02BIOTIC STUDIES (ECOSYSTEM)

BIODIVERSITY

Dfn: it is the variety of plant and animal’s life in a particular habitat.This includes land-based,
ocean-based, and fresh-water systems.

There is diversity

 within species
 between species
 and within and between the earth’s different ecosystems

ECOSYSTEM

Dfns: it is the community or group of plants in a particular physical environment to which

they have adapted and in which they can survive and reproduce.

Ecosystem refers to the links or relationships or interactions between living organisms

(biotic) and non-living organisms (abiotic) in relation to the environment.

The interactions are linked by a transfer of energy and materials (food) from one component
to another.

Ecosystems vary in size; examples include the equatorial, the Savannah and the hot desert
ecosystem.

BIOME

Dfn: it is a naturally-occurring community or group of plants and animals (flora &fauna)

living in a specific environment or habitat such as forest, grassland or desert.

SPECIES

Dfn: it is a group of similar living organisms, either plant or animal, which are capable of
breeding or fertilising, reproducing and exchanging their genetic make-up.

Types of species

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 1. Indigenous species: these species have evolved within a particular biome, and are
adapted to live in that environment in harmony or balance with other species which
are indigenous to that environment. Eg.
2. Exotic species: these have been introduced to a biome, and may either adapt, die out,
or even overrun the environment to which they have been introduced. Eg.

HABITAT DIVERSITY

Dfns: a habitat is a natural home

Diversity refers to the different biomes in which plants and animals can live, ie, cold,
frozen Polar Regions, tropical rainforests of Africa, Asia and South America.

GENETIC DIVERSITY

Dfns: the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic make-up of a species.

A Gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

Genes are carried by all organisms in their cellular make-up. The wider the gene pool in a
species, the more the diversity. This means the species is not interbred, and its chances of
adoption and survival are greater.

COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is made of two components:

The biotic component.-this is the living component which include all the living organisms
ie, plants and animals.

The abiotic component- this is the non- living component which include the soil, sunlight,
temperature, precipitation and water or moisture.

Key processes in ecosystems include the capture of light energy and carbon through
photosynthesis, the transfer of carbon and energy through food webs and the release of
nutrients and carbon through decomposition.

The living components can be producers, consumers or converters/decomposers and these

links with the abiotic elements to form a food chain.

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 ABIOTIC
ELEMENTS

CONVERTERS
PRODUCERS
DECOPMOSERS

CONSUMERS

Food chain and trophic level

Food chain:

Hyena Eagle large fish (carnivore)(mackerel)

Lion seed-eating bird small fish (carnivore)(sardine)

Zebra grain planktonic animal organisms

Grass cereal planktonic plant organisms

1. 2. 3.

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 Food web:
A food web has an inter-linked food chains. These make up the systems’s food
cycle.
A food web can be defined as the sum of total of interconnected food chains in an
ecosystem.
Trophic level:

omnivores

carnivores

herbivores

producers

Producers (Autotrophs)

These are plants or grass which manufacture their own food through the process of
photosynthesis,-(plants capture energy from light and use it to combine carbon dioxide and
water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen)

Consumers

These are animals that feed on the producers as food. Consumers can be put into two groups

Primary consumers/ herbivores- these are animals that feed on grass/plants only eg, zebras,
and gazelles.

Secondary consumers/ carnivores-these are animals that feed on other animals. They also
include omnivores –these are animals that feed on both plants and animals.

Decomposers /Converters

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These are bacteria/fungi that break plant and animal tissues back to nutrients for use by plants
(end of the cycle).

Nutrients and Energy flow in an Ecosystem

Energy as an input is provided by the sun. Plants convert solar energy into chemical energy
through photosynthesis. When animals feed on plants the chemical energy is transferred into
the animals’ heat energy and forms a continuous chain

PRODUCERS/
SUN'S ENERGY CONSUMERS DECOMPOSERS
AUTOTROPHS

Once energy is lost it cannot be recycled. Energy is lost at each stage or trophic level and it -
decreases as it flows from one level to the next as shown on the energy diagram below. Plants
get nutrients from the soil. These are stored in the plant tissues such as leaves, stems and
flowers. When tissues fall to the ground they decompose together with dead insects, animals
and animal waste. These are then in cooperated into the soil by earth worms and rainfall and
transferred into nutrients. Some nutrients may be lost through runoff as litter and some

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through leaching. Minerals may be added into the soil to become nutrients through the
weathering of parent rock.

The nitrogen cycle

Carbon cycle

TROPICAL RAINFOREST ECOSYSTEM

Location

Mainly found between 00 _100 south or north of the equator .Examples include the Congo
Basin in Africa, the Amazon basin in South America and low lands of South East of Asia.
(Brazil, Zaire and Indonesia)

Temperature characteristics (inputs)

Warm to hot temperature all year round, with an average of around 250c. Temperature is
fairly uniform throughout the year. There is very little temperature variation. Temperature
range is between 100c - 30c. High temperature is due to the position of the sun in relation to
the equatorial region i.e the equator.

Rainfall characteristics (inputs)

 Rainfall is received throughout the year ie no month without rain.

 Rainfall is largely convectional due to high evaporation during the day.
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  Annual rainfall ranges between 1500mm to 2000mm which is evenly distributed.
 A double ‘maxima ‘is experienced.

Diagram showing temperature and rainfall

Vegetation characteristics of the tropical rainforest (Outputs)

 Rain forest is the name given to the vegetation.

 It consists of a wide variety of plant species per unit area.
 Vegetation is ever green due to plenty of rainfall and idea temperature conditions.
 Tall trees with straight trunks due to rapid growth as a result of good rainfall and
temperature condition and also competition for sunlight.
 Trees have buttress roots for support/anchor the huge trees since soils are wet and
roots are shallow.
 There are a lot of climbers/lianas for support and to access sunlight.
 There is very little undergrowth due to lack of sunlight because of the continuous
canopy that gives shade to the floor.
 Flowering and fruiting does not take place in a seasonal pattern due to adequate a
rainfall and temperature.
 The vegetation is made up of four distinct layers – emergent, canopy layer, under
layer and shrub layer
 The leaves are broad and ever green to allow photosynthesis to take place.
 The vegetation is dominated by hard wood.

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Diagram showing the structure of tropical rainforest vegetation

Soil characteristics of the tropical rainforest (Outputs)

 Leached soils due to high rainfall and quick up takeof nutrients by plants.
 Humus content is low because of rapid breakdown and up take by plants as well as
leaching. Some is consumed by small creatures such as ants and termites. Bacteria
activity is very high due to high temperature and precipitation.
 Soils are light in colour due to low humus content.
 Decomposition is very fast due to high active nature of bacteria.

Animal characteristics of the T/rainforest (Outputs)

 There is a wide variety of birds and animals (species diversity) an estimated 1km2
will house
 750 tree species
 400 bird types
 150 different butterfly species

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  20 animal species
 100 different types of reptiles
 60 types of amphibians
 Tree climbing animals are more dominant.
 Nutrient cycling in the tropical rainforest ecosystem.

Importance of rainforest to people

 Source of medicines
 Tourism
 Food from fruits and wild animals
 Natural resources such as timber eg tropical hardwoods
 Favourable climate

Human Impact on the Tropical Rainforest

Deforestation (cutting down of trees) is the major problem caused by humans in the tropical
rainforests. Population increase has led to increased demand for agricultural land; land for
settlement and also the demand for fuel. This with many more causes have resulted in the
destruction of the tropical rainforests.

Causes

 Slash and burn (shifting cultivation)-the local people clear land in order to grow
crops.
 Road building-vegetation has been cleared to create roads to access the forests. This
has caused increased destruction as the forests become more accessible eg. Trans-
Amazon Highway.
 Commercial logging – commercial exploitation of wood is the major cause for forest
destruction especially in South America, East Asia and Africa. Landless people enter
the land that has been previously logged for settlement and farming.
 Cattle ranching – contributes to vegetation destruction in Central and Southern
America. In Central America two thirds of lowland tropical forest has been turned
into pasture since 1950.

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  Hydroelectric power – plenty of water has led to the development of HEP stations
and this has contributed to forest destruction.
 Farming -The government in Brazil has cleared large areas of the Amazon Rain
forest and encouraged people to move there. Farmers stay in the same area but soil
becomes infertile and nothing will grow (why?). Shifting cultivation
 Mining-Mining of iron ore, gold e.t.c. has led to destruction of rainforest e.g. The
Amazon
 Settlement- the gvt embarks on resettlement programmes to
 Relieve pressure on over-crowded areas
 To provide land to the landless people
 To improve production of both food and industrial raw materials
 To bring equitable development to all areas of the country.

THE EFFECTS OF RAINFOREST DESTRUCTION

 Ecosystem- the ecosystem is affected, the nutrient cycling process is affected because
nutrients comes from the plants and trees ie80% of the nutrients come from the plants
and trees and leaving 20% in the soil. The rainforest will never fully recover. -
Wildlife and plant life is reduced. (Upset the ecosystem)
 Soil erosion- Removal of vegetation left the soil exposed and this is eroded and
washed away- Removal of the top soil means little vegetation will grow.
-Soil erosion will lead to: siltation of rivers.
 -Flooding as soil is deposited in rivers bed reducing its capacity to hold more water.
- Lots of natural resource for ever.
 Global warming- when rainforest are cleared and burnt they no longer absorb carbon
dioxide. This means more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

SAVANNA ECOSYSTEM

LOCATION

 Found between latitudes 5O-15O north and south off the equator
 It is mainly found between the Tropical rainforest and the hot desert ecosystems.
 Examples include parts of Central Africa e.g. Kenya, Southern parts of Africa e.g.
Zimbabwe, Zambia, the North and East of South America (Brazil).

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CHARACTERISTICS

RAINFALL AND HUMIDITY

 The areas receive seasonal rainfall of about 775mm per annum.

 Characterised by hot/warm rainy season and cool, dry season.
 Rainfall is mainly convectional and coincides with overhead sun over the tropics of
Capricorn in the South and the tropic of cancer in the North.
 There is variation of humidity with season.
 During summer humidity is very high due to high temperature and a lot of moisture
(rain).
 During winter humidity is very low due to low rates of evaporation and rain fall.

TEMPERATURE

 High temperature in summer which ranges from 21oC to 30oC.

 Very large temperature range of about 11OC

SAVANNA CLIMATIC GRAPH (KANO, NIGERIA)

Vegetation

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The vegetation is characterised by tall grass and short scattered trees. From savanna towards
the equator vegetation increases in size and density and desert-wards vegetation merges into
small shrubs and thorny bushes.

Examples of trees include the baobab, Mopane, Musasa e.t.c.

 -Tall grass dominates the vegetation.

 -Trees are umbrella shaped and thorn.
 -Trees have small leaves.

HOW DO TREES ADAPT TO THE SAVANNA CLIMATE (ADAPTATION)

 Trees and plants are deciduous- they shed all their leaves during the long dry season
(winter) to reduce loss of water through transpiration.
 Trees have long tap roots to search for ground water deep underground i.e. the water
table.
 Trees are umbrella shaped to reduce loss of water through evaporation from the root
surface.
 Trees have broad trunks e.g. Baobab to store excess water.
 The trees have thick, hard barks to protect themselves from fires (fire resistant)
 The grass remains dormant during the dry season.
 Trees are thorny with small leaves to minimize loss of water through transpiration.

Diagram showing savannah vegetation in summer

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SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AND NUTRIENT CYCLING

 Soils have high humus content.

 Bacteria activity is low in winter when trees lose their leaves and temperature will be
low.
 Nutrient cycling is very slow, due to slow decomposition and uptake by plants.
 Leaching is minimised due to low rainfall.

ANIMALS

 It supports large number of animals due to plenty of grass. This has led to the
development of ecotourism.
 Large antelopes, elephant e.t.c.
 Plenty of wildlife due to plenty of food, plenty of space to move and to hide, plenty
off surface water.

HOT DESERT ECOSYSTEM

# Location of deserts

Between 10° and 30° north or south of the equator – sub-tropics

At the western costs of the continent except the Sahara desert that in the north of Africa,
extends from the west coast, across the continent into south west Asia.

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Examples are: In Africa are, Sahara, Kalahari and Namibi, Atacama in S. America, Mexican
in N. America, Arabian in the Middle East and the Australian in Australia.

CAUSES OF THE FORMATION OF DESERTS

Natural causes:

 Coastlines are washed by ocean currents

 Trade winds affecting the eastern parts of continents blow in from the landmass
 Descending air in the sub-tropical high pressure that gives the anticyclonic conditions.

Climatic characteristics (inputs)

Temperatures:

 High temperatures most of the year of about 50°C

 Large diurnal 40°c and annual temperature ranges up to 20-30°C
 High temperatures during the day, and as low temperatures as 0°C due to absence of
cloud cover

Rainfall:

 Very low rainfall, usually less than 250mm/yr

 Convectional rainfall storms of two to three storms in a month and go for up to three
years with no rain.

PROCESSES:

Very limited processes due to hash climatic and soil conditions. Processes such weathering,
photosynthesis, evapotranspiration, respiration, etc

Outputs:

They are very limited due to hash climatic conditions and soil conditions, eg soils, vegetation,
animals, etc.

Vegetation characteristics and adaptation

 Long tape roots, which penetrate deep into the soil to draw water from the water table

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  Due to lack of rainfall and extreme high temperature areas are devoid of vegetation
 Vegetation consist of cactus/euphorbia
 They have succulent leaves to store water in stems leaves and roots during the long
hot dry climate.
 Trees are thorns – to reduce evapotranspiration and for protection from grazing
animals.
 Fewer plants due to hot dry climate and poor soils, ie, Scrub.
 Seeds only grow during the rainy season where there may be enough moisture for
survival
 Transpiration is reduced by waxy and needle-shaped leaves
 Stomata are closed during the day to reduce evapotranspiration rates and open at
night.

Animals

 Burrowing animals mainly lizards which can hide in holes during the day when
temperature is high and become active at night.
 Limited wildlife due to scarcity of food and water.

Adaptation

 Camels has padded feet, flattened nostrils, humps, spinky hairs to cool the body
 Shrew is a little mouse-like animal with long snouts to dig up insects (their main
food)
 Scorpions has hard shell surfaces that protect against blistering sun
 Gemsbok – a large animal that can survive on very little water. They eat nara melons,
bulbs and roots which they dig up with their foot hooves

SOILS (output)

These are poor, lack of humus due to lack of vegetation.

DISCUSS:

# The causes and effects off desertification

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# Causes, effects and solutions to the problem of soil erosion in the savannah ecosystem.

# Discuss the human effects on the savannah and Hot desert ecosystems.

# Discuss how the land reform programme in Zimbabwe affected the Savannah ecosystem.

#suggests measures to deal with the effects of the land- reform programme on the Savannah
ecosystem in Zimbabwe.

Vegetation Found in Desert

There is sparse vegetation characterised by scrub.

Limited types of plants are found in desert due to the lack of favourable conditions and
resources. It comprises plants that have modified or undergone adaptations in order to survive
in the desert. These plants are known as xerophytes. The following are the vegetation
adaptations found in deserts all over the world:

These plants are usually smaller in order to prevent water loss from surfaces.
They have little or no leaves, but, instead have thorns.
The leaves of some plants are fleshy as they contain aqueous tissue.
Some plants have very long roots to get moisture deep under the ground.
Some plants remain dormant during dry periods and come to life when water is available.
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF ECOSYSTEMS

It helps to ensure conservation of the environment and its ecosystems.this can be achieved in
a number of ways:

 Education – make people aware of the links between environment and ecosystems
 Legislation- use of laws to control use of resources, eg , on stream bank cultivation,
burning of grass, cutting down of trees
 Substitution of resources- copper can be replaced by aluminium in some electronics,
and metals with some plastics such as PVC
 Technology- improved mining technology can help to exploit low grade ore, which
might otherwise have been mined and just left at the surface
 Waste disposal- better disposal of waste through recycling, incineration or birning and
sanitary land filling should be encouraged. Handling waste at the production point and
not at the end point through use of sophisticated technology.

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SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION

Factors affecting soil erosion:

Human- related factors:

 Population pressure
 Extension of farming land
 Overgrazing
 A high demand of fuel wood leading to extensive deforestation
 Poor conservation practices
 Poor methods of farming
 The unequal distribution and use of land among various groups
 Overcultivation

PHYSICAL FACTORS

 Easily –eroded soils such as the sodic and granite derived soils
 Steep slopes
 Bare rock surfaces which promote runoff
 Low vegetation cover
 Wildlife pressure
 Intensity of rainfall

EFFECTS OF EROSION ON AGRICULTURAL LAND

 Siltation of water bodies leading to water shortages for plants and livestock
 The development of gullies reduces available farm lands
 Erosion removes soil nutrients
 River depth is reduced by siltation, this may lead to destruction of plants by flooding
 High costs may be incurred in trying to restore soil fertility and soil cover lost
 Restricted crop root development results due to shallow soils
 A low water –holding capacity of the soil becomes evident

SOIL CONSERVATION

Soil conservation involves the proper management and farming practices needed to look after
soil for long term.

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The methods of soil conservation are usually guided by the causes of its erosion in the
affected area.

Measures to promote soil conservation are:

 Educating people on dangers of deforestation, overgrazing, monoculture etc.

 Terracing the land in areas of steep slope
 Contour ploughing
 Afforestation and reforestation
 Controlled grazing
 Destocking
 Practising mixed farming and crop rotation
 Gulley reclaimation or prevention
 Prevention of veld fires
 Creating wind breakes
 Ploughing at least 30m away from the river banks

WETLANDS

Dfn: these are marshy areas with water that is either static or gently flowing

In Southern Africa they are known as Dambos or vleis and they cover over 1.3 million ha in
Zimbabwe

Examples of natural wetlands: Okavango swamp in Botwana, lake Malawi and Chauta in
Malawi, areas along Zambezi.

Exampleof artificial wetlands: Kariba, Mutirikwe, Cahora Bassa, etc

Importance Of Wetlands

 They can help filter pollutants by trapping them and absorbing them as nutrients
 They trap silt eroded by river and prevent it being washed out to sea
 They slow down run-off storms, their plants bind silt together and they protect
shorelines from wave erosion
 They are natural sheltered breeding grounds and hatcheries for fish

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  They are the habitat of many other animals which are becoming endangered as
wetlands are increasingly under threat. The black rhino, lechwe, and a variety of birds
depends on wetlands
 Wetlands help soak up rain waters, and slow down floodwaters
 They can be used to grow wild rice
 They are beautiful and unique places of interests to wildlife enthusiasts bird watchers
and artists
 They provide grazing pasture for animals during dry season
 They are sources of water for various purposes
 They are responsible for carbon sequestration and sinking (removing carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere and stores it in plants along the wetlands).

CONSERVATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

 Terracing
 Use alternative sources of energy
 Destocking
 Use of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS):
- Rain dancing and music under specific trees such as Mibvumira and Msasa.
Certain trees can be set aside as rain sanctuaries where they serve as homes for
the rain spirits
- Burial places, where the ancestral spirits of clans now resides, using these
places for anything other than paying respect is considered as discretion
- Sacred water bodies and animal must be respected. In order to do this,
conservationists must work together with local people to understand the
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) before taking any action.

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION

 Gully reclamation:
- Gully filling with soil stones or rocks and plants
- Diversion of barriers- establishing routes for flooded water
- Proper drainage- establish proper channels for water to run along channels
 Grass planting

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 Tree planting

BENEFITS OF ECOSYSTEMS

 Raw materials such as timber and animal

 Carbon sinks
 Oxygen
 Fruits and honey
 Soil erosion reduction
 Humus for good soils
 Medicines
 Increased precipitation
 Read more #

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