CLT, activities can be balanced to focus on both accuracy and fluency.
For example, starting with accuracy-focused activities to establish knowledge and then moving to fluency
activities where students apply that knowledge. Alternatively, starting with fluency activities to assess
student ability and then using accuracy activities to reinforce weaker areas.

CBI AND CLIL

1. Content-Based Instruction (CBI):

 CBI is an approach to language teaching where language learning is integrated with the learning of
subject content, such as science, history, or math.
 In CBI, language is taught through meaningful content, allowing students to learn both language
skills and subject matter simultaneously.
 The focus is on using authentic materials and tasks related to the content area, which helps students
develop language skills in context.
2. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL):
 CLIL is a specific type of CBI where the language of instruction is not the students' first language, and
content learning is integrated with language learning.
 In CLIL, students learn subjects such as science or geography in a language other than their native
language, usually a second or foreign language.
 The goal of CLIL is for students to develop both subject knowledge and language proficiency in the
target language while studying academic content.
In summary, both CBI and CLIL integrate language learning with subject content, but CLIL specifically focuses on
learning academic content in a language other than the students' first language.

COMPARE THE TWO APPROACHES

Certainly! Let's compare Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in
terms of their key features:
1. Language Instruction:
 CBI: In CBI, language instruction is integrated with the learning of subject content, focusing on
developing language skills through meaningful content.
 CLIL: CLIL also integrates language instruction with subject content but specifically targets learning
academic content in a language other than the students' first language.
2. Subject Content:
 CBI: CBI typically covers a wide range of subject areas, such as science, history, or math, depending
on the curriculum objectives.
 CLIL: CLIL focuses on specific academic subjects, such as science, geography, or literature, taught in a
language other than the students' first language.
3. Language Proficiency Goals:
 CBI: In CBI, the primary goal is to develop language proficiency through exposure to and practice
with subject content.
 CLIL: CLIL aims to develop both subject knowledge and language proficiency in the target language,
emphasizing academic language skills and content-specific vocabulary.
4. Language of Instruction:
 CBI: In CBI, the language of instruction is typically the students' first language, and language learning
is integrated into the curriculum alongside subject content.
  CLIL: In CLIL, the language of instruction is a language other than the students' first language, known
as the target language, and students learn academic content through this language.
5. Learning Context:
 CBI: CBI is commonly used in language education programs where students are learning a second
language in addition to their first language.
 CLIL: CLIL is often implemented in bilingual or multilingual education contexts, where students have
exposure to and proficiency in multiple languages.
Overall, while both CBI and CLIL integrate language learning with subject content, CLIL specifically targets learning
academic content in a language other than the students' first language, whereas CBI focuses on developing language
skills through exposure to various subject areas in the students' first language.

Aspect Content-Based Instruction (CBI) Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
Language Instruction Integrated with subject content Integrated with academic subject content

Subject Content Wide range of subjects Specific academic subjects

Language Proficiency Develop language skills Develop language and subject knowledge
Language of Instruction Students' first language Language other than students' first language

Learning Context Second language learning Bilingual or multilingual education contexts

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN CBI

In Content-Based Instruction (CBI), the role of the teacher is to facilitate language learning through meaningful
content. The teacher:
- Designs and delivers content-rich lessons that integrate language instruction with subject matter.
- Creates authentic learning experiences that engage students in real-world contexts.
- Adapts materials and activities to students' language proficiency levels and learning needs.
- Guides students in developing language skills while exploring and understanding subject content.
- Provides feedback and support to help students achieve language and content learning objectives.
Overall, the teacher in CBI acts as a facilitator, guiding students in acquiring language skills through engaging
content-based activities.
ROLE OF THE STUDENT IN CBI
In Content-Based Instruction (CBI), the role of the student is active and participatory.
Students:
- Engage with subject content while simultaneously developing language skills.
- Actively participate in authentic tasks and activities related to the content area.
- Take responsibility for their own learning by exploring and interpreting content materials.
- Use language in meaningful contexts to understand and communicate ideas related to the subject matter.
- Collaborate with peers to complete tasks, discuss concepts, and solve problems.
Overall, students in CBI play an active role in their learning, integrating language development with content learning
in authentic and engaging ways.

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) lesson for teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) to beginners:
Topic: "Animals"
Objective: Students will learn vocabulary related to animals and practice using simple sentences to describe animals.
1. Introduction:
- Show pictures of different animals (e.g., dog, cat, bird) and say their names aloud.
- Use gestures and facial expressions to demonstrate actions and sounds associated with each animal.
2. Vocabulary Activity:
- Introduce new vocabulary words related to animals, such as "dog," "cat," "bird," "fish," "rabbit," etc.
- Repeat each word several times and encourage students to repeat after you.
- Use flashcards or pictures to help students visualize the animals as they learn the words.
3. Listening Activity:
- Play a short audio clip or video featuring different animal sounds.
- Ask students to listen carefully and identify the animals they hear.
 - Encourage students to mimic the sounds of the animals they recognize.
4. Speaking Activity:
- Divide the class into pairs or small groups.
- Give each group a set of picture cards depicting different animals.
- Ask students to take turns describing the animals on their cards using simple sentences (e.g., "This is a dog. It has
fur and four legs.").
5. Writing Activity:
- Provide each student with a worksheet featuring pictures of animals and blank lines for writing.
- Ask students to write simple sentences describing the animals they see in the pictures (e.g., "The cat is sleeping.
The bird is flying.").
6. Review and Conclusion:
- Review the vocabulary words and sentences learned during the lesson.
- Encourage students to share their favorite animals and describe why they like them.
- Conclude the lesson by singing a song or playing a game related to animals.
Overall, this CBI lesson integrates language learning with subject content (animals) in a way that engages students
and helps them acquire new vocabulary and language skills.

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN CLIL

In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), the role of the teacher is to facilitate learning across both the
content area and language development. The teacher:
- Designs and delivers lessons that integrate subject content with language instruction in the target language.
- Selects and adapts materials that are relevant to both the content area and language proficiency levels of the
students.
- Provides scaffolding and support to help students understand subject content and develop language skills
simultaneously.
- Encourages active participation and interaction in both the content and language domains.
- Assesses students' understanding of both the content and language objectives.
Overall, the teacher in CLIL acts as a facilitator of integrated learning, guiding students in acquiring subject
knowledge and language proficiency in tandem.
ROLE OF THE STUDENT IN CLIL
In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), students play an active role in their learning by:
- Engaging with subject content while simultaneously developing language skills in the target language.
- Participating in authentic tasks and activities that require both content understanding and language use.
- Collaborating with peers to explore concepts, discuss ideas, and solve problems in the target language.
- Taking responsibility for their own language development and subject learning through meaningful interactions and
tasks.
Overall, students in CLIL take an active role in integrating content learning with language acquisition in the target
language.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) lesson for teaching science to elementary students:
Subject: "Plants and Photosynthesis"
Objective: Students will learn about the process of photosynthesis and understand the role of plants in producing
oxygen.
1. Introduction:
- Show pictures or real-life examples of plants and ask students to identify them.
- Introduce the topic of photosynthesis by explaining that it's how plants make food and oxygen.
2. Language Input:
- Introduce new vocabulary related to plants and photosynthesis, such as "photosynthesis," "chlorophyll," "carbon
dioxide," "oxygen," etc.
- Use visuals like diagrams or posters to illustrate key concepts and vocabulary words.
3. Content Presentation:
- Explain the process of photosynthesis in simple terms: plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to make
food (glucose) and release oxygen.
- Use hands-on activities like a simple experiment with a plant, water, and sunlight to demonstrate photosynthesis.
4. Reading and Writing Activity:
- Provide students with a short reading passage or story about photosynthesis.
 - Ask students to read the passage individually or in pairs, then write a few sentences summarizing what they
learned about photosynthesis.
5. Speaking Activity:
- Divide students into small groups and assign each group a different role in the process of photosynthesis (e.g.,
sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, plant).
- Ask each group to discuss their role and come up with a short skit or role-play demonstrating how photosynthesis
works.
6. Review and Conclusion:
- Review the key vocabulary and concepts learned during the lesson.
- Lead a class discussion about the importance of plants and photosynthesis for life on Earth.
- Conclude the lesson by showing a short video or slideshow about plants and photosynthesis.
Overall, this CLIL lesson integrates science content (photosynthesis) with language learning in a way that engages
students and helps them understand complex concepts using both their content and language skills.
THE ROLE OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
The role of instructional materials in both Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL) is to help students learn both the subject content and language at the same time. These materials,
like textbooks or videos, are chosen to match the subjects being taught and the language skills of the students. They
make learning more interesting and help students understand the content while improving their language skills. In
CBI, these materials focus on teaching the subject with language learning in mind. In CLIL, they are chosen to help
students learn a subject in a language that's not their first language. Overall, instructional materials are important
tools that support learning in both CBI and CLIL by combining subject content with language learning.
Procedure
Since CLIL and CBI are approaches and not procedures, there is no universal framework for the procedure of
a CBI/CLIL unit of work or class.

WHAT IS THE PROCEDURE OF AN APPROACH?

An approach in education refers to a set of principles or beliefs about how teaching and learning should be carried
out. Unlike a method, which provides specific steps or techniques for teaching, an approach is more general and
guides the overall philosophy and goals of instruction.
The procedure of an approach involves implementing its principles and beliefs in practice. This may include:
1. Planning: Teachers plan lessons and activities based on the principles of the approach. They consider the
objectives of the approach, the needs and abilities of the students, and the content to be taught.
2. Instruction: Teachers deliver lessons and activities that align with the approach's principles. They may use
various strategies, techniques, and materials to engage students and facilitate learning according to the
approach's philosophy.
3. Assessment: Teachers assess student learning and progress in ways that are consistent with the approach's
objectives. This may involve evaluating students' understanding, skills, and abilities in relation to the
approach's goals.
4. Reflection: Teachers reflect on their teaching practices and student learning outcomes in light of the
approach's principles. They consider what worked well, what could be improved, and how to better align
their instructional practices with the approach.
Overall, the procedure of an approach involves applying its principles and beliefs in instructional practices,
assessment methods, and reflective processes to achieve the approach's objectives and goals in teaching and
learning.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN APPROACH AND A METHOD?
An approach and a method are both concepts used in education to describe how teaching and learning are carried
out, but they have distinct differences:
1. Approach:
 An approach is a set of principles or beliefs about language teaching and learning.
 It reflects the overall philosophy, goals, and theoretical framework guiding instruction.
 It is more general and abstract, providing a framework for organizing instructional practices.
 Examples of language teaching approaches include Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), Task-
Based Language Teaching (TBLT), and Content-Based Instruction (CBI).
2. Method:
 A method is a set of specific techniques, procedures, and strategies used to teach language.
  It outlines step-by-step instructions for carrying out teaching and learning activities.
 It is more specific and practical, offering detailed guidelines for implementing instructional practices.
 Examples of language teaching methods include the Grammar-Translation Method, Direct Method,
Audio-Lingual Method, and Communicative Approach.
In summary, an approach provides the underlying principles and beliefs guiding language teaching and learning,
while a method offers specific techniques and procedures for implementing instructional practices based on those
principles.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method where students learn by using their bodies to respond
to commands or instructions given by the teacher. In TPR, students listen to commands in the target language and
then perform actions that correspond to those commands. For example, if the teacher says "Stand up," students
stand up, and if the teacher says "Sit down," students sit down. This method helps students associate language with
physical actions, making learning more engaging and memorable. It's like learning through playing games where you
move your body to understand and remember words and phrases in a fun way!
APPROACH:
The approach of Total Physical Response (TPR) is based on the idea that language learning is most effective when it
involves physical movement and action. In TPR, learners respond to commands or instructions given by the teacher
using their bodies instead of speaking. The approach emphasizes the importance of linking language with physical
actions to enhance comprehension and retention. TPR encourages learners to engage in active listening and
responding, allowing them to internalize language through kinesthetic experiences. Overall, the TPR approach
focuses on using movement and action as a fundamental aspect of language learning.
THEORY OF LEARNING
In Total Physical Response (TPR), the theory of learning is based on the idea that language is learned through
physical actions and movement. This theory emphasizes that learners acquire language by associating spoken words
with corresponding physical responses. By engaging in physical activities and responding to commands in the target
language, learners internalize language structures and vocabulary in a natural and memorable way. TPR theory aligns
with the belief that language learning is most effective when it involves whole-body experiences and kinesthetic
learning, enabling learners to understand and produce language in meaningful contexts.
DESIGN
In Total Physical Response (TPR), the design is all about how the teacher plans activities to help students learn
language through movement and action. The teacher chooses commands or instructions in the target language and
pairs them with physical actions that students can easily understand and perform. These actions can be simple, like
standing up or sitting down, or more complex, like acting out daily routines or following directions. The design of TPR
activities focuses on making language learning fun and engaging by using movement to help students remember
words and phrases more effectively. Overall, the design of TPR lessons aims to create a dynamic and interactive
learning environment where students can learn language through hands-on experiences.
SYLLABUS
In Total Physical Response (TPR), the syllabus is like a plan that the teacher follows to teach language using
movements and actions. It starts with simple things like standing up when told, and then moves to more
complicated tasks as students get better. The syllabus includes activities where students do things like following
directions, acting out stories, or doing tasks that involve moving and speaking in the language they're learning. It's
basically a schedule that helps the teacher know what to teach and how to teach it, using lots of physical activities to
help students learn language in a fun way.
(The syllabus of an approach in language teaching refers to the plan or framework that outlines what content will be
taught, how it will be taught, and in what order. Unlike a method or technique, which provides specific step-by-step
instructions for teaching, an approach syllabus is more general and flexible, focusing on overarching principles and
objectives.
For example, in a communicative language teaching (CLT) approach, the syllabus may prioritize communicative
activities that promote real-life language use and interaction. It may include themes or topics related to everyday
situations, such as introducing oneself, ordering food in a restaurant, or making travel arrangements. The syllabus
may also incorporate language functions (e.g., asking for clarification, expressing opinions) and grammar structures
within meaningful contexts.
Overall, the syllabus of an approach guides the overall direction of language teaching and learning, providing a
framework for organizing content, activities, and assessments in alignment with the approach's principles and goals.)

TYPES OF LEARNING
In Total Physical Response (TPR), learning and teaching activities involve using physical movements to learn and
practice language. Here are some types of activities commonly used in TPR:

1. Action-Response Activities: Students listen to commands in the target language and respond with corresponding
physical actions, such as standing up, sitting down, raising their hands, or touching different body parts.
2. Role-Play Activities: Students act out scenarios or dialogues using physical movements and gestures to
demonstrate comprehension and practice language in context.

3. Storytelling Activities: The teacher tells a story using gestures and physical movements to convey meaning, and
students follow along by mimicking the actions and retelling the story.
4. Games and Simulations: Interactive games and simulations involve students in physical activities that reinforce
language learning objectives, such as miming vocabulary words, playing charades, or participating in interactive role-
playing games.
5. Total Physical Response Storytelling (TPRS): TPRS combines storytelling with TPR techniques, where the teacher
tells a story in the target language while incorporating physical actions and gestures to help students understand and
internalize new vocabulary and language structures.

Overall, these types of learning and teaching activities in TPR engage students in kinesthetic experiences that
enhance language learning through movement and action.
Sure, let's break it down:

Roles of the Teacher in TPR:

- The teacher gives commands or instructions in the target language.
- The teacher demonstrates physical actions or gestures to accompany the commands.
- The teacher models correct pronunciation and language use.
- The teacher observes and monitors students' responses to ensure understanding.
- The teacher provides feedback and encouragement to students during activities.

Roles of the Students in TPR:

- The students listen to the teacher's commands or instructions.
- The students respond to commands by performing physical actions or gestures.
- The students mimic the teacher's language and actions to demonstrate comprehension.
- The students participate actively in TPR activities by following instructions and engaging in movement-based
learning.
- The students communicate with the teacher and peers using the target language during activities.

In simple terms, the teacher guides and directs the learning process by giving commands and demonstrating actions,
while the students listen, respond, and actively participate in the activities to learn language through movement and
action.
The role of instructional materials in Total Physical Response (TPR)
is to support and enhance language learning through physical actions and movement. These materials can include:

1. Flashcards: Visual aids with images of objects, actions, or vocabulary words to help students associate language
with visual representations.
2. Props: Objects or manipulatives used during TPR activities to provide concrete examples and enhance
understanding.
3. Realia: Authentic objects from the real world used to create meaningful contexts for language learning.
4. Visual Aids: Posters, charts, or diagrams that illustrate language concepts or vocabulary in a clear and visually
appealing manner.
5. Audiovisual Resources: Audio recordings, videos, or multimedia presentations that complement TPR activities by
providing auditory and visual input.

Overall, instructional materials play a crucial role in TPR by providing support and reinforcement for language
learning through physical engagement and multisensory experiences. They help make language learning more
interactive, engaging, and effective for students.

Task-Based Learning/Task-Based Language Teaching (TBL/TBLT)

- Task-Based Learning (TBL): Students learn by doing tasks that are meaningful and have a real purpose. These tasks
help them learn new things and practice what they already know.
-Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): This is like Task-Based Learning, but it focuses on using tasks to help students
learn a new language. The tasks are designed to help students communicate better in real-life situations.
So, while both TBL and TBLT involve doing tasks to learn, TBLT is specifically about using tasks to learn a new
language.
In language teaching, a task is like a fun activity or job that helps you learn new words or practice speaking, listening,
reading, or writing in a new language. It could be something like reading a story, acting out a scene, or playing a
game where you have to talk to other people. Tasks in language teaching are designed to help you use the language
in real-life situations, so you can learn how to communicate better.
THEORY OF LANGUAGE
In Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), the theory of language is simple: language is best learned when it's used to
do tasks that are meaningful and interesting. Instead of just learning grammar rules and vocabulary words, TBLT
focuses on using language to accomplish real tasks, like talking to someone or solving a problem. This means that
learners get to practice using the language in situations that they might encounter in real life, which helps them
learn and remember it better. So, in TBLT, the main idea is to learn language by using it to do things that matter to
you.
THEORY OF LEARNING
In Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), the theory of learning is pretty simple. It's based on the idea that people
learn a language best when they're doing tasks that are interesting and meaningful to them. Instead of just
memorizing words and grammar rules, TBLT focuses on using language to accomplish real-life tasks, like having a
conversation or solving a problem. This way, learners get to practice using the language in practical situations, which
helps them remember and understand it better. So, in TBLT, the main idea is to learn by doing things that matter to
you, rather than just studying from a book.

OBJECTIVES
1. Communicative Competence: The main goal is to help learners become better at using the language to
communicate effectively in real-life situations.
2. Language Fluency: TBLT aims to improve learners' ability to speak and understand the language fluently, without
pausing or struggling to find the right words.
3. Accuracy: While fluency is important, TBLT also focuses on helping learners use the language correctly and
accurately, without making too many mistakes.
4. Task Completion: TBLT encourages learners to focus on completing tasks successfully, which helps them stay
motivated and engaged in the learning process.
Overall, the objectives of TBLT are to help learners become confident and proficient language users who can
communicate effectively in various contexts.
THE SYLLABUS
In Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), the syllabus is like a plan that outlines the tasks and activities students will
do to learn the language. Instead of focusing on specific grammar rules or vocabulary lists, the syllabus in TBLT is
based on real-life tasks that learners need to do, like ordering food in a restaurant or giving directions. These tasks
help learners practice using the language in meaningful ways, so they can become better communicators. The
syllabus guides the teacher in selecting tasks that are appropriate for the learners' level and goals, and it helps keep
the language learning focused on practical, real-world skills.
TYPES OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Role-plays: Acting out different situations to practice language in context.
2. Games: Using fun activities like puzzles or board games to reinforce language skills.
3. Listening exercises: Listening to audio recordings or videos to improve listening comprehension.
4. Reading activities: Reading books, articles, or short stories to improve reading skills.
5. Writing tasks: Writing essays, letters, or journal entries to practice writing skills.
6. Discussion: Talking about topics to improve speaking and communication skills.
These activities are designed to engage learners and help them practice language skills in various ways.
Sure! Here's a brief explanation:
Teacher's Role in TBLT
- The teacher helps students understand the task and its objectives.
- The teacher guides and supports students as they work on the task.
- The teacher provides feedback on students' language use during the task.
- The teacher encourages collaboration and interaction among students.
Students' Role in TBLT
- Students actively participate in the task and work towards completing it.
- Students use language to communicate and accomplish the task's objectives.
- Students collaborate with classmates and share ideas during the task.
- Students reflect on their performance and learn from the experience.
(In simple terms, the teacher helps students understand and complete the task, while students actively engage in
using language to achieve the task's goals).
In TBLT, instructional materials play an important role in helping students understand and complete tasks. Here's
how:
Visual Aids: Pictures, diagrams, and charts help students understand the task and the language involved.
Realia: Actual objects or materials related to the task provide concrete examples for students to work with.
Audiovisual Resources: Recordings, videos, or multimedia presentations help students practice listening and
speaking skills related to the task.
Props: Objects or items used during tasks provide hands-on experience and reinforce language concepts.
Written Materials: Worksheets, handouts, or written instructions guide students through the task and provide
additional practice.

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) sees language learning as a whole, where different skills like speaking,
listening, reading, and writing are all connected and practiced together during tasks.
Similarly, technology also combines these different language skills, and nowadays, it's more commonly used to
create and deliver task-based teaching. This means that tools like computers, tablets, and the internet are used to
help students practice speaking, listening, reading, and writing all at once during tasks.

Jane Willis developed a framework for Task-Based Learning (TBL), which is a method of language teaching focused
on completing meaningful tasks. Her framework emphasizes the importance of tasks that engage learners in real-life
language use, allowing them to develop their language skills in authentic contexts. Willis' framework includes several
key components:

1. Pre-task: This stage involves preparing students for the task by activating their prior knowledge, introducing
relevant vocabulary or language structures, and providing necessary background information.

2. Task: The central part of the framework is the task itself, which is a purposeful activity that requires learners to
use language to achieve a goal. Tasks should be authentic and meaningful, allowing students to practice real-life
language skills.

3. Planning: After receiving the task, students engage in planning how they will complete it. This may involve
discussing strategies, organizing ideas, or collaborating with peers.

4. Report: Once the task is completed, students report back to the class or their peers about their experience. This
allows for reflection on the task and provides an opportunity for language practice.

5. Analysis: In this stage, the teacher helps students analyze their performance during the task. This may involve
identifying areas of strength and areas for improvement in their language use.

6. Practice: Finally, students engage in language practice activities that target areas identified during the analysis
stage. This may include additional practice with specific language structures or vocabulary related to the task.

Willis' framework for TBL provides a structured approach to incorporating tasks into language teaching, promoting
meaningful language use and skill development.

The whole language approach

1- What was the goal of the Whole Language movement as it applied to second language learning?

The whole language approach is an educational philosophy that teaches children to read by using strategies that
show how language is a system of parts that work together to create meaning.
This approach uses literature as a teaching tool and aims to integrate literacy within all parts of the curriculum
(including science, math and social studies).
In addition, the whole language approach encourages students to use reading and writing for everyday purposes,
such as making a list or leaving a note, rather than just to decode words and text.
A list of its principals and goals:
 The use of authentic literature rather than artificial.
 A focus on real and natural events rather than on specially written stories that do not relate to the students’
experience.
 The reading of real texts of high interest, particularly literature.
 Reading for the sake of comprehension and for a real purpose.
 Writing for a real audience and not simply to practice writing skills.
 Writing as a process through which learners explore and discover meaning.
 The use of students-produced texts rather than teacher-generated or other-generated texts.
 Integration of reading, writing, and other skills.
 Student-centered learning.
 Reading and writing in partnership with other learners.
 Encouragement of risk taking and exploration and the acceptance of errors as signs of learning rather than
failure.

How does Whole language differ from CBI and CLIL?

What differs Whole Language teaching from CBI and CLIL is not the incidental use of such activities based on the
topic of the lesson or an item in the syllabus but their use as part of an overall philosophy of teaching and learning
that gives a new meaning and purpose to such activities. Whole language does not seek to offer a complete
integration of language and content as do approaches CBI, CLIL.
The Whole Language movement is not a teaching method but an approach to learning that sees language as a whole
entity. Advantages claimed for Whole Language are that it focuses on experiences and activities that are relevant to
learners’ lives and needs, that it uses authentic materials, and that it can be used to facilitate the development of all
aspects of a second language.
2- Rigg comments, “If language isn't kept whole, isn't language anymore”. Do you agree with this statement? Can
you find examples of this thinking in materials you are familiar with?
Yes, I agree with the statement. I go along with the idea that it is important to teach the language as a whole, but
taking into account that it is also important to recognize the different aspects of the language like the grammar,
vocabulary, etc. The idea beyond this approach is to teach reading and writing for pleasure, to motivate and
innovate the way of teaching language with a focus on real communication.
Whole language is a constructivist approach to education. Constructivist teachers emphasize that students create,
construct their own knowledge from what they encounter. Students should be provided with real-world materials
like magazines, newspapers rather than commercial texts.
3- Whole language emphasizes the importance of authenticity. For example, in the case of practicing apologizing,
Rigg states that creating this authenticity “requires an authentic, real situation in which one truly needs to apologize
to another”. What challenges can you see in this, especially with beginner learners?

The challenges that beginner learners will have to overcome are many. I want to point out one aspect, students
should understand what they are learning, for example when we talk about apologizing some children will not be too
familiar with specific vocabulary in their mother tongue and it will be even more difficult for them to do it in the
second language. The teacher should provide them a context setting real situations in which the learners need to
apologize to another.
Beginners are dealing with other challenges, like learning to read which is not a natural process

Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method that uses physical actions to help students learn new
vocabulary and grammar. In TPR, students listen to commands in the target language and respond by performing
physical actions. This approach mimics how we learn our first language as children, by associating words with actions
or movements. TPR helps students remember new words and understand grammar rules by engaging their bodies in
the learning process. It's a fun and interactive way to learn a new language, especially for beginners.

Total Physical Response (TPR) is based on several key principles:

1. Kinesthetic Learning: TPR recognizes that physical movement can enhance learning and memory. By
engaging the body in language learning activities, students are more likely to retain vocabulary and grammar
structures.
2. Comprehension before Production: TPR emphasizes the importance of understanding language before
attempting to produce it. Students first listen and respond to commands in the target language, developing
comprehension skills before they are required to speak.
3. Mimicking Natural Language Acquisition: TPR mirrors the way children learn their first language, through
listening and physical response. This approach leverages natural learning processes to facilitate language
acquisition.
4. Contextualized Learning: TPR activities are often context-rich, with commands and actions relating to real-
life situations. This contextualization helps students understand the practical use of language in everyday
scenarios.
5. Low Anxiety Environment: TPR creates a low-pressure environment for language learning, as students focus
on physical actions rather than verbal production. This reduces anxiety and allows learners to engage more
freely with the language.
Overall, TPR aims to make language learning enjoyable and effective by integrating movement, comprehension-
based activities, and natural learning processes. It provides a dynamic and interactive approach to language
acquisition, particularly beneficial for beginners and young learners.

1. Approach: It's like the big idea or philosophy guiding how we teach languages. For example, one approach
might focus on communication, while another might focus on memorization.
2. Design: This is about planning and organizing the lessons based on the approach we've chosen. It's like
deciding what to teach, how to teach it, and when.
3. Procedure: These are the specific things we do in class to teach languages, like activities, games, and
discussions. It's like the step-by-step actions we take during lessons.
So, approach is the big picture idea, design is the plan we make, and procedure is the actual stuff we do in class.
They all work together to help students learn a language!

The Eclectic Method is an approach to language teaching that combines different techniques, methods, and
principles from various language teaching approaches and methodologies. Instead of following a single prescribed
approach, teachers using the eclectic method select and adapt techniques and activities based on the specific needs
and preferences of their students, as well as the teaching context.
In essence, the eclectic method allows teachers to pick and choose elements from different approaches, such as
Communicative Language Teaching, Task-Based Language Teaching, and Audio-Lingualism, among others, to create a
customized teaching approach that suits their students' learning styles, goals, and the instructional context.
The eclectic method emphasizes flexibility and pragmatism, encouraging teachers to be open-minded and adaptable
in their teaching practices. By drawing on a diverse range of techniques and methodologies, teachers using the
eclectic method aim to create dynamic and engaging language learning experiences that cater to the individual
needs of their students.

The eclectic method is like making a language teaching recipe using different ingredients from various methods.
Instead of sticking to just one way of teaching, teachers mix and match different techniques based on what works
best for their students and the situation. It's all about being flexible and using what works!

Wilkins proposed the idea of Notional Syllabuses as an approach to language teaching and curriculum design that
emphasizes organizing language content around communicative functions or notions, rather than traditional
grammatical structures. He argued that language learning should be focused on real-life communication needs, and
therefore, the syllabus should be structured around the concepts or ideas (notions) that learners need to express
and the communicative purposes or tasks (functions) they need to accomplish.
The key idea behind Notional Syllabuses is to provide learners with the language skills they need to communicate
effectively in various real-life situations. By organizing language teaching around notions and functions, this
approach aims to develop learners' communicative competence and their ability to use language meaningfully in
practical contexts.
While I cannot provide a direct quote from Wilkins' work, the essence of his ideas on Notional Syllabuses emphasizes
the importance of teaching language in a way that reflects the communicative needs and goals of learners, rather
than focusing solely on isolated grammar rules and vocabulary.
Notional Syllabuses, proposed by Wilkins, are a way of organizing language teaching based on communicative
functions (what learners want to express) and notions (the ideas they want to communicate). Instead of focusing
solely on grammar and vocabulary, this approach emphasizes teaching language in a way that reflects real-life
communication needs. It aims to develop learners' ability to use language effectively in various practical situations by
focusing on the concepts and functions they need to express.

HOW CAN CURRICULUM DESIGN ADRESS THE SPECIFIC NEEDS AND WANTS OF LEARNERS?
Curriculum design is like creating a plan for learning. It's important because it helps teachers figure out what to teach
and how to teach it in a way that fits the needs and interests of the students.
Here's how it works:
1. Find out what students need: First, teachers look at what their students already know and what they need
to learn next. This helps them understand what topics or skills are important for the students to learn.
2. Set goals: Once teachers know what their students need to learn, they set specific goals or objectives for the
lessons. These goals are like targets that help guide the teaching and learning process.
3. Choose the right stuff: Teachers then pick out the best materials, resources, and activities to help students
reach those goals. This could be textbooks, videos, games, or anything else that makes learning fun and
effective.
4. Get students involved: Teachers create activities and lessons that get students actively involved in their
learning. This could be through group discussions, projects, or hands-on activities.
5. Make it flexible: Teachers also make sure their plans can be adjusted based on how students are doing. They
might change things up if students need more practice or if they're ready to move on to something new.
Overall, curriculum design is about making sure that what teachers teach matches what students need and want to
learn, making the learning experience enjoyable and effective for everyone.

Summative Evaluation: This is when teachers look at a student's overall performance in a specific area and give
a summary of feedback. It's different from formative assessment, which is done during activities to give feedback
on small language usage.
Ways to Gather Information for Assessment: Teachers commonly use tests, but there are other ways like
teacher's subjective assessment, continuous assessment based on various assignments, self-assessment by
learners, and portfolios of their work over time.
Criteria for Assessing Students' Work: There are different criteria for evaluating students, like comparing their
performance against fixed standards (criterion-referenced), comparing them to a group (norm-referenced), or
comparing them to their own previous performance (individual-referenced).
Correction of Mistakes During Oral Work: Teachers usually avoid interrupting students during fluent speech, but
they can provide help if a student is struggling or unsure. However, they should be cautious not to focus too
much on small mistakes that might demoralize students.
Reactions to Mistakes: Teachers can react to mistakes in various ways, from not reacting at all to providing
explanations and asking students to correct themselves or each other.
CLIL stands for Content and Language Integrated Learning. It's an approach to language education where students
learn a subject and a language at the same time. Here are some key points about CLIL:
1. Integration of Language and Content: In CLIL, language learning is integrated with the learning of other
subjects such as science, history, or geography. This means students learn the language while also studying
academic content in that language.
2. Language Proficiency Development: CLIL aims to develop students' language proficiency in addition to their
knowledge of the subject matter. By learning academic content in the target language, students have
opportunities to practice and improve their language skills in authentic contexts.
3. Authentic Language Use: CLIL promotes authentic language use by providing opportunities for students to
engage in meaningful communication related to the content they are learning. This can include discussions,
presentations, and projects that require language production in real-world contexts.
4. Content-Based Instruction: CLIL often involves content-based instruction, where language learning is
embedded within the context of subject-specific topics and materials. This allows students to acquire
language skills while focusing on academic content.
5. Cross-Curricular Connections: CLIL encourages connections across different subject areas, as students
explore topics that integrate content from multiple disciplines. For example, students studying
environmental science in a CLIL program might learn about ecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation while
simultaneously developing their language skills.
6. Language Support Strategies: CLIL teachers use various language support strategies to scaffold students'
learning, such as providing visual aids, using context clues, and incorporating language-focused activities to
reinforce key vocabulary and language structures.
Examples of CLIL activities include:
 Conducting science experiments and discussing the results in the target language.
 Reading and analyzing historical documents or literature in the target language.
 Creating multimedia presentations on geographical features or cultural aspects of a region, using the target
language for communication.
 Debating contemporary issues in social studies or politics using the target language.
In summary, CLIL is an approach that integrates language learning with content learning, providing students with
opportunities to develop both their language proficiency and their knowledge of academic subjects.

Assessment in language teaching refers to the process of evaluating students' language skills and abilities. It involves
gathering information about what students know and can do in the target language, and using that information to
make judgments about their progress and proficiency. Assessment plays a crucial role in language teaching as it
helps teachers understand students' strengths and weaknesses, tailor instruction to meet their needs, and provide
feedback for improvement.

Examples of assessment in language teaching include:

1. Formative Assessment: This type of assessment occurs during the learning process and provides ongoing feedback
to students and teachers. Examples include:
- In-class quizzes or short tests to check understanding of recently taught material.
- Peer or self-assessment activities where students evaluate their own or their classmates' language use based on
specific criteria.
- Teacher observations of students' participation and engagement during classroom activities.

2. Summative Assessment: Summative assessment occurs at the end of a unit, course, or instructional period to
evaluate students' overall language proficiency and learning outcomes. Examples include:
- End-of-unit or end-of-course exams that assess students' knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, reading, writing,
listening, and speaking skills.
- Performance assessments such as oral presentations, essays, or projects where students demonstrate their
language skills in real-life contexts.
- Standardized tests such as TOEFL, IELTS, or proficiency exams like Cambridge English exams, which assess
students' language proficiency levels against standardized criteria.

3. Diagnostic Assessment: Diagnostic assessment helps teachers identify students' strengths and weaknesses in
language learning at the beginning of a course or unit. Examples include:
 - Pre-assessment tasks or diagnostic tests to gauge students' prior knowledge of language structures, vocabulary,
and skills.
- Needs analysis surveys or interviews to understand students' language learning goals, interests, and areas for
improvement.

4. Portfolio Assessment: Portfolio assessment involves students compiling a collection of their work over time to
demonstrate their language learning progress and achievements. Examples include:
- Language learning portfolios containing samples of students' written assignments, projects, self-assessments,
reflections, and language learning goals.
- Showcase portfolios featuring students' best language work and reflections on their language learning journey.

These examples illustrate various ways assessment is used in language teaching to evaluate students' language
proficiency, monitor their progress, and inform instructional decision-making.