Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar

Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

Course Code PSY 303

Course Description Psychological Statistics
Week 3

MODULE 2: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/review-of-data-averages-graphs-and-an-introduction-to-frequency-distribution-tables-
11831526

Module Introduction
In this module, we present techniques for organizing data into tables and graphs so
that an entire set of scores can be presented in a relatively simple display or illustration.

Intended Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the basic elements of a frequency distribution table and explain how
they are related to the original set of scores.
2. Identify when it is useful to set up a grouped frequency distribution table, and
explain how to construct this type of table for a set of scores.
3. Describe how the three types of frequency distribution graphs—histograms,
polygons, and bar graphs—are constructed and identify when each is used.
4. Describe the basic elements of a stem and leaf display and explain how the
display shows the entire distribution of scores.

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 1
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

Module Content
2.1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number of individuals
located in each category on the scale of measurement. A frequency distribution can be
structured either as a table or as a graph, but in either case, the distribution presents the
same two elements:
1. The set of categories that make up the original measurement scale.
2. A record of the frequency, or number of individuals in each category.

Frequency tells you how often something happened. The frequency of an

observation tells you the number of times the observation occurs in the data. For example,
in the following list of numbers, the frequency of the number 9 is 5 (because it occurs 5
times):
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1, 9, 9, 0, 6, 9.

Tables can show either categorical variables (sometimes called qualitative

variables) or quantitative variables (sometimes called numeric variables). You can think
of categorical variables as categories (like eye color or brand of dog food) and quantitative
variables as numbers.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TERMINOLOGIES

• Array
o Refers to the arrangement of data according to size or magnitude.
o It is obtained by simply listing the values in either ascending or descending
order.
o Example: The ages, arrange in ascending order, of the 7 employees of the
personnel department of the company are as follows:
20, 21, 23, 23, 26, 29, 32

• Classes (Class Interval) - Refers to the first column of a frequency

• Class Limit - Refers to the lowest and the highest value that can be entered in each
class.
o Lower Class Limit (L) – the lowest value that can go in each class.
o Upper Class Limit (U)– the highest value that can go in each class.

• Frequency (f) - Refers to the number of values that fall in a given interval.
• Midpoint or Class Mark (x) - Serves as the representative of the given interval.
L+U
X=
2
where: L – lower class limit; U – upper class limit
Example: In class interval 20-24, the midpoint is 22.

• Class Boundaries - Refers to the value midway between the upper limit of a certain
interval and the lower limit of the next.
o Example: In the class interval 35-39, the class boundary is 34.5 – 39.5

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 2
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

• Cumulative frequency (cf) - Cumulative frequency is used to determine the

number of observations that lie above (or below) a particular value in a data set.
The cumulative frequency is calculated by adding each frequency from a frequency
distribution table to the sum of its predecessors.

Two Types of Cumulative Frequency (cf)

o Less than cumulative frequency (<cf) - Refers to the distribution whose
frequencies are less than or below the upper class boundary they correspond
to.
o Greater than cumulative frequency (>cf) - Refers to the distribution
whose frequencies are greater than or above the lower class boundary they
correspond to.

• Relative frequency (rel.f) / Proportion (p) - Refers to the proportion of time the
score occurs
rel. f = f/N OR p = f/N
where: f – frequency; N – total population

percentage (rel.f% or rf%) = f/N (100)

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

1. Get the lowest and the highest value in the distribution

2. Get the value of the range. The range denoted by R, refers to the difference between
the highest value and the lowest value in the distribution.
R=H–L
where: R – range; H – highest value; L – lowest value

3. Decide on the number of classes:

k = 1 + 3.3 log (n)
where: k – number of classes; n – sample size

4. Determine the size of the class interval

i = R/k
where: i – class interval; R – range; k – number of classes

5. Construct a frequency distribution table by making class intervals with the lowest
value in the lower limit of the next class interval. Continue adding the class size of
the lower limit of each class interval and subtracting one from the lower limit of
the next class interval.

6. Determine the frequency of each class.

7. Determine the class mark of each interval.

L+U
X=
2
where: L – lower class limit; U – upper class limit

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 3
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

8. Determine the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from every lower limit and
adding 0.5 from every higher limit.

9. Construct the cumulative frequency distribution (cf).

10. Derived relative frequency distribution.

rel. f% or rf% = f/N (100)

2.2 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GRAPHS

GRAPHS FOR INTERVAL OR RATIO DATA

When the data consist of numerical scores that have been measured on an interval
or ratio scale, there are two options for constructing a frequency distribution graph. The
two types of graphs are called histograms and polygons.

A. Histograms. To construct a histogram, you first list the numerical scores (the categories
of measurement) along the X-axis. Then you draw a bar above each X value so that
a. The height of the bar corresponds to the frequency for that category.
b. For continuous variables, the width of the bar extends to the real limits of the
category. For discrete variables, each bar extends exactly half the distance to the
adjacent category on each side.

For both continuous and discrete variables, each bar in a histogram extends to the
midpoint between adjacent categories. As a result, adjacent bars touch and there are no
spaces or gaps between bars. An example of a histogram is shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2.

Figure 2.1
An example of a frequency distribution histogram. The same set of quiz scores is presented
in a frequency distribution table and in a histogram.

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 4
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

Figure 2.2
An example of a frequency distribution histogram for grouped data. The same set of
children’s heights is presented in a frequency distribution table and in a histogram.

B. Polygons. The second option for graphing a distribution of numerical scores from an
interval or ratio scale of measurement is called a polygon. To construct a polygon, you
begin by listing the numerical scores (the categories of measurement) along the X-axis.
Then,
a. A dot is centered above each score so that the vertical position of the dot
corresponds to the frequency for the category.
b. A continuous line is drawn from dot to dot to connect the series of dots.
c. The graph is completed by drawing a line down to the X-axis (zero frequency) at
each end of the range of scores. The final lines are usually drawn so that they reach
the X-axis at a point that is one category below the lowest score on the left side and
one category above the highest score on the right side.
A polygon also can be used with data that have been grouped into class intervals. For
a grouped distribution, you position each dot directly above the midpoint of the class
interval. The midpoint can be found by averaging the highest and the lowest scores in the
interval. For example, a class interval that is listed as 20–29 would have a midpoint of 24.5.
An example of a frequency distribution polygon is shown in Figures 2.3 and 2.4.

Figure 2.3
An example of a frequency distribution polygon. The same set of data is presented in a
frequency distribution table and in a polygon.
College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department
Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 5
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

Figure 2.4
An example of a frequency distribution polygon for grouped data. The same set of data is
presented in a frequency distribution table and in a polygon.

GRAPHS FOR NOMINAL OR ORDINAL DATA

A. Bar Graphs. A bar graph is essentially the same as a histogram, except those spaces
are left between adjacent bars. For a nominal scale, the space between bars emphasizes that
the scale consists of separate, distinct categories. For ordinal scales, separate bars are used
because you cannot assume that the categories are all the same size.
To construct a bar graph, list the categories of measurement along the X-axis and
then draw a bar above each category so that the height of the bar corresponds to the
frequency for the category. An example of a bar graph is shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5
A bar graph showing the distribution of personality types in a sample of college students.
Because personality type is a discrete variable measured on a nominal scale, the graph is
drawn with space between the bars.

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 6
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

THE SHAPE OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

There are three characteristics that completely describe any distribution: shape,
central tendency, and variability. In simple terms, central tendency measures where the
center of the distribution is located and variability measures the degree to which the scores
are spread over a wide range or are clustered together. Technically, the shape of a
distribution is defined by an equation that prescribes the exact relationship between each
X and Y value on the graph. However, we will rely on a few less-precise terms that serve
to describe the shape of most distributions.
Nearly all distributions can be classified as being either symmetrical or skewed.

• In a symmetrical distribution, it is possible to draw a vertical line through the

middle so that one side of the distribution is a mirror image of the other.
• In a skewed distribution, the scores tend to pile up toward one end of the scale and
taper off gradually at the other end.
• The section where the scores taper off toward one end of a distribution is called the
tail of the distribution.
• A skewed distribution with the tail on the right-hand side is positively skewed
because the tail points toward the positive (above-zero) end of the X-axis. If the tail
points to the left, the distribution is negatively skewed.

Figure 2.6
Examples of different shapes for distributions.

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 7
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

2.3 STEM AND LEAF DISPLAYS

In 1977, J.W. Tukey presented a technique for organizing data that provides a
simple alternative to a grouped frequency distribution table or graph (Tukey, 1977). This
technique, called a stem and leaf display, requires that each score be separated into two
parts: The first digit (or digits) is called the stem, and the last digit is called the leaf. For
example, X = 85 would be separated into a stem of 8 and a leaf of 5. Similarly, X = 42
would have a stem of 4 and a leaf of 2. To construct a stem and leaf display for a set of
data, the first step is to list all the stems in a column. For the data in Table 2.1, for example,
the lowest scores are in the 30s and the highest scores are in the 90s, so the list of stems
would be.
The next step is to go through the data, one score at a time, and write the leaf for
each score beside its stem. For the data in Table 2.1, the first score is X = 83, so you would
write 3 (the leaf) beside the 8 in the column of stems. This process is continued for the
entire set of scores. The complete stem and leaf display is shown with the original data in
Table 2.1.

Table 2.1
A set of N = 24 scores presented as raw data and organized in a stem and leaf display.

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 8
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY JPLPC-Malvar
Malvar, Batangas
Tel. Nos.: (043) 778-2170/ (043) 406-0830 loc. 122
Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

End of Module Assessment

Module Activity: A Grouped Frequency Distribution Table

For the following set of N = 20 scores, construct a grouped frequency distribution
table. The scores are:
14, 8, 27, 16, 10, 22, 9, 13, 16, 12,
10, 9, 15, 17, 6, 14, 11, 18, 14, 11

Relative
Frequency Class
Class Interval Tally Class Boundaries <cf >cf Frequency
(f) Mark (x)
(%)
Lower Upper
Limit Limit Lower Upper

Other Assessments:
• Online Recitation – This will incorporate a video conference within online
teaching to give learning a more personal touch. During scheduled brief online
interviews, students can demonstrate their proficiency in most essential topics.
(Google Meet/FB Messenger)

• Online Activities – These are integral part of the course. This may come in various
tasks such as group work, individual activity, research work, extended reading and
the like. This will provide opportunities for the students to transfer the concepts
they have learned in class to a more concrete situation and to equally participate in
class discussion.

Learning Reference
Gravetter, F.J. & Wallnau, L.B. (2016). Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 10th Edition;
Boston, MA: Cengage

College of Arts and Sciences - Psychology Department

Instructional Material: PSY 303 Psychological Statistics
2nd Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021 9