COTTON PRODUCTION LECTURE NOTES

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Classification of cotton

Botanical classification
Family: Malvaceae.
Genus: Gossypium.
Species: G.barbadense, G herbaceum, G arborium & G hirsutum.

Classification according to staple length

a) Long staple
Has fibre length which goes up to 37mm and has lint of high quality.
Mainly is an Egyptian – American and Sea Island cotton grown in areas such as Egypt,
Sudan, Morocco, USA. Conditions in Zimbabwe are unfavourable for its growth.
Example is G. barbadense.

b) Medium staple
Has fibre length of 25-30mm and has quality which is of medium coarseness. It is early
fruiting. Mainly is an American / African upland cotton. It is best suitable in Zimbabwe and
in most tropical & sub-tropical countries. Example G. hirsutum. Constitutes about 90% of
world production.

c) Short staple
Has fibre length of less than 25mm and lint quality is coarse and of low quality. Mainly is
Asiatic grown in areas such as India, Pakistan and China. Example G. herbaceum,
G.arboreum

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1.2 Botany

 Root system
Cotton has a deep tap root which can go up to 2m and the depth is governed by soil
texture, soil depth, water table & plant size. Cotton is drought tolerant due to deep root
system. The taproot penetrates through the soil rapidly and may reach a depth of 20 cm
by the time the cotyledons unfold. Roots may grow at a rate of 2-5 cm per day during the
early vegetative stage, permitting early roots to be twice as long as the plant height.
When plants begin to set bolls with a large demand for carbohydrates, root growth slows
abruptly.
Root growth in cotton

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  Stem
The stem can grow up to 2m in good areas which are warm and have high soil nutrients e.g. in
Chisumbanje. Branching is of two types the monopodial (vegetative branches) and sympoidal
those which produce flowers (reproductive).

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  Leaf
The leaf has 3-5 lobes. Some leave have hairs like the G. hirsutum and this hairiness makes
cotton to be tolerant to jassids whilst some leaves are globorous (smooth).

 Flower
The flower buds in cotton are called square buds. Corolla has 5 petals, which are cream-
white, pink and later red, Stamen bears 10 double rows which produce heavy & sticky pollen.
Pistil is composed of 3-5 carpels. Stigma is placed slightly above the anthers and this factor
encourages cross pollination. Ovary develops into a cotton ball. It has 3-5 locules. 35-45% of
buds produced by a cotton plant produce bolls while the remainder is shed

Fruiting branch in cotton

 The boll
The bolls are 4-5cm long. They develop 25 days from flower opening. Bolls can be spherical
or ovoid depending on variety, plant population and growing conditions. An average of 140-
180 bolls produces 1kg of seed cotton.

NB Flowers & bolls can drop off due to poor nutrient availability – especially nitrogen, severe
moisture stress, pests & diseases attack.
 Seed
Cotton seed is dark brown & is enclosed in a tough coat on which lint is attached and that is
why it is regarded as a weak germinator.

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  Lint
This is an extension of the epidermal walls of the seed. Lint accounts for about 35 – 65% of
seed cotton this is what is known as the ginning out turn, GOT. Lint is the long white hairs
that are easily separated from seed during ginning. Linters (fuzzy) are the short hairs that are
strongly attached to the seed & are very difficult to separate from it. It can only be separated
using acid.

General characteristics of cotton

 It is an indeterminate perennial shrub manipulated to grow as an annual crop.
 It is a long season crop taking 180 days.
 It is deep rooted up to 2m.
 It is drought tolerant and does not like wet feet.
 It provides poor soil cover during the first 10weeks.
 Cotton is a poor weed competitor.

Growth stages of cotton

 Crop establishment: from planting to week 4.
 Vegetative phase: week 5 to 9.
 Flowering and boll formation: week 10 to 18. The first buds’ squares appear at week
6 and the first flowers appear at week 9.
 Boll split: starts at week 18.

1.3 Uses of cotton

 Lint or fibre
 It produces oil. It produces about 70% of the Zimbabwean oil.
 Cotton seed cake

1.4 Importance of cotton to Zimbabwe economy

Cotton is very important in Zimbabwe because
 It is a foreign currency earner, second after tobacco (on all field crops)
 It creates employment e.g. in cotton growing farms and in processing industries.
 It is cash crop hence the standard of life of people in cotton growing areas can be
improved e.g in Muzarabani, Gokwe and Sanyati.
 Cotton is drought tolerant hence it can be grown in marginal areas.
 Effective use of plant nutrients since it is deep rooted.
 Pest and disease control when included in a rotation.

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2.0 ADAPTATION

2.1 Climatic requirements of cotton

 Temperature
It is normally grown on altitude below 1 250m. Optimum temperature is 25-350C. it is not
suitable to areas where night temperatures drops to below 200C as conditions become
unfavourable for lint thickening. Has high heat requirement. Cool temperature results weak
fibre. Require long sunlight hours for flowering. Does not require overcast periods, excess
moisture or frost conditions

 Rainfall
If rain fed requires at least 500mm/year. Cotton is a long season crop hence if rain fed, plant
early to maximize utilization of rains. Due to deep root system, it is regarded as a drought
tolerant crop. However, severe heat stress during flowering lead to boll drop

2.2 Soil requirements

Cotton requires deep, fertile, well drained medium to heavy textured soils (sandy clay loams
to heavy clays). Ideal pH range is 5.3 – 5.5. If it is sandy, add manure and also lime since
sandy soils are mainly acidic. Can also split apply the nitrogen fertilizer, grow the cotton on
ridges or beds as it does not withstand wet feet or apply additional moisture when required.

3.0 CURRENT VARIETIES IN ZIMBABWE

Cotton breeding
Is done at Cotton Research Institute in Kadoma with the assistance of private companies e.g.
Quton

Breeding programmes
In order to meet the different needs of Zimbabwe, cotton breeding has been split into four parts ,
each based at a centre representative of the growing conditions at which the programme is aimed.

a) Medium staple Highveld programme

It is based at Gwebi College . the main emphasis is to develop cultivars that are adapted
to the cooler growing environments ( altitude 1 250 – 1 400m)and which complete their
life cycle before the risk of frost become high. The staple length is medium.e.g. HAP 1

b) Medium staple Middleveld programme

It is based at the Cotton Research Institute, Kadoma. It accounts for 80% of the cotton
grown in Zimbabwe. It mainly covers traditional cotton growing areas (altitude: 700 –
1200) like Gokwe, Sanyati, etc. attaining an average yield of 600 – 4 000kg/ha.
c) Medium staple Lowveld programme
Based at Save Valley Experimental Station. It is designed for the high input irrigation
estates e.g. AGA 869 and low input dry land growers e.g. CF 885, in the South Eastern
Lowveld yielding an average of 2 500 – 4000kg/ha.

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 d) Long staple programme
Based at Cotton Research Institute designed for the high input and irrigated conditions in
the middleveld. It caters for high quality long staple cultivars to meet the local and export
requirements e.g. LS 797, CY 889. now the focus is to have long staple varieties for
farmers with low inputs in dryland areas in the south eastern lowveld.

Objectives of cotton breeding programmes in Zimbabwe

Cotton production considers the interests of growers, ginners, spinners & oil expressers
a) Grower
 Seed cotton yield
 adaptability – drought tolerance
 Boll mass
 Plant growth habit – determinate / indeterminate
 Days to maturity – for rotation
 Pickability
 Disease resistance eg verticillium wilt
 Insect resistance
b) Ginner
 High ginning %
 Large – seeded varieties – easy separation
 Low attachment forces – lint & seed
c) Oil expressers
 High oil %
d) Spinners
 Fiber length – longer – better
 Fibre uniformity
 fibre strength
 fibre maturity
 Fibre fineness
 Strength of yarn
 appearance of yarn
 Ability of yarn to take up dyes – dye affinity

Breeding process

Year Activity Numbers

1 -Create variability by crossing 2 varieties
-Variety with more desirable characteristics is used as a female

2 -Make selection (F1) 6000

3 -Progeny trials 400

-Seed from one plant make one progeny

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 -Discard those with less potential

4 -Strain testing stage 90

5 -Line testing stage 40

6 -Variety testing stage 24

7 -Variety testing under different input levels 16

-Promising varieties go into the next stage
8 -Seed multiplication – breeder seed

9 -Breeder seed go into embryo seed

10 -Foundation seed production

11 -Certified seed

4.0 LAND PREPARATION

The basic aim should be to:

 loosen the soil and allow freedom of root development and aeration.
 Provide a seedbed for efficient planting and good emergence.
 Provide a medium for easy and accurate fertilizer placement.
 Preserve soil structure.
 Conserve moisture
 Incoperate crop residue.
 Control pests and diseases.
 Destroy weeds.
 Prevent soil erosion and improve herbicide efficiency.

Tillage methods
 Conventional – slashing, ripping, ploughing, discing & rolling
 Conservation
NB – Consider the advantages & disadvantages of these methods.

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Types of seedbeds
Three types of seedbeds are used i.e. flat surface, beds and ridges.
Beds and ridges are used where there is:
 Flat land to improve drainage,
 Steep land to conserve soil moisture.
 Drought, so we can put ties to conserve moisture,
 Need to conserve moisture at the end of growing season.
 An above normal rainy season to facilitate drainage.

5.0 CULTURAL PRACTICES

a) Rotations

. The advantages of crop rotation include moisture conservation, soil fertility management, pest
control, erosion control and weed reduction. There is no specific rotation that can be said is the
best for the inclusion of cotton. There are several factors that should be put in mind when
planning a rotation that includes cotton and in general the choice of a rotation is generally,
governed more by the economic factors rather than the agronomic factors. The factors considered
when deciding a cotton rotation include the following;

 Soil erosion hazards

Cotton crops should not be grown successively on lands which have slope of less than
3% because cotton is susceptible to erosion during its early stages of its growth due to
its poor canopy cover. The lighter textured soil is more susceptible to erosion as it has
loose particles.

 Residual moisture.
Cotton in a rotation should at least follow a short seasoned crop which would have
left some residual moisture for the early establishment of cotton even under
conditions of light early rains as it is a long season crop.

 Residual fertility
Cotton is susceptible to rank growth (an excessive vegetative growth in expense of
consolidated yield) when there is too much nitrogen during early stages of growth so
to avoid this it should not follow legumes or highly fertilized crops in a rotation.

 Pest and diseases

The crops in a cotton rotation should be those which are not affected by the same type
of pests and diseases such as nematodes and verticillium wilt respectively, in order to
control these.

 Economic factors
Gross margins of all crops to be included in a rotation should be analyzed and the
crops with better returns selected for. The costs of production such as labour, pests

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 and disease management and transport amongst others should be compared with the
expected returns.

b) Moisture conservation and management

Moisture conservation strategies that trap water and increase infiltration while reducing runoff
need to be practiced in cotton production since the low rainfall amounts received in the country
bring a challenge to grow and produce optimum cotton yields. The following moisture
conservation techniques have been researched on and proven to be effective over a period of
years. The techniques can be implemented before or after the crop establishment depending on
the availability of resources to the farmer.

Before crop establishment

 Late season or winter ploughing.

This is so important in that off season rainfall is trapped and will remain in the soil as
the residual moisture. This can be used in the early establishment of cotton (a long
seasoned crop) even if there are lighter rainfalls at the beginning of the season. The
late season weeds which might deplete the soil residual moisture are also destroyed
by early ploughing. The land would be well tilled since it would be still moist and the
animals would be still in good condition making it possible to reach the required
depth which enhances water penetration during the season. This also offsets labour
bottlenecks at the beginning of the season leading to the early establishment of the
crop and full use of the rainfall season.

 Construction of beds and ridges.

With this method the beds or ridges are constructed early across the slope and
planting is done on top of these. The plants will grow undisturbed by the in season
tillage operations for moisture conservation and in such a way moisture is conserved.
This method is recommended only in situations where there is plenty water since crop
establishment on such structures is a problem.

 Trash farming or conservation tillage

More than 30% of the crop residues if left on the surface during a tillage operation
will reduce the rate of runoff and increase infiltration. In addition the crop residues
will act as mulch thereby reducing moisture loss from the soil. The incorporated
residues add organic matter which absorb and conserve soil moisture.

After crop establishment

 Inter row ripping or inter row cultivation.

Ripping can be done at any stage of crop growth provided there is no crop damage
especially, on the soil with crusting surface. To prevent serious root damage, ripping

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 should be limited to a maximum depth of 250mm and alternate rows should be
ripped in, those with standard inter row of 1,0m-1,2m. Inter row cultivation also traps
moisture and aids in controlling weeds which can utilise soil moisture. This is mostly
done by cultivators, and ox-drawn mouldboard plough in absence of the cultivator.

 Mid-season ridges and tied ridges.

The cotton crop is planted on a flat land and when the crop is 6-8 weeks before
attaining its full canopy, ox-drawn ploughs or ridgers are used to make ridges and
thereafter the cross ties are constructed which reduce runoff from the furrow bottoms
of these ridges. Tied ridges trap water, keep it in the land and allow more time to
infiltrate. Trapped water would be available to the crop during dry periods. Only the
alternate rows with standard spacing of 1-1,2m have to be tied. This method can be
used in two ways depending on the weather, when dry, ties can be made but under
high rainfall periods, the ties should be opened to allow surface drainage since cotton
is susceptible to the water logging conditions.

 Potholing
Involves making shallow basins about 10cm deep at regular intervals in the inter row
area by hand hoes or by mechanical means. This should be done on alternating rows
but on every row only on soils with high capping factor and poor infiltration rate.
Periodical checks on the depth of potholes should be done since these can be filled up
with sand or silt and no longer serve their purpose of retaining water.

 Permanent beds and tied beds.

The bed is same as the ridge except that it has two rows of cotton on it. The seedbed
area is not compressed by the implements making it easier for the water to penetrate
and reduce the rate of runoff. After the rains one can still work on the same piece of
land as the movement is limited on the compacted zone only. Another advantage is
that there are reduced costs of land preparation. The wheel track may be ripped or tied
when required to trap water. The inter row space between or on the beds may be
ripped and or potholed again to trap more water. It is very difficult to make the beds
after the crop establishment therefore these beds have to be made before the crop
establishment and other activities done on latter. The raised beds are less prone to
water logging which can affect cotton.

c) Fertility management

Fertilizer requirements
The amount and type of fertilizer to be used for a given yield of cotton is determined through the
soil analysis. This can be done on every third year to monitor soil fertility changes. However, if
soil analysis is not done a rough assessment can be made if knowing the soil type and the history
of the land including the targeted yield. The macro elements Nitrogen, Phosphorus and

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Potassium are essential to cotton including the trace elements such as Boron, Magnesium and
Zinc.
Average NPK requirements (Kg/ha) for various expected yield levels.
Yield (Kg/ha) Nitrogen Phosphate Potassium
1100 75 30 55
1700 87 30 62
2200 100 35 75
3300 140 40 100

Average nutrient requirements using field history of the land when a soil analysis is not
done.
Nutrient status of the soil
Good Medium Poor
Nitrogen Well managed land Early ploughed virgin Late ploughed virgin
after a good or reverted lands and or reverted lands or
leguminous crop or grass leys and well grass leys and course
after a highly managed lands. textured soils.
fertilized crop.

Estimate of amount of 20 20-35 35

N required (kg/ha)
Phosphorus Cultivated lands Cultivated lands Mostly newly opened
where large amounts where moderate lands or where no
of phosphate have amounts of phosphate phosphate has been
been applied in the have been applied in applied in the past.
past. the past.
Estimate of amount of 25-35 35- 55 55- 80
P205 required (kg/ha)
Potassium Mostly newly opened Lands of normal Lands known to have
lands of normal fertility that have been poor potash status.
fertility. cropped for some time
with limited
applications of potash
or without return of
crop residues.

Estimate of amount of 35- 55

K20 required (kg/ha) 55- 80
25-35

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the most important nutrient which affects the protein synthesis, cell growth and
development. Its management has a strong bearing on the plant growth and yield. Its deficiency
will cause stunted growth, with poor framework to carry the economic yield. Excess nitrogen

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will cause rank growth, which is the excessive vegetative growth, which takes place at the
expense of the consolidated yield. Once rank growth is induced it is not possible to control it.

Factors contributing to the rank growth are:

 Late thinning
 Poor weed control
 Poor pest control
 Overcast conditions
 Excess supply of nitrogen in the presence of excess water

Problems associated with rank growth include:

 Disturbance on the normal field operations
 Inefficient pests control due to crop density
 Fungal rotting of mature bolls within the canopy
 Delayed harvesting

Time of nitrogen application

There are two distinct growth stages of cotton – the vegetative and reproductive phases with
different nitrogen requirements. The vegetative phase involves the production of the stems and
branches where the economic part of the crop will be carried. The cotton crop requires less than
20% of its total requirement during early vegetative phase. Excess nitrogen at this stage will
induce rank growth which has been discussed above. Therefore, the objective in timing of
nitrogen applications should only be to apply initial amount which is necessary to produce an
adequate framework without inducing rank growth. In most soils initial nitrogen application
should not exceed 20kg/ha and on soils with high amounts no initial fertiliser should be applied.

The reproductive phase, during which buds, flowers and bolls are produced begins at seven to
eight weeks and continues until harvest is completed. As the plant begin to flower the balance of
nitrogen fertiliser requirement should be applied to enhance development. On shallow soils or on
gravel patches of land where there might be uneven growth, nitrogen should be applied in three
equal applications at planting, at six weeks and at flowering.

Phosphate
Phosphorus is important for promoting root growth. Phosphate is a very important element
which occurs at low concentration in many soils of Zimbabwe. Where the soil phosphate status is
poor, fertilizer should be placed in a band below and to one side of the crop row so that the
developing root system can have an immediate access to it and have minimum phosphorus
fixation. However, on soils rich in phosphate it can be broadcast and ploughed or disced in.

Potash
Generally, Zimbabwe soils contain high levels of potassium, but will become depleted with
continuous cropping, especially if the residues are not returned to the soil. Maintenance dressing
of potash should be done annually since potassium is important for plant growth and
development. Potash deficiency symptoms appear as bronze discolouration on young leaves
especially between the veins and this spreads down the plant with leaves turning dark red and
eventually shedding prematurely while reducing yield and lint quality.

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Magnesium
It is only applied when soil analysis shows that there is a need for it. About 200-300kg/ha of
ground dolomite should be enough. Mg status is low on lighter textured soils and on soils under
continuous cultivation. One can use a magnesium containing lime like the dolomite to apply Mg
when there is a need to correct pH.

Sulphur
This is applied about 20kg /ha annually on virgin soils and those that have received low amounts
of sulphur before. This can be obtained in form of compound fertilizers at 300kg/ha or as single
super phosphate at 200kg/ha.

Boron
This is a very important micro nutrient necessary for the growth and fruiting in cotton and
determines the lint quality. Normally it is applied using compound L (cotton fert) which contains
25% Bo and Borax, a foliar fertilizer where no boronated fertisers have been applied before.
When boron is deficient growing points of root and stem are injured first, bolls and flowers drop
prematurely, bolls fail to open, boll formation is impaired, bolls are mummified or misshapen,
leaves are discoloured and retarded growth of leaves occurs.

Ph requirements and liming

Soil Ph must be known at least every two years and corrected if necessary because it has some
great influence on the availability of nutrients in the soil. Cotton is very sensitive to acidity
therefore, accurate pH test have to be done. The optimum pH of cotton is 5,5. Lime of about
1000kg/ha should be applied when pH level drops below 5,0. This should be broadcast and
disced in before planting.

d) Crop establishment (Planting)

 Time of planting
Being a long season crop, cotton must be established as early as is practical. However,
the earliest dates for planting cotton are controlled by legislation necessitated by the need
to maintain a specified dead season. The earliest planting dates are:
 South eastern lowveld 5 October
 Remainder of the country 20 October

 Seed rates
The seed rate to be used will depend on the variety to be planted, the type of soil, tilth of
the soil and the availability of resources. The generally recommended seed rate for most
varieties is 20 - 25 kg/ha of acid de-linted seed but the crop must be thinned to the
required plant spacing. Where germination is difficult like in capping soils the seed rate
should be increased to 35- 40kg per ha to accommodate such field losses. For the
varieties with big seeds higher seed rates must be used but those with smaller seeds lower
rates have to be used as they are many in the packet. More advice may be found from the
seed supplier or local extension agent. When all conditions suitable for good emergence
are available like good moisture, lower seed rates have to be used.

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  Planting depth
Cotton seed is small and a weak germinator (it has an epigeal germination). It is therefore
important that when planting it, a shallow and uniform depth of planting is maintained. In
general the planting depth must not exceed 20mm.

 Plant spacing
The generally recommended spacing is 1.0m x 0. 3 m but a wider range of spacing can be
used depending on the climatic conditions, management conditions and the date of
planting. Wider spacing of up to 1.8m x 0.3m are recommended for early planted crops,
in more suitable growing conditions with a long warm season and reliable rainfall, for
irrigated crops and where rank growth may be a problem. The closer spacing of 0.75m-
1.0 x 150-200m may be used for the dry land crops, in cool areas, late planted crops and
where growing conditions are poor due to soil type, rainfall reliability or end of season
temperature cutoff.

 Gap filling
Gap filling is done where a poor initial stand has occurred to fill in only gaps that are
more than 1m within the row. If the stand is very poor replanting is recommended. Gap
filling must be done as soon as possible (4 - 5 days after emergence) so that the plants
become uniform in terms of size.

 Thinning
Thinning should be done as early as is practical when it has been noticed that seedlings
are well established. It can be started as early as 5 days after emergence and should be
complete by the third week of crop emergence. Delay in thinning result in poor plant
development, rank growth, reduced yield and delayed harvesting as the closely spaced
plants will act as weeds. Two plants per station should not be left as these will push each
other to the inter rows making it very difficult to work in cotton and plants may lodge
while spoiling the lint.

e) Weed control

Effects of weed on cotton

Weeds compete for sunlight, nutrients, moisture and space. Competition for light results in leggy
plants, poor plant development, and serious delay in maturity. Late weeds interfere with picking
and results in lower labour productivity whilst weed seeds and leaves might shed on cotton lint
resulting in downgrading of lint quality at the market. Therefore cotton should be kept weed free
during two critical stages and these are:-
 from time of planting to flowering and
 at picking

Methods of weed control

The methods of weed control that can be used in cotton include hand weeding, mechanical
weeding, chemical weed control and integrated weed management (IWM). The choice of method
depends on the individual grower`s preferences, weather conditions, soil type, availability of
equipment, finance and labour, and the type of weeds present.

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  Mechanical or hand weeding only.
The effectiveness of these methods will depend on the weather conditions, soil type and
availability and cost of equipment and labour. This system can be affected by continuous
weather after crop establishment as it is very difficult to work on wet soils and soil
structure may be destroyed. Deep cultivation by hand or by machine should be stopped at
flowering to reduce root damage.

 Hand-hoeing.
This method is possible when weeds are still young. However it is a slow method and it is
labour intensive since cotton has to be repeatedly weeded as it grows slowly during its
vegetative stage.

 Millipede (Rotary- tined weeders)

These have to be used on very young weeds and should be used effectively only when
cotton has lost morning crispness to limit damage. The soils should have a light crust.

 Gang tiller
The gang tiller can cope up with rough clods, trash, uneven soil surfaces, heavy weed
growth and on almost on any shape of the bed with higher output potential.

Advantages
Gang tiller operate at high speed and that is essential for weed control once cotton has
germinated.

Disadvantages
The implements are expensive.

 Chemical weed control only.

Herbicides are applied in the following order, pre plant herbicides, followed by pre emergency
herbicides and directed post emergence herbicides.

Pre plant herbicides – these are incorporated up to 50mm before planting e.g. Trif, Trifluralin,
and Trump/Stamp.

Pre emergence herbicides – these are applied after planting before crop emergence e.g. Cotoran,
Bladex, Gesagatd, Cotogard Trump/Stamp and Planavin (incorporated by irrigation).

Directed post emergence herbicides – these are used to control stubborn late weeds and most of
these are non selective therefore need directed spraying. These are divided into two groups.
a) Contact foliar- e.g. M.S.M.A and Gramoxone.
b) Soil and foliar- mainly affect the germinating seed and seedlings through the soil
e.g. Bladex, Igran, Diuron.

Before use of the herbicides one should consider the:

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  Predominant type of weed to be controlled
 Weed size in post emergence as this determines mixing ratio
 Soil type due to residual effects
 Rainfall pattern for settling in irrigation or rain
 Residual effect of the herbicide on the following crop e.g. effect of Atrazine on soya
beans.
 Coverage- overall or band treatment.
 Stage of cotton plant development

Disadvantages
 Herbicides, labour and equipments are expensive.
 A sound knowledge of herbicides, weed infestations and precision post emergence
spraying techniques are of importance. If the application is not done correctly it will
cause serious damage to the cotton crop.

 Integrated weed management

This involves a combination of the above methods. When pre-plant and pre-emergence
herbicides are used, cultivation is still likely to be needed for the removal of tolerant weeds or to
break the soil crust to encourage water penetration.

Table 3.5: Five steps to economic and efficient weed control showing choices of chemical,
hand or mechanical weed control methods. (Adopted in cotton hand book, 1994)
Pre-planting Pre- Early post Late post Lay-bye/
incorporated emergence emergence emergence salvage

Disc or spiked Banded Hand weed (in Gang tiller Directed

harrows or row) and gang or spraying
or Overall tiller (between with
Rotary row ) or
cultivator
Cotoran
Trif Directed Gesapax
Trifluralin Cotoran spraying Directed Igran
Planavin Bladex with spraying MSMA
Trump Gesagard Bladex Diuron with Ametryne
Cotogard Gesagard Diuron Gramoxone
Dual with or Cotoran can Cotoran Igran Ansar 529
without mix with Gesagard Bladex Diuron
Planavin or MSMA Gesapax Gesagard with
Trump Bladex with or or without
without Gramoxone
Gramoxone Or MSMA
Or MSMA

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 c) COTTON PEST

Correct pest identification, timely scouting, timeous spraying or correct control technique are key
to effective pest management in cotton production. Pest damage at any stage of growth has
adverse effects on the yield and its quality. The crop is attacked by pests which fall under three
major groups:
 the bollworms
 the leaf eaters
 the sucking pests.

Of these three groups, it is the bollworms which cause the worst damage.

Bollworms
Bollworms are a group of pests that cause a lot of damage especially on cotton bolls. They
usually bore or chew their way into the cotton boll just after the larva is hatched from the egg.
Growth normally occurs inside the boll making it difficult for you to notice level of damage until
the boll splits.
Life cycle – It is important for you to know the life cycle of pests for example the bollworms so
that you become aware of the stage of growth which causes harm to you crop. Knowing this is
critical as you will be able to control the pest at the stage or before the stage that causes damage.
All the bollworms have a complete life cycle.

Life cycle of bollworms

MOTH

PUPA EGG

LARVAE

Moth Egg Larvae Pupa

Active at night. Lives Takes 3-6 weeks to Takes three weeks in Three days in soil
in thickets during the hatch depending on larval stage. There are then to adult stage.
day. Sucks nectar weather. At 300C, 5 instars i.e.
from flowers takes 3 days. developmental stages.
and dew from leaves. Moults every 4 days.
Lives for 3 weeks,
lays 200 – 300 eggs.
Can travel long
distances e.g.
40km.Travels with its
family.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 18
There are four known bollworms of cotton in Zimbabwe: Red bollworm, heliothis bollworm,
spiny bollworm and the pink bollworm.
a) Red bollworm (Diparopsis castanea)
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Eggs
 Are round with a flat base.
 Light blue in colour when freshly laid to grey towards hatching.
 Black dot on top
 Takes 3-6 days to hatch.

Larva
 Big black head .
 Collar and head closely attached
 Black collar.
 14 legs;6 true legs and 8 false legs.
 Red arrows head markings on the back.
 Is laid on flower, leaves and branches of cotton

Damage
 Young larvae bore into the flower buds and eat out naturally causing the buds to drop.
 If the larvae emerge before the flower buds are available, it may bore into the shoot tip
and this causes deformation of the growth pattern making picking more difficult.
 Feeds from inside the boll (internal feeder ).
 Enters the boll at early stage and develops inside.
 In its life cycle, can eat 3-4 bolls or even 6.

b) Heliothis bollworm (Heliothis armigera)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Egg
 Is smaller than that of Red bollworm.
 Oval shaped and smooth.
 Yellowish white to cream which turns brown towards hatching.
 Laid from middle part of the plant upwards on the open,(does not hide)on tender leaves
and growing points.
 Moth can lay 250 – 300 eggs / 21 days.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 19
Larva

 Is hairy on the back

 Colour at first is greyish- white.
 Has 14 legs; 6 true and 8 false.
 Even body thickness.
 Has two white lateral lines on each side.
 Adopts colour from its food as it feeds.

Damage
 Eats bolls, buds, leaves , flowers and squares.
 Has a wide range of hosts: sorghum, tomatoes, peas, beans, tobacco, cotton , maize, soya,
wheat etc.
 Most destructive of all bollworms.
 Feeds while half of its front body is inside the boll or flower bud.
 Damage leads to boll rots as it exposes damaged plants to infection.
 Usually a pest during the peak flowering period.
 Can feed up to 12 bolls in its life. Some eat up to 16 bolls
c) Pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella)
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Found mostly in the Lowveld and Zambezi Valley.
Eggs
 Are very small.
 Only seen under microscope.

Larva
 Is whitish in colour at hatching.
 Double red band on each segment at first.
 The larva later becomes pink in colour with a black head.
 Can be 15mm in length at maturity.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 20
Damage

 Feeds from inside cotton seed

d) Spiny bollworm
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae

Occurs early in the season or late in the season. Seldom a serious pest.

Eggs
 Are very small, smaller than those of red bollworm therefore scout for larva.
 Are flat and green in colour.
 Turn bluish when about to hatch.
 Hatch in 3-6 days.

Larva
 Heavy built in the middle.
 Has fleshy spines.
 Is dark brown to dark brown – grayish with mixed colours, orange spots.
 Has 14 legs.
 Smaller than both R L and HL.

Damage
 Eats bolls, buds, flowers.
 Tip borer – all stages 5 instars possible inside the stem.

Pupa
 Is a silken cocoon.
 Is cream coloured / brownish and hard.

NB. Can also be found on hibiscus.

Leaf eaters
Leaf eaters are mostly found early in the season. As their name suggests, these are pests whose
damage is mainly directed to the cotton leaves.

a) Elegant grasshopper (Zonocerus elegans)

Eggs
 Found early in the season.
 Eggs are laid in the soil and covered.
 500 or more eggs are laid per focal point.
 Hatched during the first rains.

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  Eggs are hatched to give grasshoppers.

Grasshopper

 The hoppers have multiple colours ; green, red, black.

 Found in colonies and are very destructive.
 Can be found in contour ridges if not attracted by the crop.
 Economic damage normally occurs before thinning.
 Cotton, grasses, rapoko, sorghum are hosts.
 If found in numbers, report to AGRITEX for spraying.

Damage

 Eat leaves and growing point of any green crop and leaves the plant stripped with no
foliage.

b) Spodoptera

 Can be found even late in the season.

Eggs

 Moth lays a lot of eggs 250-350 eggs laid in clusters.

 Immediately after laying, moth covers eggs with its brown hairs to protect its eggs from
predators.
 Have a greenish brown colour.
 Are smooth and shiny.
 Eggs turn brown just before hatching.

Larva
 Found in numbers.
 Starts eating just after hatching.
 Early stages just like heliothis in colour.
 Head humped.
 Are shaped like the spiny bollworm.
 Hump and middle same thickness.
 As it grows, will adopt puff adder colour; grey, brown, black but has four prominent
black dots, two on the hump and two on the ovital / back.
 Smooth.
 Has 14 legs.
 Has sides like cutworm.

Damage
LG@CHIBCOL Page 22
  Eats leaves, flowers, bolls and buds like spiny and red bollworm.

NB: Because it damages bolls as well, in other countries it’s a bollworm except in
Zimbabwe.

c) Trichoplusia (Cotton semi looper)

Eggs
 Eggs are similar to heliothis i.e. yellowish white, smaller and flatter with short hairs and
twenty eight ridges. .
 Eggs are dull and may be laid from a distance from the plant on which they stick.
 Turn brown when about to hatch.

Larva
 Light green in colour.
 Thin at head and thickens at the back / tapers towards head.
 Has ten legs.
 Has eight faint white lines on the back.
 Back is nearly transparent.
 It’s mostly found at a looping position.
 It’s an early season pest.

There are three species, that is ;Trichoplusia aclata, T. calcititis and T. orichalcea, the only hairy
species.
Damage
 Eat leaves and growing points of any green plant leaving the plant defoliated.

ANOMIS (semi looper).

Eggs
 Eggs are greenish in colour, flat, shiny and turn grey when about to hatch.

Larva
 Is green coloured with an even thickness / its slender.
 Has a dark green band at the back.
 It is smooth with ten legs at first and become twelve in the third instar.
 It is pale in the third instar, dark green in the fourth instar and pupates when has a green
black back.

Damage
 Eats leaves and on growing point of any green plant leaving crop stripped with no
foliage.

Xanthodes
LG@CHIBCOL Page 23
 Eggs
 Are creamy yellow or yellowish white and round in shape.
 Bottom is oval with vertical and horizontal lines.
 Are hairy, dull, rough with an invisible egg shell.

Larva
 Larva is bigger than heliothis.
 Has ten legs throughout its instars.
 Turns grayish to pale green in the second instar.
 Is hairy.
 Has ‘U’ marks on the back in the third instar and a yellow centre line in the fourth instar
seen with a red dot at ovipositor in the fifth instar.
 Has yellow big eyes.

Damage
 Eats leaves and defoliates cotton plant.

Sucking pests

Aphids (Aphis gossypii)

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphidae
Nymph
 Slow moving insects,6 legged, weak but their damage is serious.
 Colour depend on crop colour; yellowish, green, grey or brown.
 Adult is not a moth.
 All aphids are females
 All aphids produce young ones not eggs but nymphs which are wingless.
 High populations are found in hot weather and are difficult to control because systemic
pesticides are used which need plenty of sap for movement within the plant.
 Have tubes at the back which is the honey dew outlet produced by aphids.

High populations are found on tender leaves and on growing points.

Damage
 Sucking of sap resulting in curling of leaves which also become hard.
 Retarded crop growth.
 Excrete honey dew which interferes with photosynthesis if found on leaves which
become sticky and shiny at first and later rot and turn black.
 Sooty moulds are found on leaves as a result.
 Can also be found on cotton seed and can contaminate lint.
 Ants which feed on honey dew are present.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 24
Red spider mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus)
Order: Acarina
Family: Tetranychidae

 Reddish brown very tiny mite.

 Lays 15 eggs /day for 21 days and 315 eggs are laid by one female.
 Eggs look like new oil drops soon after being laid.
 Take 2 weeks to reach adult stage.
 Can lay eggs without a male

Damage
 Discoloration of leaf.
 Leaf eventually turns brown and falls.
 Severe damage causes yield reduction of two or no bolls per plant.
 Gather a web on leaf and if leaf dries up, will be blown to the next host but will die if it
lands on dry surface.

Jassids (Empoasca fascialis)

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Cicadellidae

 Found under leaf and is very fast in movement.

 Boat shaped.
 Six legged.
 Adults are yellowish green in colour.
 Adult females lay very tiny eggs which are difficult to see with naked eye hence we just
see jassids.
 Highly active during the nymphal stage.
 Nymphs move in a characteristic sideways manner and adult when disturbed fly away.
 Develops wings at older age.
 Found from the middle part of the plant in numbers.
 Usually seen in young crop up to six weeks and thereafter, damage becomes negligible.

Damage
 Jassids prefer smooth leafed varieties and the hairy the leaf, the less likely it is to be
damaged.
 Suck sap from leaf edges.
 Leaf turns reddish at the edges and curls down.
 Leaves become hard and dry off and may fall.
 Retarded crop growth.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 25
  Eventually leaves become reddish and fall.

White fly (Bemisia spp)

 Are minute midges found on underside of the leaf.

 Both nymph and adult suck sap from leaf.
 Secrete honeydew which is a substrate for black sooty moldy which contaminates the
cotton lint.
 Found in colonies.
 In cool weather, rests on plant and if plant is disturbed, many fly away.
 Is six legged and is yellowish white in colour.
 Adult female lays tiny eggs .
 Eggs just expand into adult in two weeks.
 Yellowish green scales are seen on leaves, they burst after two weeks to get white flies.

Damage
 Sucks sap from under leaf and produce large quantities of honeydew.
 Attacked leaves curl downwards, wrinkle and become brittle.
 Grade is adversely affected.

Thrips

 There are two types i.e. the spotted and the non-spotted one.
 Eggs hatch in 7 days, larva takes 21 days, pupate 4-7 days and has an 18-35 days life
cycle.
 Adult is yellowish in colour.
 In seedlings, appear as minute, grey, elongated insects that are found within the growing
point of cotton seedlings.

Damage
 Causes tattering of leaves leading to drying and dropping of leaves.
 Attacks leaf veins, once these break, sap is lost and leaf become hard, metallic brown and
torn.

Lygus (Taylorilygus spp)

 Adult bug is greenish brown in colour.
 Has six legs and two fillers.
 Is highly active and very sensitive, can just fly away or run around.
 Difficult to see and generally damage symptoms are seen.
 Adults lay eggs which hatch into nymphs/young lygus, bright green coloured.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 26
  When scouting, look for nymphs which are mostly found on growing points where
damage is also noticed.

Damage
 Sucks sap from young growing leaves/ tips ,causing death to the tips.(punctures the
growing point).
 Damage is first noticed as a black dot.
 When leaf opens, punctured leaf is unable to expand and leaf is perforated and has a
tattered appearance (torn like acid damage).
 Damage is sometime confused with that of leaf eaters.
 Lygus damage leads to defoliation and shedding of buds, flowers and bolls.
 Leads to rank growth.
 Thresh hold is as soon as damage is seen.

Cotton strainers (Dysdercus spp)

Order: Hemiptera

Family: Pyrrhcorida

 Always found in twos.

 Female adult strainers are winged and can fly.
 Have an orange red colour with a black band on top of wings.
 Has no distinct neck and head and thorax are stuck together.
 Starlet / needle shaped mouth is almost half its body.
 Female lays up to 50 eggs visible to naked eye.
 Eggs are silvery round and are laid on dead leaves and in opening in the soil in the field.
 Eggs take two weeks to hatch into strainers with undeveloped wings.

Damage
Once green bolls are in the field, stainers are a problem.
 Stainers attack seed and this reduces oil content.
 Saliva causes lint discoloration and hardness and this lowers the grades.

Heliopeltis (Mosquito bug)

 A slender, fragile insect which is very active and difficult to detect on the plant .

Damage
 Affects leaves, fruits and stems.
 Sucks sap on any part of the plant.
 Causes cankers (wounds) and sap oozes out hanging as a woody canker.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 27
  On bolls, brownish circular spots are seen.

Minor pests include the cutworm, termites, false wireworm and nematodes.

PEST CONTROL IN COTTON

Methods of control

Pest are part of the complex ecological system and treating them in isolation has often resulted in
in ecological disasters which pose a real threat to the continuation of cotton industries. This has
brought up the concept of pest population management rather than eradication through integrated
pest management.(IPM).Combining different approaches in pest control brings about better
results than using one method no matter how good it may seem. With this integrated approach,
about four methods have been identified:

 Varietal control
 Cultural control
 Biological control and
 Chemical control

Varietal control

 Involves the breeding of hairy varieties whose hairy leaf surface will prevent the insect
stylet from attacking the plant. Jassids are often the first pests that cause economic
damage on smooth varieties therefore breeding for resistance will delay spraying which
also kills beneficial insects.
 Development of okra leaf type which improve spray penetration has shown resistance to
whiteflies and red spider mites.
 Development of varieties with high tannin level, which is bitter and not palatable.

Cultural control

 Cultural / legislative control involving cutting of cotton stalks, winter plough, weeding,
dead season. Legislative control of the pink bollworm involves implementation of the
DEAD PERIOD that is a 66 days period where no cotton plant is allowed to live/ exist
by legal cotton destruction and planting dates as shown in the table below. It should be
observed on different dates in Zimbabwe depending on where you are.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 28
Cotton slashing, destruction and planting dates
Area Slashing Date Destruction Date Planting Date

South East Lowveld 01 August 15 August 05 October

Remainder of Country 15 August 10 September 20 October

Source :Farm management Hand book – Field crops ,Volume 1, 2010 pg VI-62.
NB. All applications for an extended growing period should be forwarded to the Department of
Agricultural Regulatory Services (DARS) at least 3 weeks prior to the stipulated destruction
time.

 Slashing is the cutting of the stems below the first branch using either hand hoe or rotary
mower. Total slashing must be complete by the above mentioned dates in Table 2.

 Destruction is the killing of all cotton plants by uprooting and making them incapable
of re-growth and does not mean burning. Total destruction must be complete by the
above mentioned dates in Table 2.
 Early planting after a dead period to lower the pest population.
 Planting at the same time cotton and maize to avoid pest migration from one crop to the
other.
 Winter ploughing to destroy over wintering pupae or expose them to the soil surface
where they can be eaten by birds or damaged by the sun.
 Early and regular weeding will remove alternative hosts.

NB: The use of tolerant varieties e.g. CRI varieties that are hairy;SZ8314 which resists
jassids is also another cultural measure to cab pests.

Biological control

Allowing fungi, predators and parasitoids to control pests at non critical areas.
In Zimbabwe, beneficial insects are used to control pests especially in early season. Careful
use of insecticides as determined by scouting results at the start of the season, will help the
predators to build up in populations to give some early control. Unfortunately when spraying
takes place, pests and even beneficial insects are destroyed. The use of pesticides is
unavoidable since there is effective pest control.
It is also unfortunate that it is difficult to predict when significant numbers of predators will
be present so that pests can be controlled.
The most common beneficial insects are:
 Spiders which live near bolls , attack most insects.
 Lacewings – larva feeds on red spider mites and aphids ,bollworm eggs and
larvae in the first instar. It is brownish black and after feeding , larva takes shells
of its prey so that it can camouflage.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 29
  Ladybirds - both beetle and larvae feed primarily on aphids. And less commonly
on bollworm eggs.
 Syphids – larvae feeds on aphids only up to 90 aphids per day. It is a larva of the
hover fly. It is blind, has no legs, is yellowish brown in colour and tapered
towards the head. Is found in clusters of aphids .
 Phonoctonus – the insect is similar to the cotton stainer it preys though it has a
much shorter proboscis and a distinct neck between head and body and that
distinguishes it from the stainer. Has giant legs. Sucks sap from stainer body and
caterpillars but feeds principally on strainers.

Chemical control

This method is dependent on scouting results which if correctly interpreted will indicate
whether spraying is necessary or not.

Scouting

Definition of scouting
This is the practical examination of a cotton field for the purpose of identifying pests,
checking pest levels of infestation and presence of predators. It is actually a cost
reduction technique as it establishes economic threshold of any pest before coming in
with chemicals in the field.
Importance of scouting
 To identify the type of pest and determine the pest population within the field and
decide on the chemical to apply.
 Establishes pest economic threshold level for decision making.
 To determine the level of weed infestation.
 To determine the level of disease infestation.
 Helps to assess the effectiveness of the previous spray.
 It is a sure way of saving money since you don’t spray when it’s not necessary.
 Identifies friends( beneficial insects) in the field e.g. spiders, lacewings, syphids,
phonoctonus etc.

Techniques
Cotton plants can reach a height above 1.5m and the height will determine the scouting technique
to use. There are two scouting techniques :
a)Top ten node scouting technique
b) Full plant scouting technique.

The top ten node technique is used on plants that are 1.5m and above while the full plant
technique is used for plants shorter than 1.5m.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 30
 1 Full plant scouting technique
a) The first step is to examine one leaf in the middle part of the plant for the presents of
four sucking pests which are:
 Jassids
 Whiteflies
 Aphids
 Red spider mites

The number of jassids is recorded immediately.

b) After the inspection of this leaf in the middle, two fully expanded leaves on top of the
plant are scouted. The two top fully expanded leaves are examined for three pests which
are again sucking pests and these are:
 Whiteflies
 Aphids
 Red spider mites
The number of whiteflies noticed on the three leaves is recorded soon after scouting those
two leaves on top of the plant before scouting the growing point.
c) The growing point is scouted for aphids and red spider mites after which the higher
infestation of each of these two pests is recorded as follows:
Number observed Score
0 0
1-10 I
11-30 II
31 or above III
d) All the other pests and predators are scouted for starting from the bottom of the plant
going upwards including area scouted before .Lygus damage and cotton stainers are
scouted for and any damaged bolls are recorded.

2 Top ten node scouting technique

 The procedure of scouting a plant for jassids, whiteflies, aphids and red spider mites is
the same as in the full plant scouting technique.
 After recording the four pests, ten branches are counted starting from a branch with a bud
and a piece of string is tied just below the 10th branch.
 All remaining pests and predators are scouted for on every part of the ten branches.
 The findings except those for bollworm larvae are recorded immediately after the
examination of the branches.
 Finally, starting from the bottom part of the plant, going up to the 10th node only
bollworm larvae are scouted for.
 The number of larvae noticed should be added to those observed on the top ten branches
and recorded.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 31
Points to consider when scouting
 Scout 24 plants per field which should be no greater than 20 hectares
 If field is bigger than 20 hectares, divide it into two or more fields.
 Discard 5-10m from edges depending on size of field.
 If parts of the field grow differently, scout separately.
 Do not scout the same plants every week and choose only average sized plants.

Timing of scouting
 Scout early morning before 10:00am, before flying pests have flown away.
 Weekly scouting 3 weeks after emergence.
 From peak flowering onwards scout twice a week.

Methods of scouting

a) Diagonal (The X method)

Plants are chosen along the lines to have 24 plants scouted on 20 hectares or less.
This method is rigid in that almost the same plants may be scouted throughout.
The perfumes, soaps, lotions used by the scouters, may cause the pests to run away and this will
give biased results.
This method has been discarded for this reason.

b) Zig-zag

This is a better method since a Z shape is formed and one can start from a different position the
following week. This gives a fair assessment.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 32
 c) Stepped traverse

The most recommended method.

Procedure of scouting
 Scout two thirds of the land each week.
 Move 5-10m into the field.
 Scout the first plant to your left or the direction from the edge of the field and then move
in the field along same line.
 Scout the next plant to your right i.e. the direction that the rest of the field lies or from the
edge of the field.
 Move three steps depending on the size of the field.
 Scout one plant on the direction or line you have skipped then move 3 to 4 steps in the
field along the same line and scout the plant to your right .
Do the same from the other angle until you count 24 plants in the field making a stepped
pattern.
NB
 To avoid flying away of pests before they are counted, hold the leaf by the stalks.
 Turn over the leaves slowly by twisting their petioles until their undersides are
clearly visible.
 Scout early morning, preferably before 10:00hrs.

Economic thresholds

Thresholds – are injury levels that warrant spraying.

These levels should not be exceeded for intense damage occurs and if one sprays before
threshold levels there is wastage of chemicals.

Bollworms

- Are the major cotton pests with 75% of spraying programmers being geared towards
bollworms.
- 25% of spraying programmes are for leaf eaters or sucking pests.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 33
 - If you spray eggs, the moths lay sterile eggs if it gets into the spray field.
- Sprays for heliothis eggs and red bollworm eggs control spiny larva as well.

Interpretation of scouting results

After recording of results, interpretation is vital for the next move on whether to spray or not.
 The threshold level for Red Bollworm is 6 eggs/24 plants , Heliothis Bollworm is 12
eggs/24 plants and Spiny is 6 larvae /24 plants
 Spraying can be a result of actual egg / larvae count .This is when per one scouting
session 6 eggs/24 plants have been seen for Red Bollworm. There is the accumulated
count where in week one, two and three 2,2 and 2 eggs have been recorded to give a total
of 2+2+2=6 and one should now spray.
 The projected counts –this is when there is an indication of an increase in egg count that
may exceed the threshold before the next scouting.
 Start spraying as soon as Red spider mites are recorded. Spot spray if outbreak is isolated.
 Cease spraying at first boll split and aim to keep populations at a score of 48/24 plants.
 For lygus, it should be as soon as leaf tattering is seen and the same goes for heliopeltis.
 Aphids :
a total score of (1) 48/24 plants
2) 36/24 plants that are drought stricken
3) a population build up prior to first boll-split to avoid the
contamination of the open seed cotton with honeydew.
 Stainers spray when 6 or more focal points are recorded at one scouting.
Control is necessary once green bolls are found.

 Jassids: Thresh hold; 48/24 plants for hairy varieties.

36/24 plants on smooth varieties, long staple.
24/24 plants on very smooth, long staple varieties.
 White flies: Threshold level
120 on 24 plants. Cease spraying when 20% boll split is reached.

LG@CHIBCOL Page 34
 PESTICIDE CHOICE
Include insecticides and acaricides.

Bollworms control
Insecticides have two categories(1) Conventionals and (2) Synthetic Pyrethroids.

Conventionals Pests controlled Synthetic Pests controlled

Pyrethroids
Carbaryl Red bollworm, Spiny Karate Leaf eaters:
,strainers all leaf Trichoplusia, anomis,
eaters, jassids bollworms, xanthodes

Thiodan Mainly for Heliothis Talstar, mavrik, Bollworms, leaf eaters

bollworm. Leaf eaters, cybolt, agrithrin,
jassids, fenkil
lygus
Larvin All Cymbush Bollworms but
bollworms,jassids,stai discouraged as it
ners and leaf eaters increases red spider
mites populations.

 Conventionals and synthetics kill by contact – have a burning effect.

 Time of use for the two groups of chemicals is different depending on area of
growing.

AREA DATES INSECTICIDES

South Eastern Lowveld 5October – 25 Dec Organochlorines carbamates
26Dec- 1March Synthetic pyrythroids
2March onwards Organochlorines carbamates

The rest of the country 200ct – 1Feb Organochlorines carbamates

2Feb onwards Synthetic pyrythroids

NB. Rotation discourages resistance especially of Heliothis Bollworm.

At pick flowering so many pests must be killed.

White flies
 systemic/translaminars like; actellic, polo, applaud and dimethoate /rogor are on the
market.

Aphids
 aphicides /systemic on offer are : Marshall, Oncol, Acetarmark, Dimethoate, Metasystox
and Cruser which also a seed dresser.

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Red spider mites
Contacts
Kelthane, omite, Dicofol and these can be used anytime ,anywhere.
Systemic
Mitac,Tedion and Hostathion are currently very effective against Red spider mites. Can be used
anytime and anywhere.
Secure, Dimethoate, metasystox, hunter are also useful but must be used once or twice the whole
season to prevent resistance build up.

ACARICIDE ROTATION
An acaricide rotation has been put in place in Zimbabwe and the country has three main regions:
ACARICIDE ROTATION
Seasons 2005 - 2006 2007 - 2008 2009 – 2010
And 2006-2007 And 2008-2009 And 2010 - 2011
Region
1 Tetradifon Hostathion, Curacron, Mitac, Amitraz and
Mazoe valley and Tedion Azodrin, Hunter
North East Moncrotophos and
Monocron
2 Hostathion, Curacron, Mitac, Amitraz and Tetradifon
Central and North Azodrin, Nuvacron, Hunter Tedion
West Monocrotophos and
Monocron.
3 Mitac, Amitraz and Tetradifon Hostathion, Curacron,
Eastern , Lowveld and Hunter Tedion Azodrin, Nuvacron,
South East Monocrotophos and
Monocron

Region 1: Acturus, Bindura, Muzarabani, Glendale, Gwebi, Harare West, Mt. Darwin, Ruwa,
Shamva, e.tc
Region 2:Angwa North and S south, Battlefields, Beatrice, Chatsworth,Chivu, Gutu, Karoi,
Norton Mvuma ,Shurugwi, Tengwe, Chitomborwizi,Gokomere,Tokwe, Marondera,
Musengezi,Zowa etc.
Region 3:Beitbridge,Mberengwa,, Chipinge, Gwaai, Headlands, Rusape, Masvingo Central,
Middle Sabi ,Wedza North and South, Chitowa, Mungezi, Save, St. Faith, Zviyambe etc.
 Rotation takes the clockwise direction.
 Molases and other adhesives are added to the pesticides to help the chemicals to stick
more to plant parts for effective working.

Management of soil pests

The most important soil pests are termites:
 Other pests, with seldom occurrence , cutworms Agrotis segetum and false wireworm are
capable of causing yield losses.
 Endosulfan wettable powder applied and soil incorporated before sowing and fipronil as a
seed dressing are used to control termites.

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  Where possible, avoid soils with termite problems.

PESTICIDES APPLICATION METHODS

Two methods are in use:

Aerial spraying
 Sprays are applied from the air.
 Fixed wing aircraft
 Rotary winged aircraft ( Helicopter)
 Not applicable to many farmers in Zimbabwe.

Ground spraying
Three sprayers are commonly used in Zimbabwe:
1) Knapsack with lance
2) Knapsack with tail boom
3) HI-SPIN ( ULV)
The use of a tractor mounted boom sprayer is also possible.

1.Knapsack and lance

Advantages
 Can be used any time of the day, no evaporation of droplets because size of
droplets is good.
 No extra costs; no battery, no need for molasses like the case with the ULV.
 Multi-purpose , can be used in gardens, citrus and apply herbicides as well.
Disadvantages
 It is heavy- 15 litres =25kg and 1 ha = 10km.
 Uses more water hence more labour
 Swathe covered is very small and does not cater for different heights of the crop.

2)Knap sack with a tail boom

 Most ideal equipment.
 Very good for contact insecticides.
 Good for bollworms,
 For Red spider mites in drought year, use contact insects because of less sap .
 Systemics will not reach under leaf E.G Metasystox and Morocide are contact .
 This is a multi- purpose sprayer which can be used in cotton, garden or even in
homes.
 Uses lever only and not batteries.
Disadvantages
 Heavier than the lance by about 2kg
 Uses a lot of water therefore more labour
 Cannot be operated by one person
 Nozzles may block unnoticed because they are at the back.

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3.HI-SPIN (ULV) sprayer
 It is powered by battery.
 Ideal for cotton spraying.
 It is light so ideal for women .
 Idea for low rainfall areas.
Time for spraying
 When there is no dew at around 6.00- 10:00am.
This is when in most cases it will be calm and the wind blows towards one direction
 At 3pm 6pm.
There is the use of Molasses so make sure you finish the mixed chemical.
 Any time provided it is not too hot, calm with no strong winds and no dew.
Battery maintenance
 Rechargeable to be charged after every use to be always at full.
 At the end of the season, re-charge it and place it on wooden plunks or card board box to
avoid loss of cell power.
Advantages of ULV- Ultra Low Volume sprayer
 Sprays more lines especially when plant is still young 0-40 cm in height.
 If using systemic, sprays well because more drops land on top of leaf and end up on the
lower part.
 Not heavy when using it.
 Requires molasses so that heavy droplets are released to allow them to land on leaves.
 Use very little water.
Disadvantages
 Has extra costs in battery purchase
 Detects time of spraying due to evaporation of droplets
 If there is no wind may not be effective
 Does not reach / wet under leaf.
Importance of adding molasses in ULV
 Increases weight of droplets so that they land on the leaf.
 To reduce rate of evaporation.
 Used as bait to attract moths thereby reducing the number of insects produced.
NB: Never use brown sugar to increase weight of droplets.

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f) DISEASES AND DISEASE CONTROL

1.Seedling diseases ( dumping off and sore shine)

Caused by Rhizoctonia solani

Symptoms of attack
-Seed decay
-Pre-emergence damping off when seed is planted in cool soil.
-Post-emergence damping off when hypocotyls are subjected to attack.
-Sunken lesions at the base of the stem.
Factors affecting infection
-High inoculum concentration causes severe damping off.
-R.solani grows rapidly at 100% RH but infection takes place at different moisture regimes.
-Cool weather, water logging and soil capping slow down germination and growth thereby
making seedlings vulnerable to attack.
High levels of organic matter in the soil can increase seedling diseases.
Control
-Difficult to control R.solani and Pythium spp once established.
-Seed dressing is important and is cost effective. Chemicals like Monceren, Tecto thiabenazole,
Brassicol and Vitavax give some control against R. solani.
-Delayed planting if high temperatures are anticipated.
-Cultural practices like crop rotation, early incorporation for sufficient decay of residues are
useful.
-Avoid excessive soil moisture for irrigated crop therefore plant early for emergence not to
coincide with prolonged wetness, that can be experienced in December.
-Herbicides like EPTC reduce damping off.

2. Verticillium wilt
Causal organism- Verticillium dahlia (a soil fungus).

It widely distributed in cotton growing areas of Zimbabwe i.e Mazoe valley, Lowveld and
Middleveld. Causes huge losses and lack of high levels of resistance in Gossypium species have
retarded efforts to get rid of the disease. Occurs on wide range of soils and environments. Soils
with high organic matter, high pH and mean daily temperatures of 18-23OC will cause severe
attack
Symptoms
-Wilting usually appear at 6 weeks after sowing till boll split.
-Symptoms depend on cultivar, virulence of the fungal isolate, stage of crop and environment
especially temperature (30OC).
Leaves
-Reddening/yellowing at leaf edges at first, veins too and mottling takes place with eventual
death resulting and shedding.

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Stem
-Browning of the internal vascular tissues in stems ,branches and petioles. Early infection may
cause stunting. Severe infection will cause shedding of leaves and bolls. Terminal dieback may
occur at the tips of the stem.
Control
Since disease can be carried into the next season which can be many seasons even in the absence
of cotton, proper rotation will reduce the spread.
An integrated approach is ideal.
.Select cultivars with a high degree of resistance to Verticillium wilt. This is cost effective and
varieties released from The Cotton Research Institute (CRI) are tested for tolerance before they
are released.
.Preventative measures aim to reduce spread and build up of inoculums and optimize cultivar
resistance.
This is done by manipulating cropping sequence, nutrients, soil moisture and tillage practices:
1) Avoidance of growing cotton on lands where susceptible crops have been grown
especially vegetables: Tomatoes, potatoes, okra, green pepper, tobacco, sunflower etc.
2) Avoid introducing disease into clean land by using implements used to prepare land
infested with Verticillium wilt.
3) Rotation with non-susceptible crops like maize, soya beans in summer and wheat in
winter.
Control in the field
-Abandon land which is wilt infested for long periods.
-Up root and burn infected plants if isolated cases are observed and avoid carrying of the plants
from the affected area.
-Soak soil to a depth of 30-40cm with formaldehyde or 5% Javal solution.
-Burn all affected plants at the end of the season.
-Rotate with non-host crops like maize and sorghum to reduce fungal populations.
NB
The best way of controlling Verticillium wilt is by using resistant varieties.
Fusarium wilt is similar to Verticillium wilt but has greater potential threat on lighter soils.
Major differences are as follows:

LG@CHIBCOL Page 40
A comparison of verticillium wilt and fusarium wilt
Verticillium wilt Fusarium wilt

Symptoms appear from 6 weeks after planting Symptoms appear at any stage of growth but
at around peak boll set mainly in the first two months after planting.
Earlier than verticillium

Symptoms are enhanced by cool weather I.e. Symptoms expression is enhanced by hot
mean less than 23OC weather and mean daily temperature above
23OC
Characteristic brown staining observed after Leaves turn yellow to necrotic, shrivel and
peeling off outer layers of the stems shed .Top part dies but re-growth can take
place from lower nodes
Conditions favoring outbreak :
-many soil types mainly alkaline clays. -most soil types but preferred soil type depends
-wide range of climatic requirements but on pathogen race.
favours cool weather below 23OC -hot conditions, mean daily temperature above
23OC
Wide host range Host specific
Season carry-over:
-Produces microsclerotia in infected plants -Produces Chlamydespores which persist in the
which can survive in the absence of cotton. soil for longer than Verticillium sclerotia
-Not carried with seed -carried with seed
Control: -Rotation not very effective.
-Rotate with non-host crops like maize -Do not distribute infected seed.

Chemical control
-Use fungicides either as seed dressers or in- furrow treatment to control seedling diseases.
-Where seedling diseases are problematic to reduce stands, in-furrow treatment is best as
chemical is directed on seed and onto covering soil.
Examples of fungicides in use are: Benodanil 250g/100kg seed
Tecto 300ml/100kg seed
Rizolex 300g/100kg seed
Penccuron + captan ( Monceron combi) 300g/100kg seed.

3)Bacterial blight (Black arm)

Caused by bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. The disease occurs in most cotton growing areas
worldwide. Yield losses of 10-30% have been recorded in Asia and Africa. If infection is severe,
losses of up to 50-70% are possible.
Symptoms
It can affect all parts of the plant resulting in blight on seedlings, angular leaf spot and vein
blight on leaves, lesions on stems and petioles as well as boll rot.

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Leaves
 angular spots appear on leaves which are dark green and translucent turning dark brown
or black as they dry out.
 In severe cases, spots cover the whole leaf which becomes tattered. If leaf vein is
infected, blackened tissue follows line of main vein.
 Defoliation occurs.
Stem
 When disease extends from leaves to the stem or leaf petioles, it is known as ‘black arm’.
 Elongated grayish to sooty black lesions are noticed.
 In severe cases, black arm kills the distal parts of the stem.
Bolls
They turn black from brown and encourage secondary infection which leads to stained lint i.e.
boll wall is punctured and boll is infected inside and rots hence the name bacterial boll rot.
Seasonal carryover
 Main source of inoculums is contaminated seed and crop residue.
 Secondary infection from infected plants takes place through wind, rainfall and irrigation.
 Severe when frequent periods of rain and wind are interspersed with hot (35OC), sunny
spells and high relative humidity.
Control
 Growing resistant varieties and these are available in Zimbabwe.
 Destroy crop residues after slashing and bury all remaining debris by ploughing them in.
 Rest field for at least one season.
 Use fungicides like Copper oxychloride to curb the disease.
 Acid delinting is very effective to reduce seed surface contamination.

4)Alternaria leaf spot

Causal organism is the fungus Alternaria macrospora
Symptoms
 Spots first found on cotyledons especially if no rotation is done. Spots are roughly
circular, light brown and 3-8mm in diameter with a purple border.
 Spots are similar on leaves but confined to lower canopy unless it become severe when
infection will spread.
 Affected leaves become necrotic and spores on the spots result in a black sooty
appearance.
Conditions favouring infection
 At least 6 hours of Relative Humidity above 90% encourages spore germination.
 Lack of potash in the soil.
Control
 No control measures are known yet but it has been established that crops in soils with a
high potash level suffer less.
 Fungicides like Copper oxychloride have produced good results.

5)Boll rot

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Few cases are caused by micro-organisms.
Can be a result of insect attack which then allows secondary invaders to enter the boll.
Fungus Collectotrichum gossypii is considered a primary boll rot pathogen invading an
undamaged boll.
Pre-disposing factors to boll rot
 Boll damage due to insects.
 Prolonged period of high relative humidity, normally if crop has a lot of herbage. This
favours boll rot as there is high humidity in crop canopy.
 Collectotrichum gossypii, Diplodia gossipina favour wet weather while Ascochyta
gossypii favour dry conditions.
Symptoms
 In continued overcast weather, cotton plant fails to carry many bolls therefore shut off
nutrient supply to boll and this is called ‘physiological shedding’
 Such boll may rot due to secondary invasion by various fungi and bacteria because boll
has been ‘shut off’, boll may not rot.
 Rotting of boll may be due to insect damage and a grey growth with a pink tinge appears
on the boll.

Control
 Agronomic practices aimed at lowering relative humidity must be done.
 Aim to reduce level of primary inoculums.
 Burn fallen debris: flowers, bracts under the canopy or spray fungicides on the ground.
 Seed from infected crop carry boll rot fungi and bacteria as surface contaminants
therefore, carry out acid delinting.
 Control insects be they damage bolls.
 Use wider spacing at planting to improve aeration in the field.
 Seed dressing with anti-fungal chemicals.

f) HARVESTING OF COTTON

Hand picked cotton is of higher quality than machine picked. In Zimbabwe, very quality cotton
is obtained because it is handpicked. Machine picking is an option only when there is insufficient
labour, where double cropping is anticipated and where hectarage has been increased.
Timing of cotton picking
 When there are 3-4 open and dry bolls to safe guard the weight and grades. A boll is
ready for picking four days after opening and this is when the lint has fluffed out and
feels dry on the face. If exposed to sun for long, It loses its whiteness to a light creamish
colour and become too dry. Acceptable moisture content is 12%.
 Pick dry cotton only and therefore, start picking when all dew is gone.
 Pick not more than 3 bolls into each hand and check for cleanliness then dispose it into a
clean, dry bag.

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  Very little trash is reaped if cleanliness is constantly checked for as harvesting takes
place. Further grading becomes unnecessary if this is carefully done in the field. The
clean bag , a fertilizer empty should be tied around the waist so that the top is well open.
 Picking should start from the bottom upwards to minimize the amount of trash going on
to seed cotton.
For storing cotton in the field, jute bags may be used.

Picking rate
It is possible to pick 56kg per day if picker is fast. Give pickers a basic daily minimum to
increase output. The mass of cotton picked per day depends on :
 Picking efficiency
 Boll size which depends on variety
 Plant shape and size
 Level of weed control in the field

Effectiveness of cotton pest control also improves the cleanliness of cotton. Avoid picking wet
cotton as this leads to greying and deterioration of lint. Avoid the use of polypropylene bags for
picking or packing because:
 The fibres of the bag cannot be removed from seed cotton during ginning.
 Seed cotton contaminated with these fibres can cause fire due to friction of threads
 The lint and polypropylene fibres will intertwine without forming good thread during
weaving. The thread formed is weak and fibres are bound to separate later.
 Polypropylene fibres do not take up dye, leaving conspicuous white strands which are not
accepted by buyers.

Cleaning and grading

If trash removal was not thorough during picking, seed cotton should be spread on a clean
surface and all trash removed. Stained and soiled seed cotton must be separated. Clean top grade
cotton must be separated from the lower grades.
Baling
The cotton pack should be suspended in a frame making sure that base of pack touches the
ground. The cotton must be compressed using very clean feet. The pack must be closed at the
end of each day. Sew on the label of the buyer or contractor of your product on one end of the
bale. Ensure that the grower’s full registration number is available. When full, about 200kg
which is the weight of a bale (60% seed and 40% lint), sew it well and place the bale on a dry
place from termites. The maximum bale weight is 250kg.
Transportation
Bale must be carefully loaded to prevent it from falling which might cause the bale to burst.
When this happens, it is difficult to load back into the vehicle.
Cotton grades
Hand picked cotton is sold on a four grade system based on visual assessment of insect and soil
stains, trash and immature fibre. Cotton grading is done at point of sale by trained graders using
annually prepared standards agreed upon by growers and buyers.

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Cotton grades
Grade Description
A Clean white or slightly grey cotton. Small flakes of soil and insect staining and
small amounts of leaf trash are tolerated. Slight but not obvious amounts of
immature fibres are permissible
ASS White seed cotton which is moderately soiled or insect stained. Small amounts
of trash are tolerated. Slight but not obvious amounts of weak/immature fibres
are permissible.
B Seed cotton containing obvious but not substantial amounts of weak or
immature fibres. Soil, insect stained or discoloured fibre of leaf trash. No
obvious sticks or other parts are permitted.
C Seed cotton which contains substantial amounts of weak or immature or soil
stained or discoloured fibres or leaf and other trash and damaged seed.
D Seed cotton which cannot be classified into the above grades but which has a
value for the production of lint.
No seed cotton by reason of excess moisture content is likely to cause the
development of mould or heating in storage.

Down grading factors

 Trash (T)
 Immature cotton/weak fibre (W)
 Insect/ soil stains (SS)
 Grey colour. (G)
 Reject (R)
 Moisture content.
 Mixing of two grades in one bale.

Why cotton is rejected

 Burnt cotton
 Cotton with polypropylene threads
 Cotton with more than 12.5% moisture content
 Grease or oil on cotton
 Grasses and sticks.

Yield estimation
Measure a reasonable area and count the number of fully developed bolls per plant. Pick the
bolls and find the average boll weight. Convert the weight per hectare to find the expected
yield/ha.

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Lint Quality
The various characteristics by which cotton is classified include:
 Fibre length-may be measured by hand or fibro graph
 Fibre maturity –lint showing maturity contains a fair proportion, 25% or more of thin
walled hairs and result in nippiness and other manufacturing difficulties
 Fibre fineness-an indication of maturity and strength
 Fibre strength – it is measured by hand determining the breaking strength
 Lint uniformity
 Absence of faults such as freedom from foreign matter including bits of leaves, bracts
and seed cotton fragments.

h) MARKETING OF COTTON

1994 marked the end of monopoly by Cotton Company of Zimbabwe in buying cotton.
Marketing controls are now relaxed to allow other players in the cotton industry to buy cotton
from farmers. Most of the farmers enter into contract with companies which now come at their
door steps to collect the cotton reducing the transport worries to the farmer.

REFERENCES

 Cotton Training Centre , (2007), Cotton course handbook Zimbabwe.

 Cotton Research Institute , (1994) Cotton handbook. Kadoma, Zimbabwe.

 Jasper W.(2004). Cotton Production and Support in the United States.CRS report for
Congress http:/www.nationalaglawcenter,org/assests/crs/RL3244.pdf.

 Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation development (2010). Farm

Management Handbook- Field crops ,Volume 1 ,

 Purseglove J.W.(1984) , Tropical crops, dicotyledons, volume 1 and 2 combined,

,ELBS,England.

 Racemaekers Romain H, (2001)., Crop Production in Tropical Africa,Brussels, Belgium.

 Sieberrt J.B., 1996. Cotton Production Manual: ANR Publication. Pg, 366 ISBN
9781879906099.http://books,google.com/?

 www.mrseeds.com/cotton-seeds/produ...

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