ROCK

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CLASSIFICATIONS

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 A rock is composed of minerals having a
certain homogeneity.

A rock can be hard or coherent, sometimes

plastic or soft, even liquid or gaseous.

There are three major families of rocks :

- Magmatic rocks

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- Metamorphic rocks
- Sedimentary rocks.
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 ROCKS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST

MAGMATIC ( OR IGNEOUS ) ROCKS

Formed by cooling and crystallization of magmas :
slowly, at great depth : plutonic rocks ( ex : granites )
quickly, shallow : volcanic rocks ( ex : basalts )
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Formed by transformation of magmatic or sedimentary rocks under
elevated pressures and/or temperatures ( ex : schists, gneiss )
All these rocks are assemblages of minerals
Sedimentary rocks are the only family of rocks where hydrocarbons can
occur
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Formed in surface : by mechanical processes

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- — erosion of pre-existing rocks of any family, transport and deposition
( ex : sandstones, shales ) or
- by chemical / biochemical processes
( ex : limestones )
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 STRUCTURE OF THE GLOBE
Crust

Upper
M
an Manttle
tle

Outer Core

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ore
Inner Core C

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Heat Flow Exchanges

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 PL
Eurasian Philippines
plate
North
Juan de Fuca American
plate plate

Pacific
Pacific
plate Arabian plate
Plate
Carabian plate
Philippines
plate

Scale at Equator
African
Ind
plate pla ian
Nazca te
South
plate
American
plate

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Antartic
plate
Antartic plate

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THE MAIN LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

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 SEDIMENTARY

ROCKS

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 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

In oil industry, we will only study sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the earth by accumulation of small
particles (minerals, fragments...).

Sedimentary rocks represent only 5% of the earth’s crust but cover 75% of
the surface of the globe.

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Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of the earth by accumulation of small
particles (minerals, fragments...).

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 SILICA AND SILICATES
Silica ( SiO2 )
Quartz ( —> sandstones )
Silicates ( SiO4 + Al, Ca, Na, K, Mg, ... )
Feldspars
Amphiboles and pyroxenes MINERALS
Sheet-silicates
micas, clay minerals
Other silicates (heavy minerals)
FORMING
CARBONATES
Calcite ( CaCO3 ) ( —> limestones )
Dolomite ( Mg, Ca (CO3)2 ) ( —> dolomites )
SEDIMENTARY
EVAPORITES MINERALS

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Calcium sulphate
Anhydrite, Gypsum
ROCK
Chlorides
Halite (rock-salt), Sylvite

OTHER MINERALS
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 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS CHARACTERISTICS

GRAINS
- MINERALOGY
- GRANULOMETRY
- SORTING
- MORPHOLOGY
MATRIX
- BINDER ( CONTEMPORANEOUS WITH SEDIMENTATION )
- CEMENT ( SECONDARY BINDING MATERIAL )
- MINERALOGY
PORES
-VOID-SPACE :

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- POROSITY ( PERCENTAGE OF VOID VOLUME )
- VARIOUS TYPES OF POROSITY
- EFFECTIVE POROSITY ( INTERCONNECTED VOIDS )
- PERMEABILITY ( ABILITY TO LET A FLUID CIRCULATE )
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 SEDIMENT DIAGENESIS - PROGRESSIVE TRANSFORMATION
- CONSEQUENCE OF BURIAL

AGENTS :
- PRESSURE
- TEMPERATURE
- WATER CIRCULATION
- BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
PHENOMENA :
- COMPACTION ( expulsion of water )
- CEMENTATION ( formational water )
- RECRYSTALLIZATION ( id. )
- DISSOLUTION
- METASOMATISM ( allogenic water )

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- SEGREGATION ( concretions )

SEDIMENT —> SEDIMENTARY ROCK —> METAMORPHIC ROCK

( loose ) ( consolidated )
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 WEATHERING AND EROSION of rocks outcropping above the sea level

. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Agent : rainwater ( + dissolved CO2 ) - solutions CLASTIC
- « grains »
. MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Agents : gravity, freeze/thaw, running water, wind, glaciers
ROCK

TRANSPORT
FORMATION
of debris ( + solutions and colloidal particles )
Agents :
- On continents : Water flowing in torrents, streams and rivers, wind, glaciers
- In oceans : Offshore currents, waves, tides, turbidity currents

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DEPOSITION
Progressive decrease of current speed provokes a deposition of the transported load,
with sorting according to the grain sizes.

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Sandstone

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DUNHAM’S
CLASSIFICATION

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 MACRO- AND MICRO-POROSITY

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courtesy C. Durand

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Conglomérats

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 CLASTIC GRANULOMETRIC CLASSES

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 SALT

ROCKS

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ROCK SORTING

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 SALT ROCKS
In particular conditions of pressure, temperature and physico-
chemical equilibrium, at the surface of oceans, salty rocks come from
salt deposits
during the evaporation of the water (i.e. concentration in salt) of
brakish water.

They are also called evaporites because they are the result of the
evaporation of brakish waters.

Depending on their composition, they are :

- Halites

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- Anhydrites
-Gypsums.

Salty rocks can be good cap rocks for hydrocarbons (oil or gas).
They are very important in oil domain.
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 Evaporates Formation

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 SEDIMENTATION and SEA LEVEL

Sea level variations

For a constant sea level

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weak terrigenous supply strong terrigenous supply
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©
 CARBONATE

ROCKS

FORMATION

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Part 2
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 CARBONATE ROCKS FORMATION
CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION
-Due to displacement in the equilibrium of solution of calcium
carbonate in water
- Factors :
. partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere
. water temperature
. agitation of water
. salinity of water
. vegetal and animal life

BIOCHEMICAL FORMATION

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- Fixation of carbonate in the ( internal or external ) skeleton of living
organisms
- Death of these organisms
- Sedimentation and preservation of the skeletons (more or less broken)
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 CO2+H2O+Photosynthesis
= ( C(H2O))n+O2

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CO2+H2O=H2CO3 CO3+Ca++=CaCO3

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 DUNHAM’S
CLASSIFICATION

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Coccolites

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Etretat - France

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 ORGANIC ROCKS

They come from the fossilization of organic matter produced by living beings,
animals and plants.

Depending on their origin, they are :

- Coals
- Bitumens
- Kerogenes

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Organic rocks are the source rocks of hydrocarbons and are fundamental in
oil domain.

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DIAGENESIS

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 SEDIMENT DIAGENESIS - PROGRESSIVE TRANSFORMATION
- CONSEQUENCE OF BURIAL

AGENTS :
- PRESSURE
- TEMPERATURE
- WATER CIRCULATION
- BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
PHENOMENA :
- COMPACTION ( expulsion of water )
- CEMENTATION ( formational water )
- RECRYSTALLIZATION ( id. )
- DISSOLUTION
- METASOMATISM ( allogenic water )

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- SEGREGATION ( concretions )

SEDIMENT —> SEDIMENTARY ROCK —> METAMORPHIC ROCK

( loose ) ( consolidated )
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Sequence stratigraphy

SUMMARY
Basin
Sedimentation

The Earth
Recon(1)

The Rocks

The Plate Tectonic

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