Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Santa Maria Bulacan Campus
Santa Maria, Bulacan

Course Title : Calculus 2

Course Code : MATH 102
Course Credit : 3 units

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL 1 FOR THE

COURSE Calculus 2 (Integral Calculus)

 Learning Objectives: The student must be able to explain the

relationship between differentiation and anti-differentiation or
integration.

 Learning Output: The student is expected to manifest skills in

evaluating integrals using the basic concepts learned.

Topics for Discussion are:

 Introduction to Integration
 Solutions to Indefinite Integrals
 Integration Involving Trigonometric Functions
 Integration Involving Exponential Functions
 Integration Involving Hyperbolic Functions
 Applications of Indefinite Integration
 TOPIC 1: Introduction to Integration

Introduction

What is Integration?
- Inverse of differentiation
- Anti-derivative/anti-differentiation
- Therefore, if in differentiation the given is the function and then find its derivative or
differential; in integration, the given is the differential and then go back to the function.

Review of Differential Calculus

Given: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 5
𝑑𝑦 𝒅
Find the derivative: = 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 9 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑑𝑥 𝒅𝒙

Find the differential: 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 8𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 9𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 = (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 9)𝑑𝑥 𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓

Thus, by integration,
F(x) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 𝐶
But the constant (specifically -5) cannot be retrieved anymore since it becomes zero upon
differentiation. Thus, the arbitrary constant capital C.

Indefinite Integration
By definition, the (indefinite) integral of 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is given by:

∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒙) + 𝑪

Where:
 Elongated S – integral sign
f(x) – integrand
dx – denotes that x is the variable of integration
F(x) + C – value of the indefinite integral
C – constant of integration

Properties of Integration

Let: u → be a differentiable function of x

1. ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝐶 (F1)

2. ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

3. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ∓ 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ∓ ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Basic Formulas:

𝒖𝒏+𝟏
4. ∫ 𝒖𝒏 𝒅𝒖 = +𝑪 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝒏 ≠ −𝟏 (F4)
𝒏+𝟏

𝒅𝒖
5. ∫ = 𝐥𝐧|𝒖| + 𝑪 (F5)
𝒖

These basic formulas can be verified by finding the differential of the right side of the equation
in each formula.

𝒖𝒏+𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒅 ( 𝒏+𝟏 + 𝑪) = 𝒅(𝒖𝒏+𝟏 ) + 𝒅𝑪 = 𝒏+𝟏 (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒖𝒏+𝟏−𝟏 𝒅𝒖 + 𝒅𝑪 = 𝒖𝒏 𝒅𝒖
𝒏+𝟏
Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals. Fill out the table.

Given Rewrite Integrate Simplify

𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝟒
8∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 2𝒙 + 𝑪
∫ 𝟖 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙 8. 𝟒
+𝑪
𝟒𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∫ 4∫ 𝒙−𝟐 dx 4.
𝒙𝟐
+𝑪 8𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝟖√𝒙 +
𝟏
√𝒙 𝟐 𝑪
𝟔𝒙𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑
∫ 6∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 6.
𝒙𝟐
+𝑪 4𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪
𝟑
√𝒙 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝟒 −𝟏
∫ 𝟓 ∫ 𝒙−𝟓 𝒅𝒙 ( )+𝑪 +𝑪
𝟐𝒙 𝟐 𝟐 −𝟒 𝟖𝒙𝟒

𝑑𝑥
Example 2. Evaluate: ∫ 𝑥+5 = ln|𝑥 + 5| + 𝐶

Note: In order to check if the simplified function or answer is correct, differentiation is used to
yield the integrand, e.g. (𝑑(2𝑥 4 + 𝐶) = 𝑑(2𝑥 4 ) + 𝑑𝐶 = 8𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 0 = 8𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

Exercise 1.1
Evaluate the following integrals:

3
1. ∫ (8 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
2. ∫ (√𝑥 − 𝑥 + 5𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
6 3
3. ∫ (2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
√
𝑑𝑥
4. ∫ 3
(1+𝑥)4
𝑑𝑥
5. ∫ 𝑥−10
 TOPIC 2: Solutions to Indefinite Integrals

Solutions to Indefinite Integrals

A. By Simple Substitution

1. Evaluate: ∫(2𝑥 + 5)2 𝑑𝑥

2. Evaluate: ∫(2𝑥 + 5)3 𝑑𝑥
3. Evaluate: ∫(2𝑥 + 5)6 𝑑𝑥

1 and 2 can be evaluated by expansion, but 3 is not that easy to expand.

It can be evaluated using F4:

∫(2𝑥 + 5)6 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
Where: 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 5 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑑𝑥 = 2

𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑢7
Substituting, ∫ 𝑢6 2
= 2 ∫ 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢 = 2 7
+𝐶
1
= 14 (2𝑥 + 5)7 + 𝐶

Therefore,
𝟏
∫(2𝑥 + 5)6 𝑑𝑥 = 𝟏𝟒 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓)𝟕 + 𝑪

B. By the use of Neutralizing Factor

∫(2𝑥 + 5)6 𝑑𝑥
If: 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 5
F4 can be used if 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥
2 can be multiplied to dx in the given integrand provided that it is being neutralized by its
1
reciprocal (2 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)and be written before the integral sign. Thus,
1
∫(2𝑥 + 5)6 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫(2𝑥 + 5)6 . 2𝑑𝑥
 1 (2𝑥+5)7
=2 +𝐶
7
𝟏
= 𝟏𝟒 (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓)𝟕 + 𝑪

Exercise 1.2
Evaluate the following integrals:

1. ∫ √6𝑥 − 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2. ∫
3−4𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3. ∫
√4𝑥+9
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑑𝑥
4. ∫ √1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝑥
5. ∫ 𝑥√5𝑥 2 + 3 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
6. ∫ 3−2𝑥 3
3𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
7. ∫ (1−𝑥 4 )3
8. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 3𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 3𝑥𝑑𝑥
cos 8𝑥𝑑𝑥
9. ∫ 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 8𝑥
2𝑥−1
10. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1
3𝑥
11. ∫ 4𝑒 √2 − 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑑𝑥
12. ∫ 𝑥𝑙𝑛3 𝑥
 TOPIC 3: Integration Involving Trigonometric Functions

Integration Involving Trigonometric Functions

TF1. ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒖 + 𝑪

TF2. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖 + 𝑪

TF3. ∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒅𝒖 = − 𝐥𝐧|𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒖| + 𝑪 = 𝐥𝐧|𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒖| + 𝑪

TF4. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧 |𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖| + 𝑪 = − 𝐥𝐧|𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒖| + 𝑪

TF5. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧 |𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒖 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒖| + 𝑪

TF6. ∫ 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒅𝒖 = − 𝐥𝐧 |𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒖 + 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒖| + 𝑪

TF7. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒖 + 𝑪

TF8. ∫ 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒖𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒖 + 𝑪

TF9. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒖 + 𝑪

TF10. ∫ 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒖 + 𝑪

TF1, TF2, and TF7 to TF10 can be verified by differentiation.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢
Proof of TF3: ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑠𝑜, 𝑏𝑦 𝐹4, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛.

And by the use of laws of logarithm,

1
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑑𝑢 = − ln|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢| + 𝐶 = −ln | 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢 | + 𝐶 = −𝑙𝑛1 + ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢| + 𝐶 = ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢| + 𝐶

The same method may be used to prove TF4.

TF 5 and TF 6 can be verified by using F5.

Example 1.
1 𝟏
Evaluate ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 3
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥. 3𝑑𝑥 = 𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝟑𝒙 + 𝑪

Example 2.

Evaluate ∫(sin 4𝑥 + cos 4𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 4𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥

But: 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑥 = 1 = ∫(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑥)𝑑𝑥

1
And 2𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 8 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑥. 8𝑑𝑥
𝟏
= 𝒙 − 𝟖 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟖𝒙 + 𝑪

Note: There are 2 more possible solutions for Example 2. The use of Trigonometric Identities
must always be considered in solutions and in simplification.

Exercise 1.3
Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐8𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
4. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥
5. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡5𝑥
6. ∫ 4𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
7. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 3𝑥
 TOPIC 4: Integration Involving Exponential Functions

Integration Involving Exponential Functions

𝒂𝒖
EF1. ∫ 𝒂𝒖 du = 𝒍𝒏𝒂 + 𝑪

By replacing a by e in EF1 :
𝑒𝑢
∫ 𝑒 𝑢 du = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 + 𝐶

Then,

EF2. ∫ 𝒆𝒖 du = 𝒆𝒖 + 𝑪

𝑑𝑥 𝟏
Example 1: ∫ 𝑒 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 −5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝟓 𝒆−𝟓𝒙 + 𝑪

3 2𝑥 𝟑 𝟐𝒙
32𝑥 3 2𝑥 1 3 2𝑥 1 (5 ) ( )
𝟓
Example 2: ∫ 52𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (5) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ (5) . 2𝑑𝑥 = 2 3 + 𝐶 = 𝒍𝒏𝟗−𝒍𝒏𝟐𝟓 + 𝑪
𝑙𝑛
5

Exercise 1.4
Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ 83𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
2. ∫ 6𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ 23−4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
4. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥
3𝑥
5. ∫ 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 TOPIC 5: Integration Involving Hyperbolic Functions

Integration Involving Hyperbolic Functions

HF1. ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒖 + 𝑪

HF2. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒖 + 𝑪

HF3. ∫ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝒍𝒏|𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒖| + 𝑪

HF4. ∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒖| + 𝑪

HF5. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉𝟐 𝒖𝒅𝒖 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒖 + 𝑪

HF6. ∫ 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉𝟐 𝒖𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒖 + 𝑪

HF7. ∫ 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒖𝒅𝒖 = −𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒖 + 𝑪

HF8. ∫ 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒖 + 𝑪

𝟏
Example 1. Evaluate ∫ sinh(4 + 7𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝟕 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝟒 + 𝟕𝒙) + 𝑪

𝟏
Example 2. Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝟑 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒙𝟑 +C

Exercise 1.5
Evaluate the following integrals

1. ∫ cosh(5𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
2. ∫ 3𝑥𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
coth(𝑙𝑛𝑥)
3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
4. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ8𝑥
5. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ8𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 TOPIC 6: Applications of Indefinite Integration

Applications of Indefinite Integration

A. Equation of Families of Curves

A differential equation (an equation which involves derivatives or differentials) of the

form

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

May be written in the form

𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

The variables are separated since no x’s appear on one side and no y’s appear on the
other side.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
For example, the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 by writing it as 𝑦𝑑𝑦 =
𝑥𝑑𝑥.
And by integrating both sides, the resulting equation is

𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
= +𝑪
𝟐 𝟐

Any equation of the form 𝐲 = 𝐟(𝐱) + 𝐂

may represent the equation of a family of curves having a common property.

Example 1.
Find the equation of a family of curves whose slope at any point (x, y) is twice the abscissa
of the point and find the equation of the member which passes through (2, 1).

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
By separation of variables and by integrating both sides, ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝐶
𝐴𝑡 (2, 1) 1= 4+𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐶 = −3
Thus, the specific member of the family has the equation

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑

B. Rectilinear Motion

In the study of rectilinear motion (a body which moves in a straight line), the following
definitions were encountered:
Velocity (v) = time rate of change of distance
𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
Acceleration (a) = time rate of change of velocity
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.
A body is thrown vertically upward from the ground with an initial velocity of 96 ft/sec.
Find the maximum height attained by the body.

Solution: 𝑣 > 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

𝑎 < 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 96, 𝑠=0

𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = −32 = −32 𝑑𝑣 = −32𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑣 = −32𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 96 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐶 = 96

𝑣 = −32𝑡 + 96
𝑑𝑠
= −32𝑡 + 96
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠 = (−32𝑡 + 96)𝑑𝑡

𝑠 = −16𝑡 2 + 96𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶

𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝑠 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐶 = 0
 ∴ 𝑠 = −16𝑡 2 + 96𝑡

This equation represents the distance of the body from the ground at any time t

To find the time required to reach the maximum height attained by the body, 𝑣 = 0

0 = −32𝑡 + 96 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐

Thus,
𝑠 = −16(3)2 + 96(3)

𝒔 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝒇𝒕.

Exercise 1.6

A. Find the equation of the family of curves whose slope at any point (x. y) is given and which
passes through the specified point.

1. Slope is equal to the square root of the abscissa of the point and passes through (1, 1)
1
2. Slope is 𝑥 2 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ (1, 2)
3. Slope is 𝑥√𝑦 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ (1, 9)

B. Solve the following

4. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the the ground reaches a height of 48 feet in one
second. Find how high the ball will rise.
5. With what velocity must a stone be thrown vertically upward so as to attain a maximum
height of 900 feet from its starting point.
6. An object is being dropped from the top of a 500-meter building. Find its velocity as it
strikes the ground.
Assessment:

1. Submission of copies of solutions to Exercise 1.1 up to Exercise 1.6.

2. Attendance to virtual discussion.
3. Long quiz

References:

 Anton, Howard, Bivens, Iri, Stephen and Davis (2002). Calculus, 7th Edition. Wiley

 Feliciano and Uy. Differential and Integral Calculus

 Leithold, Louis (2002). The Calculus 7.

 Peterson, Thomas (2002). Calculus with Analytic Geometry.

 https://www.toppr.com

Prepared and submitted by:

Aureluz L. Torres, PhD

[email protected]