MODULE 02

PEOPLE AND POPULATION

OVERVIEW:

Human evolution is the evolutionary process that began from the evolutionary history of
primates of genus Homo and eventually to the emergence of anatomically modern humans.

Population is all the organisms of the same species that live in a particular geographical
area.

Objectives:

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. trace the ancestry of humans.

2. identify the major/most important achievements of human evolution.

3. link evolution and population growth.

4. explain how populations increase and decrease in size; and

5. enumerate causes and issues related to inflation of human population.

HUMAN EVOLUTION

ANATOMICAL CHANGES

BIPEDALISM
Bipedialism is the basic adaptation of the hominid. It is considered to be the main cause of
skeletal changes.

Theories why evolution favored the adaptation of bipedalism:

3. liberated the hands for reaching and carrying food.

4. saved energy during movement.

5. enabled running and hunting for long distances.

6. enhanced the field of vision; and

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 7. helped avoid hyperthermia because it reduced the surface area exposed to direct
sun.

Skeletal changes brought by the evolution of bipedalism:

a) femur evolved into a slightly more angular position to shift the center of gravity
toward the geometric center of the body.

b) knee and ankle joints became increasingly robust to support weight better.

c) human vertebral column became S-shaped and the lumbar vertebrae became
shorter and wider to support the increased weight on each vertebra in the upright
position.

d) big toe moved into alignment with the other toes to help in walking forward.

e) arms and forearms shortened relative to the legs making it easier to run.

f) foramen magnum migrated under the skull, a more anterior position; and

g) the pelvic region: the long downward facing iliac blade was shortened and widened
to keep the center of gravity stable while walking. This made the birth canal smaller
and had significant effects on the process of human birth. The smaller birth canal
limits the brain size it can accommodate to get out. This prompted to give birth to
a relatively immature human offspring when compared to other primates. Brain
growth increases after birth, nurtured by the mother.

ENCEPHALIZATION
The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates.
Because of its size, it enabled social learning and language acquisition in young humans.
The temporal lobes that contain centers for language processing and the prefrontal cortex
that has been related to complex decision-making and moderating social behavior have
increased in size.

Encephalization has been tied to consumption of meat and starches and the
development of cooking. There is also a theory that intelligence increased as a response
to the need of solving social problems. Smaller mandibles and mandible muscle
attachments had allowed more room for the brain to grow.

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SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
Sexual dimorphism is when two sexes of the same species differ in characteristics
aside their sex organs. There is reduced degree of sexual dimorphism in humans. These
have been interpreted as a result of increased emphasis on pair bonding for prolonged
child-rearing. An important physiological change related to sexuality in humans was the
evolution of hidden estrus. This means that female humans are fertile year-round.

ULNAR OPPOSITION
The ulnar opposition is the contact between the thumb and the tip of the little finger
of the same hand. This feature is unique to the genus Homo. This trait facilitates precision
and power grip of the human hand.

Other changes:

a) increased importance on vision rather than smell.

b) longer developmental period for the young.

c) higher infant dependency.

d) a smaller gut.

e) faster basal metabolism.

f) loss of body hair.

g) evolution of sweat glands.

h) change in the shape of the dental arcade from being u-shaped to being parabolic.

i) development of a chin (found in Homo sapiens alone).

j) development of styloid processes; and

k) development of a descended larynx.

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RECENT HUMAN ANCESTRY
Gracile Australopithecines

• small braincases (400 to 500

cc)
• walked on two legs
• female 1 meter tall
• males 1.5 meter

Robust Australopithecines

• small brained
• larger than gracile
Australopithecus
• large bony crest
• Jaw muscle attachments
• Bipedal

Archaic humans, Genus Homo

• all African
• H. habilis
• 600 cc brain
• teeth and jaws smaller
than in Australopithecus
• taller
• less sexually dimorphic in
size

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Modern humans

• Last 100,000 years

• Biggest brain
• 2000 cc Cro-Magnon
• Today, about 1200 cc
• Higher foreheads
• Flatter faces with
prominent nose

Culture:

• Cro-Magnon, I found
buried in grave with 2
men, 1 woman, and
infant
• Animal bones, jewelry, stone tools

THE LAST SURVIVOR

Modern Homo sapiens descended from multispecies radiation of African hominids.

Many species co-existed at one time (estimated to be at least 5 species). Current evidence
of human evolution suggests that there was interbreeding with other hominins, suggesting
that the path was web-like and non-linear.

Paleontological agreement on this:

• H. sapiens are descendants of some or all of the H. ergaster/H. erectus group of

species

How and where did modern humans arise?

• Archaic humans were certainly in Africa.

• Recent humans were more widespread.

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ACTIVITY – PEOPLE AND POPULATION: HUMAN EVOLUTION

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

C. Complete a table like the one below by writing what questions about human evolution
interests you and list one evidence that answers your question.

Question about Human Evolution Possible Evidence

4. Describe at least two similarities of humans and other primates.

5. How are modern human humans different from other primates?

D. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

a) Of the discussed anatomical changes of humans, which do you think is the most
compelling?

b) In spite of the amount of evidence in human evolution, why do you think people
find it hard to accept this concept?

c) What are the survival challenges that early humans faced and how is it similar or
different to present time?

Population
Population refers to the number of individuals of one species.

DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION

• population density - refers to the number of individuals of a species per unit area or
unit volume of a habitat.
• population dispersion - refers to the pattern of dispersal of individuals across an
area of interest
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DEMOGRAPHY
Demography is the statistical study of a population, such as its density, its
distribution, and its rate of growth. Demography is dependent on mortality pattern and age
distribution.

Factors that Affect Population Size

Table 1. Birth rate and Death rate Factors

Birth rate is the number of individuals

produced per unit time.

• Births and migration into the

population increase
population size.

Death rate is the number of deaths per

unit time.

• Deaths and migrations out

of the population decrease
the population size.

Survivorship curves show the probability of dying at a given age.

Image 1 shows an example of a survivorship curve. In a group of 1000 penguins,

researchers determine how many individuals survive to a given age. This graph tells us
that, most penguins die in their first year of life.

It is also important to determine what percent of individuals survive to reproductive age,

because it only they can influence the size of the next generation.

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Image 10. Survivorship Curve

Survivorship curves follow predictable patterns:

• Type I - species that invest much energy caring for young have low death rates
early in life. Most individuals survive to reproduce.
• Type II - species have an
approximately equal
probability of dying at any
age.
• Type III - Species that
invest little energy raising
their young have high
death rates among
offspring. Few individuals
survive to reproductive
age.
Image 11. Survivorship curve patterns

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Age structure (distribution of age classes) aids in determining if a population is growing,
stable, or declining. According to the figures presented in Image 3, the white oak population
has mostly young individuals. This indicates a high potential for future growth as dying trees
may be replaced with many young trees. On the other hand, the cottonwood population
has few young individuals. This indicates that reproductive success is low. The population
size will decline if the dying trees are not replaced with young trees.

Image 12. Age structure of white oak (left) versus cottonwood (right)

NATURAL SELECTION'S INFLUENCE ON POPULATION

Population and Natural Selection

Thomas Malthus' writing, “An Essay on the Principle of Population” was one of
Charles Darwin's inspiration when he thought of “Natural Selection”. Mathus' essay
theorized that populations grow in geometric progression while food production grow in
arithmetic progression. This meant that populations grow faster than food supply,
eventually leading to food shortage.

This led Darwin to think that since the “supply” was low, but the demand was high,
organisms may try to compete for resource, and thus the early beginnings of Natural
Selection.

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Opportunistic vs. Equilibrium Species
Opportunistic species tend to show exponential growth. They are typically small organisms
that reproduce at an early age, have short life spans, and have many offspring that receive
little parental care.

• Weeds, insects, and many species with type III survivorship curves have
opportunistic life histories.

Equilibrium species tend to show logistic growth. Their population size is near the carrying
capacity. They typically reach their reproductive age slower than opportunistic species,
have longer lives, and have received extended parental care.

• Birds, large mammals, and species with type I or type II survivorship curves are
often equilibrium species.

Exponential Growth
The pattern of population growth depends upon two primary factors:

• The biotic potential; and

• Resource availability.

There are two possible patterns of growth:

• Exponential growth has a J-shape characteristic of a rapidly growing population.

• Logistic growth has an S-shape showing a stabilization of the population size.

Image 13. Exponential growth (left) versus logistic growth (right)

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Exponential Growth: Limitation
• Carrying capacity - the maximum number of individuals that the habitat can support
indefinitely
• Exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely when resources are limited (and
other factors influencing death and birth rate), then population growth levels off.
These populations follow a logistic, or S-shaped, growth model. As the population
size approaches the carrying capacity, the growth rate slows.
• In Image 4, the left side shows the seal population increasing. If this rate continues
to increase over time, the population is growing exponentially. The right side shows
a population of rotifer. Initially, the population continued to grow in numbers. As it
reaches the carrying capacity, the growth rate has slowed down and has seemed
to level off.

Factors that Regulate Population Size

Density-dependent Factors

• The effects of density-dependent factors increase as the population density rises.

• They result from interactions between organisms.
o competing among each other for space, nutrients, food, or mates
o spread of disease is easier with higher population density and the risk of
predation

Density-independent Factors

• Density-independent factors exert effects that are unrelated to population density.

o Natural disasters, such as this fire, might eliminate population in an area
without regard to population density.

The Human Population

The growth of any population, including humans, is determined by the difference

between birth rates and death rates. Image 5 illustrates that human population growth rate
was relatively slow until the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s and have been increasing
with developments in science and medicine. This rapid increase of the human population
brings legitimate concerns that humans may someday reach the Earth’s carrying capacity.

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Image 14. Human population across centuries

Factors That Influence Human Population Growth

Much of the current growth in

the human population is due to
high birth rates and low death
rates in less-developed
countries. The low birth rate in
more-developed countries may
be attributed to family planning
programs.

Image 15. Population from less-developed countries and more-developed countries

Variation of Birth and Death rates Worldwide

• Increase in population - countries with more individuals below reproductive age than
are in their reproductive years.
• Decrease in birth rates - tend to decline as economic development progresses
because of family planning programs and opportunities for women outside of the
home
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Image 16. Age structure of population of India, US, and China

In Image 7, India has a pyramid shape. It has a large dependency group that indicates
continued expansion of population. US has a stable age structure, with age groups almost
level to each other. China showed a declining population, as the age group of pre-
reproductive years’ population was less than that of the age group in reproductive years.

Population growth depends upon the reproductive characteristics of the population:

• The number of offspring per reproduction

• Chances of survival until reproductive age
• Frequency of reproduction
• Age at which reproduction begins

Will human population continue to grow exponentially?

There are two causes of overpopulation:

• Population size
• Resource consumption

The probability that a species will become extinct depends upon three primary factors:

• Size of Geographic Range

• Degree of Habitat Tolerance
• Size of Local Populations

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ACTIVITY - PEOPLE AND POPULATION: POPULATION

Instructions: Write your answers on a separate piece of paper

A. Data interpretation. Study the graph about “Women’s Education and Fertility” and
answer the questions (50-100 words each) that will follow.

Image 17. Source: Barro-Lee Educational Attainment Dataset (2015): PRB Data Sheet
2015

a) What does the graph tell you about women’s education and fertility?

b) What do you notice about the countries that have the highest number of babies (bar
location: left side of the graph/left of zero)? Highest number of years spent in education
(bar location: right side of the graph/right of zero)?

c) Which countries do you think have a J-shape pattern? S-shape?

d) Of the three survivorship curves (Type I, II, and III) which is the pattern of humans?
What made you say so?

e) Human population has continued to grow tremendously since Industrial Revolution. Is

this a density-dependent or density-independent factor? Why?

B. Choose ONE of the questions below and explain within 100-150 words. Please do not
forget to COPY the question you have chosen.

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 a) Why is the Philippines' (Metro Manila in particular) population dense? How does
this relate/align with the science we have discussed?

b) Do you see humans becoming extinct one day? Why?

c) What scenario can you see in the future when human have reached the Earth’s
carrying capacity?

Sources:

Agarwal, P. (2020). Malthusian Theory of Population. Retrieved from

https://www.intelligenteconomist.com/malthusian-theory/
Human evolution. (2020). Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolution
Human evolution. [PDF]. Retrieved from
http://www.csun.edu/~dgray/Evol322/Chapter20.pdf
Koch, D. Hall of human origins: Educator guide [PDF]. Retrieved from
https://humanorigins.si.edu/sites/default/files/HallofHumanOrigins_EducatorGu
ide.pdf
McGraw-Hill Education. (2016). Biology: The essentials.

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