Chomsky Hierarchy/Types of Grammar------5marks

Types Language Machine/Automata

Types-3 Regular grammar/RL FA-Finite automata-DFA

& NFA
Type-2 Context free grammar- Pushdown
CFG-CFL automata(PDA)
Type-1 Context sensitive Linear bound automata
grammar-CSG-CSL
Type-0 Universal grammar Turing machine-TM

Chapter: 2: Regular Expression and Finite automata

 Language: Language is defined as set of strings which are generated from sequence of symbols.
 Regular Language:---language which are accepted/identified by finite automata…
or
To define language if we are using three set of operations:
1) Union(+,/): (0+1) (0/1)==at a time we can take either 0 or 1
2) Concatenation(.): 0.1====== 01=====both the symbol at a time
3) kleenes star(*): 0*========^ or more occurenece={^,0,00,000,0000,….}
1*={^,1,11,111,1111,11111,……}
a*={^,a,aa,aaa,….} b*={^,b,bb,bbb,bbbb,…}-SET---collection of elements
 Regular Expression: It is used to express or define the regular language.
 Alphabet / input symbol: It is used as finite sequence of non empty symbols.

Examples of Regular Expression:

1) Binary string that generate many occurrence of 0‘s & 1’s.-- (0+1)*
2) binary string that ends with 0.- (0+1)* 0
3) binary string that start with 0.- 0(0+1)*
4) binary string that contain 0 as a substring.- (0+1)* 0 (0+1)*
5) binary string that starts with 101.- 101(0+1)*
6) binary string ends with 1101.- (0+1)*1101
7) language that contain input as {a,b} that generates string which ends with aab.-(a+b)*aab
8) ) language that contain input as {a,b} that generates string which conatains abab.- (a+b)* abab(a+b)*
9) a string of binary that contains odd number of 1’s.- 010 , 0111 , 1110101,1

(0* 1 0* 1)* 0* 1 0* ====0* (1 0* 1 0* )*1 0* ====== 0* 1 0* (1 0* 1 0* )*

10) a string of binary that contains odd number of 0’s.-0,0100,000,101010,

1 *0 1*(1* 01* 0)*

11) binary string that have even length of string.- (0+1)*-- 11 , 01010,11101

(00+11+10+01)*
12) binary string contain exactly two 0’s.- 00 , 1010 , 11001, 10101 ,111001111111

1*0 1*0 1*

input symbol{a,b,c} that ends with abc: set:{abc, abccabc, ……..abc}

(a+b+c)*abc -- a*b*c* {abc,aabbcc,aaaabbbccc,}

input symbol {a,b,c} that contains abcb as a substring: (a+b+c)* abcb(a+b+c)*

Langugae of C contains identifier:

character=letter=l Digit=d _

(L + _)(L+d+_)*

A string ending with 1 but not containing 00

00

11 1+ ={1,11,111,1111,…} / 1*={^,1,11,111,1111,…}

10 1+= 1.1*

01 (1+01)+ = (1+01)(1+01)*

String containging either ab or bba.

(a+b)* (ab+bba) (a+b)*

binary string 01 (0+1)* 01 (0+1)*

Binary string that begin or end with either 00 or 11

(00+11)(0+1)* + (0+1)*(00+11)

Finite automata
1) Deterministic Finite Automata(DFA)
2) Non- Deterministic Finite Automata(NFA)

1) Deterministic Finite Automata(DFA)

one state to another state if we have only one path /transition then it Is known as deterministic.

DFA= it is a 5 tupple machine

M=(Q, q0, A , ∑ , δ)

input string ends with abab:

binary string contains 0 as a substring

binary string that contain 0110

input {a,b} that contain bba

binary string that starts with 0.  {0,1} {0,01,00,0110,..}RE0(0+1)*

starts with 110.

input symbol {a,b} that starts with abba--- dead state x

Binary string that contain exactly 2 0’s.--> 1*0 1* 0 1*

string contain either ab or bba :

(11+10)*- minimum string : {11,10,^}--- note: intial state is also becomes accepted.
(00)*(11)* - {00,11,^, 000011,0011,1111}

(0+1)*(01+110) {01,110}

(1+110)*0{0, 10,1100}

Extended Transition fuction: ▲*

Transition fuction for DFA Q * E –> Q

1) for q belongs to Q , ▲*(q,^)=q

2) y belongs to E* and a belongs to E

▲*(q,ya)= ▲(▲(q,y),a)

traverse  001

▲*(A,001)= ▲(▲(A,00),1)

▲(A,00)=▲(▲(A,0),0)

= ▲(A, 0)= A

▲*(A,001)= ▲(▲(A,00),1)

= ▲(A,1)=B

string1011

Lang: binary string that ends with 101-01101

δ*(A,01101)=δ(δ(A,0110),1)
δ(A,0110)=δ(δ(A,011),0)
δ(A,011)=δ(δ(A,01),1)
δ(A,01)=δ(δ(A,0),1) =δ(A,1)=B
δ(A,011)= δ(δ(A,01),1)=δ(B,1)=B
δ(A,0110)=δ(δ(A,011),0)=δ(B,0)=C
δ*(A,01101)=δ(δ(A,0110),1)=δ(C,1) =D

Union, Intersection and Difference

1) L1: binary string does not contain 00 as a substring.

L2: binary string that ends with 01
find L1 U L2 , L1_ L2, L1-L2

Ex: L1: binary string ends with 01.

L2: Binary string contains odd number of 1’s.
Find L1UL2, L1∩L2 & L1-L2.
 NFA-Non deterministic Finite automata
five tupple

Subset Construction Method: (Conversion from NFA to DFA)

initial state of NFA becomes initial state of DFA-state

state contains either 3 or 5 that all becomes accepting state in DFA

For-{1}……A For-{3}-H
δ(A,a)={2}…….B δ(H,a)=φ….C
δ(A,b)=φ…….C—Dead state δ(H,b)={3}…..H
For-{2}-B
δ(B,a)={3,4}…..D
δ(B,b)={5}……E
For-{3,4}-D
δ(D,a)=δ(3,a)Uδ(4,a)={4}…..F
δ(D,b)={3,5}……G
For-{5}-E
δ(E,a)=φ…..C
δ(E,b)=φ……C
For-{4}-F
δ(F,a)={4}……F
δ(F,b)={5}……E
For-{3,5}-G
δ(G,a)=φ…..C
δ(G,b)={3}……H
For-{1}…..A For-{3,4}-D
δ(A,a)= {2,3}….B δ(D,a)={4}…..C
δ(A,b)={4}……C δ(D,b)={3}…….F
For-{2,3}=B For-{3}-F
δ(B,a)={4}…..C δ(F,a)={4}….C
δ(B,b)={3,4}…..D δ(F,b)={3}…..F
For-{4}-C
δ(C,a)=φ…….E
δ(C,b)=φ…..E
Q a b - defines initial state , + ,*,circle defines accepting state transition table
-A B C
B C D
+C* E E
+D* C F
E E E
F C F
 Convert the following NFA into DFA using subset construction method.

Q a b
1 2 5
2 φ 3
3 4 3
4 3,5 φ
5* φ 1
For-{1}…..A For-{3,5}-G
δ(A,a)={2}…..B δ(G,a)={4}……F
δ(A,b)={5}….C δ(G,b)={1,3}={3,1}……H
For-{2}-B For-{1,3}-H
δ(B,a)=φ…..D δ(H,a)={2,4}…….I
δ(B,b)={3}….E δ(H,b)={3,5}………G
For-{5}-C For-{2,4}-I
δ(C,a)=φ…….D δ(I,a)={3,5}……..G
δ(C,b)={1}……..A δ(I,b)={3}……..E
For-{3}-E
δ(E,a)={4}……F
δ(E,b)={3}……E
For-{4}-F
δ(F,a)={3,5}….G
δ(F,b)=φ…..D
Q a b
1 2 5
2 φ 3
3 4 3
4 3,5 φ
5* φ 1

Shortcut method for converting NFA to DFA

a b
{1}-A {2} {5}
{2}-B φ {3}
{5}-C φ 1
{3}-D 4 3
{4}-E {3,5} φ
{3,5}-F 4 {1,3}
{1,3}-G {2,4} {3,5}
{2,4}-H {3,5} {3}
φ-I

Difference between NFA and DFA

NFA DFA
Non deterministic---for each input symbol there are Deterministic- for each symbol there is only one transition
multiple transition
δ: Q* ∑2Q δ: Q*∑Q
DFA NFA NFA- ^
∑-{0,1} ∑-{0,1} ∑-{0,1,^}

M=(Q,q0,A,∑,δ) M=(Q,q0,A,∑,δ) M=(Q,q0,A,∑,δ)

δ: Q*∑Q δ: Q*∑2Q δ: (Q*∑U{^})2Q

It is more restrictive less restrictive less restrictive=NFA with null transition

each input symbol contain one each input symbol multiple transiton each input symbol multiple transiton &
transition also contain null transion

Examples:

1) Union : a+b

Convert NFA-^ to DFA: NFA-^ to NFA - Subset construction method to convert NFA- DFA
 Convert The following NFA-^ into DFA:
Transition table:

Q 0 1 ^
A A φ B
B C φ D
C φ B φ
+D* D φ φ
that already given. Accepting state in NFA === Accepting state NFA-^

total no of states in NFA ===== total no of states in NFA-^

Q ^(Q) 0 ^(0) 1 ^(1)

A {A,B,D} δ(A,0)Uδ(B,0)Uδ(D,0 {A,B,D,C} δ(A,1)Uδ(B,1)Uδ(D,1 φ
) )
{A,C,D} {φ}
B {B,D} {C,D} {C,D} φ φ
C {C} φ φ {B} {B,D}
D* {D} {D} {D} φ φ
NFA:

(0) (1)
A {A,B,D,C φ
}
B {C,D} φ
C φ {B,D}
D* {D} φ
intial state of NFA becomes initial state in DFA

Q 0 1
A=q0 {A,B,C,D}=q1 φ=q5
{A,B,C,D}=q1 {A,B,C,D}=q1 {B,D}=q2
{B,D}=q2 {C,D}=q3 φ=q5
{C,D}=q3 {D}=q4 {B,D}=q2
{D}=q4 {D}=q4 φ=q5
φ=q5 q5 q5
 NFA-^ to NFA : total no states are same
NFA---- accepting state? ----4
Q ^(Q) a ^(a) b ^(b)
1 {1,4} φ φ {2,3,5} {2,3,5}
2 {2} {3} {3} φ φ
3 {3} φ φ φ φ
4 {4} φ φ {5} {5}
5 {5} {4} {4} φ φ
NFA:
Q ^(a) ^(b)
1 φ {2,3,5}
2 {3} φ
3 φ φ
4* φ {5}
5 {4} φ

NFA to DFA Conversion: Subset construction method

Q a b
{1}=A φ=F {2,3,5}=B
{2,3,5}=B {3,4}=C φ=F
{3,4}=C φ=F {5}=D
{5}=D {4}=E φ=F
{4}=E φ=F {5}=D
φ=F
Q ^(Q) a ^(a) b ^(b)
1 {1,2,5,6} {1,3} {1,2,5,6,3} {5,7} {5,6,7}
2* {2} {3} {3} φ φ
3 {3} φ φ {4} {4}
4 {4} φ φ {2} {2}
5 {5,6} φ φ {5,7} {5,6,7}
6* {6} φ φ {7} {7}
7 {7} {6} {6} φ φ
NFA:
Q ^(a) ^(b)
1 {1,2,5,6,3} {5,6,7}
2* {3} φ
3 φ {4}
4 φ {2}
5 φ {5,6,7}
6* φ {7}
7 {6} φ
NFA to DFA Conversion:
Q a b
1 {1,2,5,6,3} {5,6,7}
{1,2,5,6,3} {1,2,5,6,3} {4,5,6,7}
{5,6,7} {6} {5,6,7}
{4,5,6,7} {6} {2,5,6,7}
{6} φ {7}
{2,5,6,7} {3,6} {5,6,7}
{7} {6} φ
{3,6} {φ} {4,7}
{4,7} {6} {2}
{2} {3} φ
3 φ 4
4 φ 2
φ φ φ
MINIMIZATION of DFA/ Optimization of DFA
two groups: 1) Accepting states 2) Non accepting states

Q 0 1 0th partition / equivalence 0 : {Accepting}{NA}: {q1,q2,q4} {q0,q3,q5}

q0 q3 q1 1st partition:
q1* q2 q5
q2* q2 q5 Q 01 Q 0 Q 1
q3 q0 q4 q1 q2 q5 q0 q3 q0 q1
q4* q2 q5 q2 q2 q5 q3 q0 q3 q4
q5 q5 q5
q4 q2 q5 all in same group q5 q5 same group q5 q5
{q0,q3} {q5} {q1,q2,q4}
2nd partition:
Q 0 1 Q 0 Q 1
q1 q2 q5 q0 q3 q0 q1
q2 q2 q5 q3 q0 q3 q4
q4 q2 q5 all in same group
Furthur partition is not possible
final partition : {q0,q3} {q5} {q1,q2,q4}
Transition table:

Q a b
1 2 3
2 3 5
3 4 3
4 3 5
5* 2 5

0th partition: {1,2,3,4} {5}

1st partition:
Q a Q b
1 2 1 3
2 3 2 5
3 4 3 3
4 3 4 5 partition: {1,3} {2,4} {5}
nd
2 partition:
Q a Q b
1 2 1 3
3 4 3 3
---------
Q a Q b
2 3 2 5
4 3 4 5
Furthur partition is not possible: final: {1,3} {2,4} {5}
 Q 0 1
q0 q1 q3
q1 q0 q3
q2 q1 q4
q3* q5 q5
q4 q3 q3
q5* q5 q5

0 th : {q0,q1,q2,q4}{q3,q5}
Q 0
q0 q1
q1 q0
q2 q1
q4 q3
{q0,q1,q2}{q4} 1st partition is complete when all group a’s & b’s transition are completed.
Q 1
q0 q3
q1 q3
q2 q4
{q0,q1}{q2}{q4}{q3,q5}
2nd partition:
Q 0
q0 q1
q1 q0

Q 1
q0 q3
q1 q3
Furthur partition is not possible: Final: {q0,q1}{q2}{q4}{q3,q5}
Convert the following DFA into minimized DFA
Q 0 1 0th partition: {q2,q5,q8} {q0,q1,q3,q4,q6,q7}

q0 q1 q4
q1 q2 q5
q2* q3 q7
q3 q4 q7
q4 q5 q8
q5* q6 q1
q6 q7 q1

q7 q8 q2

q8* q0 q4

q2,q5,q8} {q0,q1,q3,q4,q6,q7}
1st partition:
Q 0 1
q2* q3 q7
q5* q6 q1
q8* q0 q4

Q 0 1
q0 q1 q4
q1 q2 q5
q3 q4 q7
q4 q5 q8
q6 q7 q1

q7 q8 q2
{q0,q3,q6}{q1,q4,q7}{q2,q5,q8}
2nd partition:
Furthur partition is not possible: {q0,q3,q6}{q1,q4,q7}{q2,q5,q8}
Chapter:1:

SET: {….} collection of elements

{2,1,3,4,5}
Union: A={1,2,3} B={4,5,6}
={1,2,3,4,5,6}
Intersection : A={1,2,3} B ={3,2,5}
={2,3}
A-B={1}
A’, U={1,2,3,4,5}
A’={4,5}
Fuction F(x)=X2

F(x)= 2x+3
RR+
one to one??? yes
given fuction onto

Set A Set B
1 5
-1 1
2 7

Condition Onto one to one

RR No No
R+R No Yes
RR+ Yes No
R+R+ Yes Yes

Relation:
A={1,2,3}
={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3)..}
Equivalence:
1) Reflexive: R aRa: {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
2) Symmetric: if aRb then bRa : (1,2) ---- > (2,1)
3) Transitive:if aRb, bRc then aRc: (1,2) & (2,3) -(1,3)
4) all the properties satisfied then R becomes equi.
A*B={(1,3),(1,2),(2,2),(2,3)}
1)={(1,1),(3,3)}
2) ={(3,1),(2,1),(3,2)}
3)={ (1,3),(1,2),(2,2),(2,3), (1,1),(3,3), (3,1),(2,1),(3,2)}
(1,2) & (2,3) = (1,3)
(2,3) & (3,1)=(2,1)
(3,1) & (1,2)=(3,2)

R={(1,2),(1,1),(2,1)(2,2),(3,2),(3,3)}
1: reflexive
2: (2,3)
={(1,2),(1,1),(2,1)(2,2),(3,2),(3,3),(2,3)}
3: (1,2)(2,3)(1,3)
(3,2)(2,1)(3,1)
Logic:
AND OR NOT

Check the following relation is equivalence or not and make it equivalent

{(1,2),(2,3),(3,4),(5,4)}

PROOF----5 marks / 7marks

statement is to be true:
1) Direct proof
2) Contradiction: P is true----- p is false------wrong
3 is odd number: suppose 3 is even…..assumption wrong---
3) mathematical induction---equations
1) For any positive integers which are odd then prove that multiplication of this numbers is odd.
3 * 5 = 15 odd
positive integer: 2x+1
second positive integer number : 2y+1
a*b = (2x+1)*(2y+1)
= 4xy+2x+ 2y+1
=2(2xy+x+y) +1
assume 2xy+x+y =z
= 2z + 1 which is also odd

By contradiction :
Assumption: multiplication of this number is even:
2z even number = (2x+1)(2y+1)
2z=4xy+2x+2y+1
2z=2(2xy+x+y) + 1
cancel out 2 from both sides
z= 2xy + x + y +(1/2)
assumption becomes wrong, so by contradiction we can prove that….

Contradiction :
1) Output contradict first that becomes our assumption
2) proving state true: assumption becomes false or input changed
1) Prove that for any set A,B,C if A∩B=φ and C ⊆ B then A∩C=φ.
Assumption: suppose A∩C = x

A∩B=φ xis subset of A x belongs to A

x also belongs to C x is subset of C
C⊆B
x also belongs to B
input becomes flase:
A∩B=x
so our assumption becomes false
by contradict given statement true.
3) prove that √2 is irrational number
Assumption: √2 is rational number
4) For any positive integers I,j,& n , if i*j=n then either i<= √n or j<=√n.
suppose, I >√n AND j > √n
I >√n
multiplying with j at both the sides
I * j > √n * j …………..(1)
----------
j > √n 6>5 5>3  6>5>3  6>3
multiplying both the sides √n
j * √n > n……………….(2)
Combine (1) & (2)
I * j > j *√n > n
we can also write this as ,
I*j >n
so by contradiction we can prove that For any positive integers I,j,& n , if i*j=n then either i<=
√n or j<=√n.

3) mathematical induction
it has 3 steps:
1) basic step: show that the statement is true for some integer
2) hypothesis step: assume the statement is true for some integer variable k
3) Induction step: statement is true for K+1
1) Prove that p( n)=1+2+…+n= n(n+1)/2
basic step:
n=0
p(n)=1+2+…+n
p(0)=0=LHS
n(n+1)/2 =0=RHS
basic step is true
Hyothesis step:
p(n)=1+2+…+n=n(n+1)/2
let n=k
p(k)=1+2+…+k=k(k+1)/2 this is also true.
Induction step:
LHS:1+2+….+(K+1)
RHS=(k+1)(k+2)/2
LHS= 1+2+….+(K+1)
= 1+2+….+k+ (k+1)
= k(K+1)/2 + (k+1)
Prove that for integer n>=0 p(n)=12+22+…+n2= n(n+1)(2n+1)/6
basic step: n=0
p(0)=lhs=rhs=0
basic step is true
-------
Hyposthesis step:
let n=k
p(k)= 12+22+…+k2= k(k+1)(2k+1)/6 is also true.
Induction step:
lhs: 12+22+…+(k+1)2
rhs= (K+1)(k+2)(2K+3)/6
lhs= 12+22+…+(k+1)2
=12+22+…+k2+(k+1)2
Prove that for n>=0 6n-1 is divisible by 5.
n=0
60-1=1-1=0 which is divisible by 5.
-----
hypothe: 6k-1 is also divisible by 5====5x
induction step:
n=k+1
6k+1 -1
6k . 6 -1
6k .(5+1) -1
6k .5 + 6k - 1
6k .5+ 5x
5 (6k+1) which is already divisible by 5.
so the …..
Prove that 5n-2n is divisible by 3
n=0 basic step is true
n=k : 5k – 2k ===3x is also true
n=k+1
5k+1 – 2 k+1
5k.5 – 2k 2
5k.(3+2) – 2k 2
5 k 3 + 5 k 2 - 2k 2
5k 3 + 2(5k - 2k )
5k 3 + 2(3x )
3(5k+ 2x) is also divisible by 3.
Prove that for all integer n>=1 P(n)=1+4+7+…+(3n-2)=n(3n-1) / 2