IV.

ELECTROSTATICS & MAGNETOSTATICS

Electrostatics: It is a branch of physics which deals with study of electric field produced by
stationary charges.

Electric charge: An entity, either positive or negative carried by fundamental particles such as
protons (+ve) and electrons (-ve) of charge q.

 Charge is a scalar quantity which is measured in coulombs (unit: “C”).

 Smallest possible charge that corresponds to one electron is ¿ 1 .602 ×10−19 C
 Similar charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
 Charge is conserved that is charge is neither created or nor destroyed.
 Charge is quantized: Q=±ne
 All mass less particles are charge less. Ex: photon, neutrino

COULOMB’S LAW

Statement: The electrostatic force (force of interaction) between any two-point charges (q1& q2)
separated by a distance (r) is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of distance between them.

Explanation: Let us consider two point charges q1& q2 are separated by a distance ‘r’, then the
electrostatic force of interaction (F) is given by

F ∝q1 q2

1
F∝ 2
r

Then,
q 1 q2
F∝ 2
r

q1 q2
F=K 2
r

Where, ‘K’ is proportionality constant, called dielectric constant and which is given by

1
K=
4 πε
 1 q1q2
Then, F=
4 πε r 2

Where, ‘ε’is permittivity of the medium in which the point charges are placed.

And, ε =ε 0 ε r

Where, {ε} rsub {0} is permittivity of the free space, and is constant. i.e., ε 0=8.85 ×10−12 F /m

{ε} rsub {r} is relative permittivity

For free space, ε r=1; Then, ε =ε 0

1 9
Thus, in air or vacuum, K= = m/F.
4 π ε 0 9 ×10

Principle of superposition: If a number of point charges

q 1 , q2 , q3 ,
are present in a
…….
region, then the total force on any particular charge is the vector sum of forces it experiences due
to all other charges. This is called principle of superposition.

Eg: - Let there be only three charges, then the force on q3 is F = F13 + F23.

1 q q 1 q q
F= . 12 3 + . 12 2
4 Π E0 r 13 4 Π E0 r 23

Electric field intensity (E): It is equal to the force per unit test charge placed at that point. Unit
is N / C.

F
E=
i.e., q

If q1 = Q, q2 = q

1 Qq
Then, F =
4 π ε0 r2

Hence, the electric field intensity due to a point charge is

1 Q
E= ; where ‘r’ is the radius of the field.
4 π ε0 r2

Electric potential (V): Electric potential at a point is the work done per unit charge in an electric
field. (OR) The amount of work done to bring a unit charge from infinite to a point in the electric
field is called ‘electric potential’ at that point. It’s unit is volt (V).
 W U
V= =
q q

Where, U is the potential energy.

Consider two points A& B in an electric field (E) and, ‘r’ be the distance between two points.

Let, V be the potential difference between two points.

The amount of work done to move a test charge ‘q’ from A to B is, W = F . r = E q r

1 Q
(or) W / q = V = E r (or) V = r
4 π ε0 r2

1 Q
Thus, the electric potential at a point charge is, V =
4 π ε0 r

Electric flux (ϕ ): The electric flux is the number of field lines passing through unit area
perpendicularly.

(or)

The product of the magnitude of the electric field (E) and surface area (A), perpendicular to the
field.

Φ=⃗E ⋅ ⃗A =EA cosθ

Integral form: Open surface, ϕ ¿ ∫ E ∙ ds

⃗ ⃗
s

Closed surface, ϕ=
∮ ⃗E ∙ ⃗
ds
S

Charge density ( ρ ): It is net charge per unit volume .

Q
i.e., ρ=
V

Types of charge distributions: There is a possibility of continuous charge distributions along a

line, on a surface and in a volume. Thus, there are four types of chart distributions.

i) point charge ii) line charge iii) surface charge and iv) volume charge

i) Point charge: If the dimensions of surface carrying charge are very very small compared to
the systems surrounding it, then the surface can be treated to be a point. The corresponding
charge is called point charge. The point charge has a position, but not the dimension and it can
be positive or negative.

ii) Line charge: It is possible that the change may be spread all along a line, which may be
finite or finite. Such a charge uniformly distributed along a line is termed as line charge.

Total charge(¿C )
Linear charge density ( ρl ) =
Total length(¿ meter )
= Charge per unit length

Let ‘dq’ be the charge on differential length ‘dl’ of the line. Then,

dq = ρl dl

Q = ∫ dq = ∫ ρl dl
l l

If the length ‘l’ is a closed path, then the integral is called closed contour integral and denoted as
Q = ∮ ρl dl .

iii) Surface charge: If the charge is distributed over a 2D surface, then it is called surface charge
or sheet of charge.

Total charge (¿ C)
Surface charge density ( ρ s ¿ =
Total area(¿ square meter )
= Charge per unit area

Let ‘dq’ be the charge on an elemental surface ‘ds’ over the given surface. Then

dq = ρ sds

Q = ∫ dq = ∫ ρs ds
s s

iv) Volume charge: If the charge is distributed uniformly over a volume, then it is called volume
charge.

Total charge(¿ C )
Volume charge density ( ρ v ¿=
Total area(¿ cube meter )
= Charge per unit volume

Let ‘dq’ be the charge possessed by elemental volume ‘dv’. Then

dq = ρ vdv
 Q =∮ ρ v dv
v

GAUSS LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS

1
Statement: The total electrical flux through any closed surface (S) is always equals to times
ε0
the net charge enclosed by that surface.

Q
ϕ=∮ ⃗
E∙⃗
ds=
S
ε0

Proof: Let us consider a surface ‘S’ around a charge ‘Q’ and the electric field due to charge Q is
E . Let ⃗
⃗ ds be the differential surface element on the surface ‘S’ surrounding a point ‘P’. Let n^ be
the unit vector normal to the surface ‘S’. Let ‘θ’ is the angle between the electric field ⃗
E and unit
vector n^ .

Then the electric flux (dɸ ¿ through a small differential surface area is given by:

E∙⃗
dϕ= ⃗ ds = ¿

We know that, electric field at a point charge is

1 Q
E= ∙ 2,
4 π ε0 R

Q
Then, dϕ= 2
ds cos θ
4 π ε0 R

Q ds cos θ
dϕ=
4 π ε0 R 2

Where, ‘R’ is the distance of differential surface from the point charge ‘Q’.

Now, the solid angle (d Ω ) = (Projection of ‘ds’ normal to R) / R2

 ds cos θ
= 2
R

Q
⸫ dϕ= dΩ
4 π ε0

The total flux through the entire surface is

Q
ϕ=∫ dɸ=∫ dΩ
4 π ε0

Q Q
ϕ=
4 π ε0
∫ dΩ ¿
4 π ε0
Ω

2
4π R
But, the total solid angle, Ω=¿total surface area / R2 ) = 2 =4π.
R

Q
Then, ϕ= ∙4 π
4 π ε0

Q
(or) ϕ=
ε0

This is the Gauss law of electrostatics in free space.

Integral form of Gauss law of electrostatics:

Q
Gauss law of electrostatics in free space is, ϕ=
ε0

The integral form of electric flux through a surface ‘S’ is, ϕ=∮ E ∙ ds
⃗ ⃗
S

Q
Then, ϕ=∮ ⃗
E∙⃗
ds=
S
ε0

∮ ε0 ⃗E ∙ ⃗
ds=Q
S

∮ ⃗D ∙ ⃗
ds=Q
S

Closed surface enclose a volume (V) and the volume charge density (ρ v ), then the total charge

Q=∫ ρv dV
V
Hence,

∮ ⃗D ∙ ⃗
ds=∫ ρv dV
S V

ρ
∮ ⃗E ∙ ⃗
ds=∫ dV
ε
v

S V 0

This equation represents the integral form of Gauss law of electrostatics and is identified as
Maxwell’s 1st equation.

Differential form of Gauss law of electrostatics:

Let us consider a closed surface ‘S’ around a charge ‘Q’ enclosed a volume ‘V’. The charge
density inside the volume is ρ v.

According to the integral form of gauss law,

ρ
∮ ⃗E ∙ ⃗
ds=∫ dV −−−−−−−(1)
ε
v

S V 0

From Gauss divergence theorem,

∮ ⃗E ∙ ⃗
ds=∫ ∙ ⃗
E dV −−−−−−−−(2)
S V

From eqn. (1) & (2),

ρ
∫ ∙ ⃗E dV =∫ ε v dV
V V 0

ρv
∙⃗
E= −−−−−(3)
ε0

∙ ε0 ⃗
E =ρv

∙⃗
D=ρ v −−−−−(4 )

Equation (3) & (4) represents the differential (point) form of Gauss law of electrostatics or
Maxwell 1st equation.

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS

i) Electric field due to a point charge:

Suppose a point charge ‘Q’ is located at the origin. A spherical surface centered at the origin is
the Gaussian surface.

Applying Gauss law, φ = Qencl osed

Q=∮ ⃗
D∙⃗
ds
S

D∮ ∙ ⃗
¿⃗ ds
S

= D .4 π R 2

1 Q
Electric flux density (D)=
4 π R2

1 Q
E= ( ∵ D=ε 0 E)
4 π ε 0 R2

ii) Electric field due to infinite line charge:

Let an infinite line charge density ( ρ L ¿ lies along z−axis . Applying Gauss law to arbitrary length
“l” of the line charge.

Total charge along the infinite line is:Q=∮ D . dS = ∫ ρl dl

s l

ρl . l=∮ D. dS
s
ρl . l=D .2 πr . l
D= ρl /2 πr
E = ρl /2 π ε 0 r

iii) Electric field due to an infinite sheet of charge:

Consider an infinite sheet of charge of uniform charge density ρ s on X-Y plane. To determine
‘E’ at a point, use a rectangular Gaussian surface.

Applying Gauss law, we get

Q=∮ ⃗ ds=∫ ρs ds
D∙⃗
S s

Q=D
[∮ ⃗ds + ∮ ⃗ds ]=∫ ρ ds
top bottom
s

D ( A + A ) =ρs A
 ρs
D=
2
E=ρs /2 ε 0

Magnetostatics
Magnetostatics: It is a branch of physics which deals with study of magnetic field produced by
steady current.

Steady currents flowing in conductors produce static magnetic fields.

Magnetic field intensity (H): The region around a current carrying conductor or a permanent
magnet where magnetic effects (magnetic force) are experienced by other material is called a
magnetic field. The amount of magnetic force is magnetic field strength or intensity (H). It is
measured in A/m.

 A magnetic field is schematically represented by magnetic lines of force. Magnetic lines

of force is called magnetic flux (ϕ B ¿ .
 The amount of magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) induced on the given body
(medium) due to the magnetizing force (H) is known as magnetic induction or magnetic
flux density (B).
 Magnetic field around a steady current carrying conductor is represented by concentric
circles. The direction of magnetic field can be found by the right-hand rule as shown in
below figure.
 A magnetic field at any point is described either by magnetic field intensity (or strength),
‘H’ or by the magnetic induction (or magnetic flux density), B.
Relation between B & H and Permeability:

The magnetic induction (B) due to a magnetic field strength (H) applied in a medium is
related by ⃗
B = µ⃗
H.

The ratio of magnetic induction in the material to the applied magnetic field intensity is
known as permeability (µ) of the medium. Unit: henry / meter (H/m).
B = μo ⃗
For free space: ⃗ H ; μo is the permeability of free space (vacuum) and is constant.

i.e., μo =4 π ×10−7 Wb / A−m (or) H/m

The ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space is called
relative permeability. i.e., μr = µ / μo
For air or vacuum, in SI system, μr =1∧¿ µ = μo
Magnetic flux density (or) Magnetic induction (⃗ B ¿: The number of magnetic field lines of
induction passing through a unit cross-sectional area is called the magnetic flux density or
magnetic induction (B).

(or)

The magnetic flux per unit area is called as magnetic flux density or magnetic induction. Thus
ϕB
B= (Wb /m2)∨tesla (T ).
A

Magnetic flux(ϕ B) : The total number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field is called as
magnetic flux. Unit: weber (Wb)

(or)

The number of magnetic field lines crosses a unit surface area normally is called magnetic flux.

Therefore, magnetic flux is given by, ϕ B=B A

When the surface of unit area makes an angle (θ) with the direction of field, then
ϕ B=¿
Thus, magnetic flux through an area is equal to the dot product of magnetic field, B and area, A.
The magnetic flux through the elemental surface area ‘ds’ is
dϕ B =B .ds

The total flux through the entire surface is

ϕ B=∮ ⃗
B∙⃗
ds
S

This equation is called integral form of magnetic flux.

Current density (J): Current per unit area is current density. i.e., J = I / A
Current density is also defined as, product of electrical conductivity and electric field
intensity. i.e., J = σ E

BIOT-SAVART LAW:

Statement: The magnetic field of induction (dB) at any point around a steady current flowing
conductor is directly proportional to the product current element (I dl)∧sinθ and is inversely
proportional to the square of distance between current element and the point .

Explanation: Let a conductor of an arbitrary shape carrying a steady current I. Let P be a point
in the magnetic field produced by the current. Consider a small element of length dl produce
magnetic field dB at P. Let r be the distance of point P from the current element ( I dl ) and ‘θ’.
θ be the angle between dl and r.

Then, according to Biot-Savart law,

dB ∝ Idl sin θ

1
dB ∝ 2
r

Idl sin θ
(or) dB ∝ 2
r

Idl sin θ
dB=K 2
r

Where, K is the proportionality constant. The value of K depends on the medium or vacuum in
which the conductor is situated.
 μo −7
For free space, K= ; Where , μo =4 π ×10 H /m
4π

Then,

μ o I dl sin θ
dB= 2
4π r

This is Biot-Savart law.

The above equation gives the magnitude of magnetic induction at any point in the magnetic field.

The Biot-Savart law holds only for steady currents.

The total magnetic field at point ‘P’, due to the conductor is

μo I dlsin θ
B = ∫ dB=∫ 2
4π r

The current element (I dl) is the source of static magnetic field, just as a charge ‘q’ is the source
of static electric field.

GAUSS LAW OF MAGNETOSTATICS

Statement: The total magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero.

ϕ B=∮ ⃗
B∙⃗
ds=0
S

Explanation: The magnetic flux lines around a steady current flowing conductor always exist in
the form of closed loop. The flux lines neither have a starting point nor ending point. Thus, for a
closed surface, the flux lines entering are equal to the flux lines leaving the surface. Therefore,
the net flux through a closed surface is equals to zero. i.e., ϕ B=0

Integral form of Gauss law of magnetostatics:

The integral form of magnetic flux through an element of area ds is given by
ϕ B=∮ ⃗
B∙⃗
ds
S

According to Gauss law of magnetostatics, the net flux through any closed surface is equal to
zero. i.e., ϕ B=0. Then, the above equation becomes as

∮ ⃗B ∙ ⃗
ds=0 ----------(1)
S
This equation is known as integral form of Gauss law of magnetostatics and is identified as
Maxwell 2nd equation.

Differential form of Gauss law of magnetostatics:

From Gauss divergence theorem,

∮ ⃗B ∙ ⃗
ds=∫ ( ∙ ⃗
B ¿ dV ¿−−−−−−( 2 )
S V

From, equations (1) & (2),

∫ ( ∙⃗
B ¿ dV ¿=0
V

(or) ∙⃗
B =0 -------- (4)

Therefore, the divergence of magnetic flux density is always zero.

Equation (4) represents the differential (point) form of Gauss law of magnetostatics or
Maxwell’s 2nd equation in differential form.

AMPERE’S LAW

Statement: Ampere’s law states that, the line integral of the magnetic field intensity over any
closed path is equal to the amount of the current enclosed by the loop (closed path).

i.e., ∮ ⃗
H ∙⃗
dl=I

(or)

The line integral of the magnetic induction over any closed path is equal to μo times the amount of
the current enclosed by the closed path. Thus,

∮ ⃗B ∙ ⃗
dl=μo I ( ∵ ⃗
B=μo ⃗
H)

APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S LAW

i) Magnetic field intensity due to infinite long straight conductor:

Let there be an infinite long straight conductor carrying a current I along z-axis. Consider a point
P on the closed path at which H is to be determined.
According to Ampere’s law,

∮⃗
H ∙⃗
dl=I
 Since H and dl are parallel,
H∮ ⃗
⃗ dl=I

H (2 π r)=I
I
H=
2 πr
i.e., the magnetic field directly proportional to current (I) and
inversely proportional to the radius (r) of the loop.

ii) Magnetic field intensity due to infinite sheet of current:

Consider an infinite long sheet at z=0 plane. Let the current (I) is flowing along the positive Y-
direction, and J y is its current density.

Consider a closed loop (1-2-3-4-1) perpendicular to the current direction which is in X-Z plane
as shown in figure with width b and height a.

It is observed from the figure that only a part of the current is enclosed in the closed loop.
Therefore, to apply Amperes law we need to consider only the current enclosed within the closed
loop. Hence, the current enclosed ( I enc ¿ by the closed loop i.e., the current crossing the distance
‘b’ is given by
I enc =J y b−−−−−−( 1 )

According to Ampere’s law:

∮⃗
H ∙⃗
dl=I enc −−−( 2 )
From equations (1) and (2),

∮⃗
H ∙⃗
dl=I enc =J y b−−−( 3 )

From the right hand thumb rule, the magnetic field along Z-direction cancels each other. Also, H
cannot have component along Y- direction. Hence, H has component only along X-direction as
shown in figure below.

Applying Amperes law along the closed path,

2 3 4 1
I =∮ ⃗ dl=∫ ⃗
H∙⃗ dl+∫ ⃗
H∙⃗ dl+∫ ⃗
H ∙⃗ dl+∫ ⃗
H ∙⃗ H ∙⃗
dl
1 2 3 4

⇒∮ ⃗
H ∙⃗
dl=( 0)+(−H x )(−b)+(0)+(H x )(b)
I =∮ ⃗
H∙⃗dl =2 H x b−−−−−−(4)
From, eqn. (3) & (4),
2 H x b=J y b
Jy
H x = −−−−−−( 5 )
2
In general,
⃗ 1
H = ⃗J
2

_________________________