Anatomy and Physiology

Cells and Tissues

Key/Legend:
Bold - word emphasis
Pink - important phrases
Purple - side comments

I. CELL ANATOMY
A. SIX LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
● C​HEMICALS, ​O​RGANELLES, ​C​ELLS, ​T​ISSUES, ​O​RGANS, ​O​RGAN
SYSTEMS, ​O​RGANISM
● CELL ​- is a microscopic unit made up of a bubble of fatty
material filled with a water-based mixture of molecules and
tiny particles
- Simplest building blocks of matter
- basic unit of life
a) GENERALIZED CELL​ - is one that has many cell features that are not all
found in a single natural cell.

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 Five functions of the cell:
(1) Cell metabolism and energy use
(2) Synthesis of molecules
(3) Communication
(4) Reproduction and Inheritance

ORGANELLES​ - parts of any cell (meaning small organs)

- Specialized structures in cells that perform
specific functions.
● Example: ​nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
PARTS OF THE CELL:
1. CELL MEMBRANE/PLASMA MEMBRANE ​- the outermost
component of the cell
- it is composed of a double layer or ​bilayer of phospholipid
molecules​ embedded with other molecules
- it involves ​transport and communication​ between the inside and
outside of the cell.
- structure that encloses the cytoplasm
- acts as a selective barrier
- forms a boundary between material inside and outside cell
● EXTRACELLULAR ​- outside the cell
● INTRACELLULAR ​- inside the cell

THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL:

(a) 2 major types of molecule:
(i) Phospholipids
(ii) Proteins
(b) Is the model used to describe the cell membrane structure
(c) contains cholesterol, protein and carbohydrates which is
integrated to form phospholipid bilayer (2 layers)
(d) This phospholipid bilayer has two regions, a ​polar​ and a
nonpolar molecule​.
POLAR HEAD, ​the phosphate group is negatively charged, making
the head polar and hydrophilic or “water loving”

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 The lipid tails, on the other hand, are uncharged, or nonpolar,
and​ are hydrophobic or “water fearing”
The cell membrane has ​selective permeability​, allows only
substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are ​found
in higher concentrations inside the cell.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are​ found in
higher concentrations outside the cell.
CYTOPLASM ​- the material enclosed by the cell membrane,
includes both organelles and the liquid inside the cell.​ Jelly-like
substance that holds organelles.
NUCLEUS​ - is ​double-walled,​ a large bubble containing the cell’s
genetic code. The code is in the form of ​deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)​ located in strands called ​chromatin​.
NUCLEOLUS​ - ​tiny nucleus​, is a small area within the nucleus for the
synthesis of ​ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)​.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)​ - is a network of membranous tubes
and canals winding through the interior of the cell.
ROUGH ER​ - is speckled with tiny granules (ribosomes), transport
proteins also involved in protein synthesis.
SMOOTH ER ​- they do not transport proteins, site for lipid synthesis,
cellular detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle
cells
RIBOSOMES​ - are tiny bodies that serve as sites for protein synthesis.
GOLGI APPARATUS OR GOLGI BODIES​ - appears as a ​stack of
flattened sacs​. The apparatus receives material from the ER,
processes it, then packages it in tiny vesicles (bubbles) for possible
export from the cell. Cis and trans
MITOCHONDRIA​ - are tiny bodies similar to bacteria that serve as
sites for ATP synthesis by aerobic metabolism (energy conversion),
have an outer membrane, forming a round or oblong capsule, and
a folded inner membrane.
LYSOSOMES​ - are vesicles containing ​digestive enzymes​ that digest
foreign particles and worn cell parts.- it is ​suicidal

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 CYTOSKELETON​ - gives internal framework to the cell, consists of
protein structures that support the cell, hold organelles in place,
and enable the cell to change shape.
MICROTUBULES​ - are very tiny, hollow beams that form part of the
supporting cell skeleton, formed from protein subunits. Performs a
variety of roles, including helping to support the cytoplasm of cells,
assisting in cell division, and forming essential components of certain
organelles, such as ​cilia​ and ​flagella​.
MICROFILAMENTS​ - small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
structurally support the cytoplasm, determining cell shape. Some are
involved with cell movement.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS​ - fibrils formed from protein subunits that are
smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments. Provide mechanical support to the cell. A specific
type of intermediate filament is keratin, a protein associated with skin
cells.
CENTROSOME​ - microtubule organizing center, is a dense area of
cell fluid near the nucleus. Close to the nucleus where microtubule
formation occurs
CENTRIOLES ​- a network of microtubules called ​spindle fibers​ ​extends
from the centrosome during cell division. 9 triplets > 3 microtubules. 9
triplets = 1 centriole
MICROVILLI ​- are tiny, fingerlike projections of the cell that increase
the membrane surface area for more efficient absorption.
Specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are​ supported by
microfilaments.
CILIA​ - are numerous short, hairlike organelles that propel material
along a cell’s surface. Cylindrical structures, responsible for
movement.
FLAGELLA ​- are single long, hairlike, whiplike organelles found in the
sperm cells​ to propel them through the female reproductive tract
toward the egg.
VESICLES ​- are membranous bubbles that may be formed by the
Golgi bodies or by the pinching inwards of the cell membrane to
engulf external substances.

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TRANSPORT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANES - ​movement of substances into
and out of the cell may or may not expend energy (ATP). This kind of
transport can either be active or passive transport respectively.
2. Solution
a) Solute - being dissolved
b) Solvent - where solutes are suspended
(a) Sugar solute, water solvent
3. PASSIVE ​- are those that require ​no​ metabolic energy (ATP) from
the cell but rely solely on the ​physical properties of the substances
themselves​.
a) DIFFUSION​ - the net movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
(i) A difference in concentration in a solution
composed of a solute and a solvent. In order for
ions to move between different concentrations in
a solution.
(ii) This movement across two points usually needs
energy to balance concentration gradient.
(iii) Lipid soluble substances​ - can diffuse directly
through the phospholipid bilayer. EX: ​oxygen,
carbon dioxide, steroids
(iv) Water soluble substance​s, such as ions, can diffuse
across the cell membrane only by passing through
cell membrane channels. EX:​ ions, sodium,
potassium
(v) Ex: ​when you lit a scented candle in a room and
leave it closed, once you go inside the room, the
smell of the candle will diffuse out of the room.
(b) 2 classes of cell membrane channels:
(i) Leak channels​ - constantly allow ions to pass
through
(ii) Gated channels​ - limit the movement of ions
across the membrane by opening and closing

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(2) OSMOSIS​ - is a ​particular type of diffusion​ that happens to water
molecules from a region of​ higher water concentration to one of
lower water concentration.
(a) Osmosis​ exerts a pressure, termed ​osmotic pressure​, which
is the force required to prevent movement of water across
cell membrane.
(i) In ​diffusion​, particles move from an area of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration until
equilibrium is reached.
(ii) In ​osmosis​, a semipermeable membrane is
present, so only the solvent molecules are free to
move to equalize concentration.
(iii) Direction of movement​: determined with solution
with higher concentration
(b) Osmotic pressure​ depends on the difference of solution
concentrations inside a cell relative to outside the cell.
(c) Water can move freely across a gradient and can be
determined by concentration of solutes whether water will
move into, out of the cell or both.
(d) Concentration of a solution​ is expressed in terms of solute
concentration.
(i) Increase conc of a solution = decrease conc of
water.
(3) TONICITY ​- the ability of an extracellular solution to make water
move into or out of a cell by osmosis.
(a) A solution's tonicity is related to its ​osmolarity​, which is the
total concentration of all solutes in the solution.
(b)

Tonicity of Concentration water (outside Net movement End

solution of solute the cell) product

ISOTONIC Same as cell Same as cell none none

HYPOTONIC Less ​than cell More​ than cell Cells ​gain swell
water

HYPERTONIC More ​than cell Less ​than cell Cells ​lose plasmolysi

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 water s

(4) Carrier-Mediated Transport - moves large, water-soluble

molecules or electrically charged ions​ across the cell membrane.
- Carrier molecules​ are proteins within the cell membrane involved in
carrier-mediated transport.
- carrier -mediated transport mechanisms exhibit ​specificity​.
- Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include ​facilitated diffusion
and ​active transport.

1. Facilitated diffusion -​ does not require ATP for energy.

a. Process that ​moves substances across the cell
membrane​ from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration of that substance.
b. Movement is with the ​concentration gradient​, this
mechanism does not need to expend ATP for energy.
2. ACTIVE transport ​- are those processes that ​require​ energy
(ATP) that moves substances across the cell membrane from
regions of lower to a higher concentration​ against​ a
concentration gradient.
(a) Primary active transport -​ moves ions across a membrane
and creates a difference in charge across that
membrane, which will require ATP for transport.
(i) Sodium - Potassium pump
(a) During this transport, the ​main purpose
of this pump​ is to drive out sodium out
of the cell to take potassium inside the
cell. The ​results will be a higher
concentration of sodium (Na+ ) outside
cells and a higher concentration of
potassium (K+) inside cells.
(b) Secondary active transport - ​creation of electrochemical
gradient established by the exchange of ions via primary
active transport.
(i) Like in sodium potassium pump, since these ions
are charged, it creates electrically charged field.

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 (a) This movement is used to transport
other substances that can attach
themselves to the transport protein
through the membrane such as amino
acids and glucose.
b) Endocytosis - ​is a process that brings materials into cell using vesicles.
(a) Receptor-mediated endocytosis ​- occurs when a specific
substance binds to the receptor molecule and is
transported into the cell.
(b) Phagocytosis ​- is often used for endocytosis when solid
particles are ingested.
(c) Pinocytosis ​- has much smaller vesicles formed, and they
contain liquid rather than solid particles.
1. Receptor molecules on the cell surface bind to
molecules to be taken into the cell.
2. The receptors and the bound molecules are taken
into the cell as a vesicle is formed.
3. The vesicle membrane fuses and the vesicle
separates from the cell membrane.
c) Exocytosis - ​involves the use of membrane bound sacs called
secretory vesicles​ that accumulate materials for release from the
cell.
(a) The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse,
ultimately releasing the material by ​exocytosis.
1. A secretory vesicle formed at the golgi apparatus
moves toward the cell membrane.
2. The secretory vesicle membrane fuses with the cell
membrane.
3. The secretory vesicle’s contents are released into the
extracellular fluid.
3.

Transport method active/passive Material

transported

diffusion passive Small molecular

weight material

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 osmosis passive water

Facilitated passive Sodium,

diffusion potassium,
calcium, glucose

Primary active active sodium ,

transport potassium,
calcium

Secondary active active Amino acids,

transport lactose

phagocytosis active Large

macromolecules,
whole cells, or
cellular structures.

pinocytosis active Small molecules

(water/liquids)

Receptor active Large quantities

mediated of
endocytosis macromolecules

exocytosis active Waste materials,

proteins for the
extracellular
matrix,
neurotransmitters
4.

4. BROWNIAN MOVEMENT ​ - drives passive transport processes, causes

matter to spread or diffuse to areas where there is more room to
bounce around, is the constant movement of all particles of matter
5. SOLUTION MODELS:
a) ISOTONIC​ - is a comparative term that refers to a solution that has
the ​same potential osmotic pressure as the cell​. (The solution inside
and outside the cell have the same relative water concentrations)
(i) Cell will ​neither shrink or swell

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 (ii) No net movement
(iii) crenated
b) HYPERTONIC​ - a solution with a higher potential osmotic pressure
(lower water concentration) of ​surrounding solution than that of the
cytoplasm of the cell​.
(i) Water will ​pull out the water from the cell
(ii) Higher solute = lower water
(iii) shrink
c) HYPOTONIC​ - a solution with a lower osmotic pressure (higher water
concentration) of ​solutes than that of the cytoplasm of the cell.
(i) Water will move into the cell causing it to ​swell
(ii) Lower solute = greater water
(iii) lysis

6. FILTRATION​ - the movement of particles across a membrane from

an are of high pressure to an area of low pressure (down a
hydrostatic pressure gradient)​
B. Cellular Functions
1. Organization - ​they separate internal body fluids from the countless
microorganisms that grow on body surfaces, including the lining of
certain tracts, or passageways.
2. Metabolism - ​energy released during metabolism is used for cell
activities, such as the synthesis of new molecules, muscle
contraction, and heat production, which helps maintain body
temperature.
a) Anabolism - ​smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger,
more complex substance.
b) Catabolism - ​larger more complex substances are broken down into
smaller simpler molecules.
3. Synthesis of Molecules - ​cells synthesize various types of molecules,
including ​proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.
4. Communication - ​cells produce and receive chemical and
electrical signals that ​allow them to communicate with one
another. (hormones)

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 a) Example - ​ nerve cells communicate with one another with muscle
cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
5. Reproduction and Inheritance - ​is the formation of a new organism
from parent organisms.

C. Gene Expression
● DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid​ contains information that directs
protein synthesis
● Each ​protein​ consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and
a nitrogenous base to form a nucleotide.
● Each DNA has a specific binding to another nucleotide in order to
form two nucleotide strands.
● These two strands are connected and resembles a ​ladder (helix)
and are twisted around its long axis.
● Is protein synthesis, ​involves transcription and translation.
● Transcription​ involves copying DNA into messenger RNA
● Translation ​involves messenger RNA being used to produce a
protein.

1. Transcription
a. takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
b. ​Dna determines the structure of mRNA through ​transcription​.

REMEMBER: APPLES ​in ​TREES​, ​CAR​ in ​GARAGES.

DNA nucleotides RNA nucleotides

thymine adenine

adenine uracil

cytosine guanine

guanine cytosine
2. Translation
a. ​Involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein;
happens in cytoplasm​.

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 b. As the DNA splits, RNA strand will exit the nucleus through the
nuclear pores and attaches to ribosomes where protein are
synthesizes.
c. Decoding of mRNAs​ are being translated in a group of three called
codons.
i. Transfer RNA (tRNA)​ transport specific amino acid from
cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA complex initiates
formation of polypeptide chain (initiation).
ii. There are codons that either start or stops the construction of
protein.
iii. AUG​, starts the beginning of a protein and continue to add
nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA with the use of RNA
polymerase (elongation)
iv. When the polymerase reaches its end, ​stop codons (UAA,
UAG,UGA)​ will mark the end of the protein (termination).
v. When an ​alteration​ happens during this translation, gene
mutation happens

II. THE CELL’S LIFE CYCLE​ -

a) is ​a sequence of cells life cycle​ resulting from ​replication of DNA
after giving out two identical chromatids and form one chromosome
joined together by a centromere.
b) Cell division​ occurs to increase the number of cells and/or replace
damaged or dying ones.
B. INTERPHASE​ - is ​not ​a phase of Mitosis but is the period between cell
divisions, ​chromatin​ (DNA) replicates during interphase (forming two sister
chromatids​ joined at a ​centromere​). ​A non dividing phase
1. G0 Phase ​- nondividing, cells which will never divide are said to be
in this phase. Where cells stopped dividing and are resting
2. G1 or Gap 1 Phase​ - the cell perform its normal function, growth
preparation of DNA replication.
3. S or Synthesis Phase​ - DNA replication happens in this phase
4. G2 or Gap 2 Phase ​- ​double checks the duplicated chromosomes
for integrity and make repairs when needed before going to

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 mitosis. centrosomes have duplicated. ​Chromatin is condensing
into chromosomes​ and the ​nuclear envelope is fragmenting.​

5.
C. MITOSIS ​- ​cell dividing phase
D. PROPHASE ​- ​first ​phase of Mitosis, c
​ hromatin condenses​ to form visible
chromosomes and nuclear membrane dissolves.

1.
E. METAPHASE​ - period during which the chromosomes (each a pair of
replicated chromatids joined at a centromere) arrange themselves singly
as a thin sheet along the cell’s equator, ​centrosomes align at the center of
the cell
1. METAPHASE PLATE or EQUATOR ​- the center of the cell in ​metaphase
2. 46 chromosomes

3.
F. ANAPHASE ​- the phase during which the chromatids split at the
centromere, the centromeres split as the sister chromatids separate and
move towards the opposite poles
1. 92 chromosomes

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 2.
G. TELOPHASE ​- It is characterized by the formation of two new daughter
nuclei at either end of the dividing cell.
1. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus form at each pole
2. Chromosomes decondense - uncoil to form long chromatin strands
3. Spindle fibers disintegrates

4.
H. CYTOKINESIS
a) is the division of the cytoplasm. It accompanies mitosis in most cells
but not all. ​When mitosis occurs but cytokinesis doesn’t, the result is a
multinucleated cell​.
b) Is where ​microfilaments cleaves/split these two daughter cells.
c) ​One of these cell will enter its own cell cycle to grow and divide for
future and the other transforms into a functional cell, where they
replace “old” cell.
I. DIFFERENTIATION
a) After a cell enters to cytokinesis, they produce 2 daughter cells, one
of which enter its own cell cycle and the other into ​differentiation​; a
process where cells develop into their specialized structures and
functions.

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 (i) Ex: A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic divisions
occur to give the trillions of cells of the body.
J. APOPTOSIS
a) Also known as cell programmed death, is a normal process by which
cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
(i) Ex: in the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the developing
fingers and toes.
(ii) In some adult tissues, apoptosis ​eliminates excess
cells​ to maintain a constant number of cells within
the tissue.
K. CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING
1. EXISTENCE OF CELLULAR CLOCK ​- Cells lose their capacity for
division, their function gradually starts to degenerate and
eventually dies or enters senescence.
2. PRESENCE OF DEATH GENES​ - Cells deteriorate due to activation of
internal coding signal.
3. DNA DAMAGE ​- Disruptions with nucleotides coding cell traits.
4. FORMATION OF FREE RADICALS​ - Mutagens such as reactive oxygen
species (ROS) or UV radiation can damage cells and the cellular
processes of making copies of DNA will make mistakes leading to
changes in the DNA sequence.
5. MITOCHONDRIAL DAMAGE​ - They eventually enter senescence
organelle producing ATP can deteriorate which is critical for a cell
to function.
L. TUMORS
a) ​Are abnormal proliferation or rapid increase of cells. This happens
because of ​cellular problems occurring in cell cycle.
b) Tumors can either be ​benign or malignant (cancer)​. Usually,
malignant tumors can spread (metastasis).

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 M. SUMMARY​:

III. TISSUES
A. Are masses of similar cells (and their ​extracellular matrix ​- where tissues are
embedded) that combine with other tissues to form ​membranes/organs
B. Systematic study of tissue types - ​histology
C. Based on differences in structure and function
D. Group of cells with similar structure and function, plus the extracellular
substance surrounding them.
IV. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
A. Can have either of two basic roles: covering/lining or glandular that
protects the body both outside, and inside
1. COVERING​ - can be found in sheets that cover body structures (​as
in the outer layer of the skin​) or line body spaces (​as in the lining of
the stomach)​ .
a) One side is always exposed or free to face outward (covering) or
inward (lining)
b) Since cells form continuous sheet, held together very tightly and
have very little matrix (​extracellular material​)
c) Basement membrane​ - nonfree face of epithelial sheet attached to
underlying connective tissue

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 (a) Thin, gluelike layer that holds epithelium in place while
remaining highly permeable to water and other
substances
d) Mostly composed of cells
e) Covers body surfaces
f) Distinct cell surfaces
(1) free /apical - no attachment
(2) Lateral - attached to cells
(3) Basal - attached to basement membrane/ also attached to cells
g) Cell and matrix connections
h) Nonvascular - does not have it owns blood supply
i) Capable of regeneration
(1) ​FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
1. ​Protects underlying structures
2. Acts as a barrier (skin)
3. Permits passage of substances (evident in lungs)
4. Secretes substances (cells in lungs that produce
mucus)
5. Absorption of substances. (intestine)
B. CLASSIFICATION - ​identified by both the number of layers and the shape
of the cells in the upper layers; ​8 basic types​ of epithelium
1. Number of Layers
a) SIMPLE​ - all tissues w/ one layer (​stratum​) of cells
b) STRATIFIED​ - includes epithelia w/ more than one layer of cells
c) PSEUDOSTRATIFIED ​- “​false stratified​” looks stratified but is really one
layer (basically don’t assume daw; not everything is what it seems
lol). Illusion is caused by the way cells seem to be pushed
together​, w/ some nuclei pushed into upper portion of cell and
nuclei of other cells located in bottom part. Nuclei then seem to form
upper​ and ​lower row,​ giving illusion of two rows, look like multilayered
but are single layered and has tall appearance.
(1) Ciliated ​- short, hairlike projections from each cell’s free surface
that propel material along epithelial surface
(2) Nonciliated​ - its not described in the book but I guess if its not
ciliated, it’s non ciliated HAHAHA

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 2. Shapes of Layers
a) SQUAMOUS ​- shaped like f​ ish scales​, cells are wider than they are tall
(when viewed in cross section). Nuclei may be absent in cross
sections (​flat​)
b) CUBOIDAL ​- roughly ​cubed-shaped​, more tall as they are wide. More
often resemble ​rounded squares (or even circles)
c) COLUMNAR ​- c
​ olumn like​ cells, taller than they are wide (when
viewed in cross section)
d) TRANSITIONAL​ - cells ​change shape​ as need arises, being
stretched/compressed into any of the 3 shapes. Subject to a great
degree of stretching and recoil. (always stratified)
3. COMMON EXAMPLES

a) SIMPLE SQUAMOUS​ - single layer of flattened cells, each w/ central

nucleus
(1) Forms ​very thin lining found in blood vessels​, ​alveoli ​(air sacs) of
lungs, and other areas where thin membranes are required
(2) Well adapted for ​lungs(diffusion)/kidneys(filtration)​ of water,
gases, and other substances.
b) STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS ​- multiple layers of cells: columnar along
basement membrane topped by cuboidal cells, then squamous
cells. ​Protect against abrasion.
(1) Divide in columnar layer and pushed upward, they’re distorted
into cuboidal then by squamous cells. Cells on surface slough
(shed) but are continually moving up from bottom layer
(2) Because of thickness and constant renewal, well adapted for
protection

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 (3) Found in outer​ part of skin and mucous linings of mouth, vagina
and esophagus
(4) Keratinized vs Non Keratinized
(a) KERATIN​ - dead upper layer cells (cuz lack of nuclei) filled
with tough waterproof materials
(b) KERATINIZED​ - thick sheet of material with no visible nuclei
along its free surface/ outer layer of skin
(i) Form ​epidermis of skin​ and has a distinct
additional layer overlying top layer of squamous
cells (no distinguishable nuclei)
(c) NONKERATINIZED​ - nucleated squamous cells along free
edge / lining the mouth for protection
(i) Has dense concentration of nuclei (of columnar
and cuboidal cells) near basement membrane
becoming less dense toward free surface
(ii) Most squamous cells near free surface should
have identifiable nuclei
c) SIMPLE CUBOIDAL ​- composed of single layer of almost cubic cells
(1) secretion​ and ​absorption
(2) Found in ​secreting organs​ (e.g. glands)
(a) Also found in ovaries
(3) Also forms kidney tubules, where it is specialized for water
reabsorption and ion movement, secretory portions of small
glands
d) STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL ​- ​Protective tissue, consists of more than one
layer of cuboidal epithelial cells
(a) absorption , secretion and protection
(2) ​Sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary glands
e) SIMPLE COLUMNAR​ - forming linings specialized for absorption and
secretion of mucous and enzymes
(1) Found in many parts of the body, e.g. l​ines portions of
reproductive, digestive, and respiratory tract and excretory ducts
Ciliated tissues including the bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus;
smooth (nonciliated tissues) are in the digestive tract bladder.

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 (2) Goblet cell​ - special cell often interspersed among other
columnar cells
(a) Resembles a wine goblet in that it has a large cuplike
vesicle that may open onto free surface
(b) Contains mucus, which ​goblet cells produce and secrete
in great quantity
(3) Mucus​ - a glycoprotein-water solution
(a) Functions: lubrication and protection of epithelial lining
(4) Mucous​ - something covered with mucus
f) CILIATED PSEUDOSTRATIFIED​ - single layer of columnar cells that all
attach to basement membrane
(1) HOWEVER: some cells are short and don’t quite reach free
surface. Nucleu are nearer basement membrane than nuclei of
tall cells, thus appearing to be two rows
(2) Found in both ciliated and nonciliated forms
(3) Found in many of the same general areas of body as simple
columnar epithelium: upper throat, upper respiratory tract and
parts of male urinary and reproductive tracts
(4) Goblet cells ​may​ be present
g) PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM ​- secrete mucous; ​ciliated
tissue moves mucous​.
(1) Ciliated tissue lines the​ trachea​ and ​much of the upper respiratory
tract
h) STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM ​- Secretes and protects.
(1) T​he male urethra​ and the ​ducts of some glands.
i) TRANSITIONAL​ - adapted for ​stretching​, found in areas subject to
great deal of elastic stress
(1) Found in lining of urinary bladder, urethra, and ureters
(2) Often has rounded cuboidal cells in top layer, has an
unorganized appearance
(3) Occasionally has 2 nuclei
V. FREE CELL SURFACES
1. Can reduce friction
2. ​Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in contact with other
cells and faces away from underlying tissues.

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 3. The free surface can be smooth or lined with microvilli or cilia.
(a) Cilia move over materials over the top of the cell.
(b) Microvilli increase surface area.
4. Nasal cavity and trachea, uterus and fallopian tube
(pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium)
(a) It has cilia to move your ovum through the fallopian tube
going to the uterus
VI. CELL CONNECTIONS
1. Cells have several structures that hold one cell to one another or to
the basement membrane.
2. These structures do three things:
(a) Mechanically bind the cells together.
(b) Help form a permeability barrier
(c) Provide a mechanism for intercellular communication.
3. Desmosomes - ​are mechanical links that bind cells together
4. Hemidesmosomes ​- are ​half desmosomes​ that anchor cells to the
basement membrane
5. Tight junctions ​- prevent the passage of materials between
epithelial cells because they completely surround each cell.
(a) Adhesion belt - weak bond than tight junction
6. Gap junctions ​- are small channels that allow small molecules and
ions to pass from one epithelial cell to an adjacent one.
VII. GLANDS
(a) Are secretory organs that secrete substances onto a
surface, into a cavity, or into the bloodstream.
(b) Are composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting
network of connective tissue.
2. Exocrine glands ​- are glands with ducts
3. Endocrine glands ​- are ductless glands
4. Simple
(a) Single, non branched duct
5. Compound
(a) Have multiple, branched ducts.
6. Glands with secretory regions (SHAPE)
(1) Tubular glands

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 (a) Which are shaped as tubules
(b) Can be straight or coiled
(2) Acinar or alveolar
(a) Sac like structure
(3) Tubuloacinar or tubulo alveolar
7. Classified according to how products leave the cell
(1) Merocrine​ - release of secretory products by exocytosis
(2) Apocrine​ - the release of secretory products as pinched off
fragments of the gland cells
(3) Holocrine​ - the shredding of the entire cell

B. FORMS GLANDS
1. Glandular epithelium​ - forms functional portions of ​exocrine​ glands
(secrete substances into ducts that empty onto epithelial surfaces)
and ​endocrine​ glands (secrete substances that diffuse into
bloodstream)
VIII. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. They act as connections among various other tissues
B. Bone, cartilage, and fibrous connective tissues actually hold parts
together or support them in some way
C. Connective tissues are the dominance of the matrix, or extracellular
material.
D. A diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the
body
E. Differs from the other three tissue types in that it consists of cells separated
from each other by abundant extracellular matrix.
(a) Cells
(b) Protein fibers
(c) Extracellular matrix
F. FUNCTIONS
1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
4. Storing compounds
5. Cushioning and insulating

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 6. Transporting
7. Protecting
G. CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS
a) The specialized cells of the various connective tissue produce the
extracellular matrix
1. Osteoblasts -​ form bone, osteocytes maintain it, and
osteoclasts break it down
2. Fibroblasts ​- are cells that form fibrous connective tissue, and
fibrocytes maintain it.
3. Chondroblasts ​- form cartilage and chondrocytes maintain it
b) Found in connective tissue​ are cells associated with the immune
system.
(1) Macrophages ​- are large cells that are capable of moving about
and ingesting foreign substances, including microorganisms in the
connective tissue.
(2) Mast cells ​- are nonmotile cells that release chemicals, such as
histamine, that promote inflammation.
H. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX ​- Has three major components
1. Protein fibers
2. Ground substance
3. Fluid
(a) PROTEIN/GROUND SUBSTANCE MATRIX​ - is extracellular
material that has ​some​ protein fibers in it but also a great
deal of non fibrous protein and other substances.
(b) Proteoglycans ​trap large quantities of water​ between the
polysaccharides, which allows them to return to their
original shape when compressed or deformed.
b) PROTEIN FIBER MATRIX ​- is extracellular material composed of many
substances but with a dominance of protein fibers.
(1) ​COLLAGEN -​ is a common protein, forming bundles of tough,
flexible fibers but resist stretching. Because they have a whitish
color, collagen fibers are often called ​white fibers​. Which
resembles microscopic ropes.
(2) ELASTIC​ - is a stretchy, fibrous protein, forms thick, single fibers in
connective tissue matrices. They are sometimes called ​yellow

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 fibers​. Have the ability to return to their original shape after being
stretched or compressed.
(3) RETICULAR​ - are very fine, short collagen fibers that branch to
form a supporting network.
(4) Categories of protein fiber-matrix connective tissues:
(a) Connective proper
(i) Loose
(a) Areolar, adipose, reticular
(ii) Dense
(a) Dense regular, dense irregular, elastic
(b) Supporting connective tissue
(i) Cartilage
(a) Elastic, hyaline, fibrocartilage
(c) Fluid connective tissue
I. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE -​ consists of relatively few protein fibers that
form a lacy network, with numerous spaces filled with ground substance
and fluid.
a) LOOSE FIBROUS (AREOLAR) ​- ​“areolar” meaning spacious​, form loose
bonds between other tissues. Example: ​under the skin​, it allows the
skin to be slid over, or pulled from, the underlying muscle to some
degree. ​Consists of collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers

(1)
2. ADIPOSE​ - is often simply called​ ​fat tissue​ ​because of its primary
function is the storage of fat (for later use or for body support). It is
actually a modified form of areolar tissue, with fat storage cells
having been filled with stored lipids and expanded into the
extracellular spaces. ​ Consists of adipocytes, which contain large
amounts of lipid of energy storage.

a)

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 3. RETICULAR ​- forms the​ framework of lymphatic tissue​, such as in the
spleen and lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the liver.

a)
J. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
a) ​Has a relatively large number of ​protein fibers​ that form thick
bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular space.
b) 2 major subcategories
(1) Collagenous
(a) Has an extracellular matrix consisting mostly of collagen
fibers.
(b) Having the collagen fibers oriented in the same direction is
termed ​dense regular
(c) Having the collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions is termed ​dense irregular

(i)
dense regular collagenous connective tissue
(ii) DENSE REGULAR​ - having regular parallel bundles
of fibers, is used for structures that require a
better-engineered connection between parts that
are pulled with great force. Example: ​tendons ​and
ligaments

(a)

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 (iii) DENSE IRREGULAR​ - having an irregular
hodgepodge of fibers, forms the lower layer of the
skin (​dermis​), much of the body’s ​fascia, ​and the
capsules ​of many organs.

(a)
(2) Elastic
(a) has abundant elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
(b) The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch and recoil.
(c) Marfan syndrome​ results from the inability to properly
maintain and form elastic fibers

(i)
DENSE REGULAR ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
K. CARTILAGE
a) Composed of chondrocytes, located in spaces called ​lacunae
within an extensive matrix.
b) The matrix gives cartilage flexibility and strength
c) Provides support, but if bent or slightly compressed, it resumes its
original shape.
d) Resilient - preteoglycans trap water
e) Heals slowly -
CARTILAGE ​- is a combination of fibers and ground substance that
gives it a rubbery quality. ​Composed of specialized cells called
chondro blasts
(1) Types of cartilage: ​HYALINE, FIBROCARTILAGE, ELASIC
(i) HYALINE ​- has a moderate amount of collagen
fiber in its matrix.

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 (ii) The ​most abundant type of cartilage​ and has
many functions, such as covering the ends of
bones, where they form joints
(iii) Provides strong support while providing pads for
shock absorption.
(iv) It is a major part of the embryonic skeleton, the
costal cartilages of the ribs, and the cartilage of
the nose, trachea, and larynx.

(a)
(v) FIBROCARTILAGE ​- has more collagen than does
hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
(vi) Is found in the disks between the vertebrae (bones
of the back) and in some joints, such as the knee
and temporomandibular (jaw) joints.

(a)
(vii) ELASTIC​ - contains elastic fibers in addition to
collagen and proteoglycans.
(viii) This is similar to hyaline cartilage but is more elastic
in nature. Its function is to maintain the shape of
the structure while allowing flexibility.

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 (a)
(b) BONE
(a) ​Is a hard connective tissue that consists
of living cells and a mineralized matrix
(b) The strength and rigidity of the
mineralized matrix enables bones to
support and protect other tissues and
organs.
(c) Its rigid extracellular matrix contains
mostly collagen fibers embedded in a
mineralized ground substance
containing hydroxyapatite
(c) 2 types of bone tissue:
(i) COMPACT​ - has a matrix of collagen fibers
encrusted with mineral crystals that give it a solid
consistency, forms larger, dense pieces of bone
matrix. More solid, with ​almost no space​ between
many thin layers of mineralized matrix

(a)
(ii) CANCELLOUS/SPONGY​ - forms thin, narrow beams
of hard bone matrix in which ​red bone marrow
can be supported. Has spaces between
trabeculae or plates of bone and therefore
resembles a sponge.

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 f) FLUID MATRIX​ - is composed of a water-based solution with a fluid
consistency.
(1) BLOOD ​- is the ​major type of fluid matrix connective tissue​. Blood
cells are suspended within the fluid plasma along with formed
elements.

(a)
(i) Erythrocytes
(a) Red blood cells, transport oxygen and
some carbon dioxide
(ii) Leukocytes
(a) White blood cells are responsible for
defending against potentially harmful
microorganisms or molecules.
(iii) Platelets
(a) Are cell fragments involved in blood
clotting
IX. MUSCLE TISSUE
A. The main function of muscle tissue is to contract, or shorten, making
movement possible.
B. Muscle contraction results from contractile proteins located within the
muscle cells
C. Composed of long, cylindrical cells called ​muscle fibers​ (living cells)
D. Types​:
1. SKELETAL​ - attached to the skeleton and move its parts.
a) Aka ​striated voluntary muscle​ because of striations (stripes) and
because of the arrangement of contractile proteins within the cells.
b) Generate heat as a byproduct of their contraction and thus
participate in​ thermal homeostasis
c) The ​striation​ is due to the regular alternation of the contractile
proteins actin and myosin, along with the structural proteins that
couple the contractile proteins to connective tissue.
d) Often have coating of fibrous connective tissue

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e) The cells are ​multinucleated​ as a result of the fusion of the many
myoblasts that fuse to form each long muscle fiber.

f)

2. CARDIAC
a) Aka ​striated involuntary muscle
b) Is the muscle of the heart
c) Are cylindrical but much shorter than skeletal muscle cells.
d) The cells of cardiac muscle, known as ​cardiomyocytes​, are ​striated
and usually have one nucleus per cell.
e) Involuntary in sense that subconscious mechanisms regulate its
contraction
f) Found ​only​ in walls of heart
g) they are often branched and connected to one another by
intercalated disks
h) Requires some features not found in other muscle types
(1) Individual fibers are branched, allowing fibers to mesh with other
cells at different layers
(2) Fused end-to-end by ​intercalated disks​ (appear as fine, dark-
sometimes purple -lines at a right angle)
(3) Branching and fusing give ability to functionally imitate a giant
cell encircling one or more chambers of the heart

i)
3. SMOOTH

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 a) No distinct striations​ and is ​involuntary
b) Found in the walls of hollow organs (e.g. digestive organs and blood
vessels)
c) Is responsible for involuntary movements in the internal organs.
d) Is responsible for a number of functions, such as moving food through
the digestive tract and emptying the urinary bladder.
e) Are ​tapered​ at each end, have a single nucleus, and are not striated
f) Spindle shaped cells

g)
E. SUMMARY

tissue histology function location

skeletal Long, cylindrical Voluntary Attached to bones

fiber, striated, many movement, and around
peripherally produces heat, entrance points to
located nuclei protects organs. body (mouth, anus)

cardiac Short, branched, Contracts to pump heart

striated, single blood
centrally located
nucleus

smooth Short, Involuntary Walls of major

spindle-shaped, no movement, moves organs and
evident striation, food, involuntary passageways.
single nucleus in control of
each fiber respiration, moves
secretions,
regulates flow of
blood in arteries by
contraction

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X. NERVOUS TISSUE
1. Composes organs of the nervous system: brain, spinal cord and
nerves
2. It is responsible for conducting action potentials
B. It is composed of 3 parts:
1. Cell body
2. Dendrites
3. Axon

C.

XI. TISSUE MEMBRANES

a) Is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a
cavity.
b) EX: body (skin), organ (pericardium), internal passageways that open
to the exterior of the body (mucosa of stomach), and the lining of
the moveable joint cavities.
B. 4 tissue membranes in the body:
1. Cutaneous
(a) Covers the body surface

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 2. Mucous
(a) Line cavities that open​ to the outside of the body, such as
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts
(b) Consist of epithelial cells​, their​ basement membrane​, and
a ​thick layer of loose connective tissue​.
(2) Functions of mucous membranes include​:
(a) Protection
(b) Absorption
(c) Secretion
3. Serous
(a) Line cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body,
such as the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
(2) Consist of three components:
(a) A layer of simple squamous epithelium
(b) Its basement membrane
(c) A delicate layer of loose connective tissue.
(3) Serous membranes have 2 layers:
(a) An outer layer that lines the body cavity call ​parietal
(b) An inner layer that covers internal organs called ​visceral
(i) Serous fluid secreted by the cells lubricates the
membrane and reduces abrasion and friction
between the two layers
4. Synovial
(a) Line the cavities of freely movable joints
(b) They are made up of only connective tissue and consist of
modified connective tissue cells.
(c) Produce synovial fluid, which makes the​ joint very slippery,
thereby reducing friction and allowing smooth movement
within the joint.
XII. TISSUE INFLAMMATION
1. Heat - calor
2. Redness -rubor
3. Swelling tumor
4. Pain - dolor
5. Loss of function - laesa function

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 a) Is usually a beneficial process occurring when tissues are damaged.
b) When viruses ​infect epithelial cells of the upper respiratory tract​,
inflammation and the symptoms of the common cold are produced.
c) Mobilizes the body’s defenses and isolates and destroys
microorganisms, foreign materials, and damaged cells so that tissue
repair can proceed.
XIII. TISSUE REPAIR
a) Involves substitution of dead cells for viable cells.
b) Can occur by regeneration or by fibrosis.
c) Regeneration​, the new cells are the same type as those that were
destroyed, and normal function is usually restored.
(a) epithelial
d) In ​fibrosis, or replacement​, a new type of tissue develops that
eventually causes scar production and the loss of some tissue
function.
(a) Heart, skeletal, mature neurons
e) Regeneration can completely repair some tissues, such as the skin
and the mucous membrane of the intestine.
f) Stem cells​ are self renewing, undifferentiated cells that continue to
divide throughout life
g) Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.
(1) Clotting​ - fresh wound cuts through the epithelium (epidermis)
and underlying connective tissue (dermis) and a clot forms
(2) Inflammation​ - approximately 1 week after the injury, a scab is
present and epithelium (new epidermis) is growing into the
wound.
(3) Proliferation and Migration​ - approximately 2 weeks after the
injury, the epithelium has grown completely into the wound, and
fibroblasts have formed granulation tissue.
(4) Remodelling​ - approximately 1 month after the injury, the wound
has completely closes, the scab has been sloughed, and the
granulation tissue is being replaced by a new connective tissue.

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