Page iii

Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering

Third Edition

John H. Mathews

California State UniversityFullerton

Russell W. Howell

Westmont College
 Page iv

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00 99 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
 Page v

Contents

Preface ix

Chapter 1 1
Complex Numbers

1
1.1 The Origin of Complex Numbers

5
1.2 The Algebra of Complex Numbers

12
1.3 The Geometry of Complex Numbers

18
1.4 The Geometry of Complex Numbers, Continued

24
1.5 The Algebra of Complex Numbers, Revisited

30
1.6 The Topology of Complex Numbers

Chapter 2 38
Complex Functions

38
2.1 Functions of a Complex Variable

41
2.2 Transformations and Linear Mappings

47
2.3 The Mappings w = zn and w = z1/n

53
2.4 Limits and Continuity

60
2.5 Branches of Functions

64
2.6 The Reciprocal Transformation w = 1/z (Prerequisite for Section 9.2)

Chapter 3 71
Analytic and Harmonic Functions

71
3.1 Differentiable Functions

76
3.2 The Cauchy-Riemann Equations
 84
3.3 Analytic Functions and Harmonic Functions

Chapter 4 95
Sequences, Series, and Julia and Mandelbrot Sets

95
4.1 Definitions and Basic Theorems for Sequences and Series

109
4.2 Power Series Functions

116
4.3 Julia and Mandelbrot Sets
 Page vi

Chapter 5 125
Elementary Functions

125
5.1 The Complex Exponential Function

132
5.2 Branches of the Complex Logarithm Function

138
5.3 Complex Exponents

143
5.4 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

152
5.5 Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Chapter 6 157
Complex Integration

157
6.1 Complex Integrals

160
6.2 Contours and Contour Integrals

175
6.3 The Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

189
6.4 The Fundamental Theorems of Integration

195
6.5 Integral Representations for Analytic Functions

6.6 The Theorems of Morera and Liouville and Some

201
Applications

Chapter 7 208
Taylor and Laurent Series

208
7.1 Uniform Convergence

214
7.2 Taylor Series Representations

223
7.3 Laurent Series Representations

232
7.4 Singularities, Zeros, and Poles
 239
7.5 Applications of Taylor and Laurent Series

Chapter 8 244
Residue Theory

244
8.1 The Residue Theorem

246
8.2 Calculation of Residues

252
8.3 Trigonometric Integrals

256
8.4 Improper Integrals of Rational Functions

260
8.5 Improper Integrals Involving Trigonometric Functions

264
8.6 Indented Contour Integrals

270
8.7 Integrands with Branch Points

274
8.8 The Argument Principle and Rouché's Theorem

Chapter 9 281
Conformal Mapping

281
9.1 Basic Properties of Conformal Mappings

287
9.2 Bilinear Transformations

294
9.3 Mappings Involving Elementary Functions

303
9.4 Mapping by Trigonometric Functions
 Page vii

Chapter 10 310
Applications of Harmonic Functions

310
10.1 Preliminaries

312
10.2 Invariance of Laplace's Equation and the Dirichlet Problem

323
10.3 Poisson's Integral Formula for the Upper Half Plane

327
10.4 Two-Dimensional Mathematical Models

329
10.5 Steady State Temperatures

342
10.6 Two-Dimensional Electrostatics

349
10.7 Two-Dimensional Fluid Flow

360
10.8 The Joukowski Airfoil

369
10.9 The Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation

380
10.10 Image of a Fluid Flow

384
10.11 Sources and Sinks

Chapter 11 397
Fourier Series and the Laplace Transform

397
11.1 Fourier Series

406
11.2 The Dirichlet Problem for the Unit Disk

412
11.3 Vibrations in Mechanical Systems

418
11.4 The Fourier Transform

422
11.5 The Laplace Transform

430
11.6 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives and Integrals
 433
11.7 Shifting Theorems and the Step Function

438
11.8 Multiplication and Division by t

441
11.9 Inverting the Laplace Transform

448
11.10 Convolution

Appendix A 456
Undergraduate Student Research Projects

Bibliography 458

Answers to Selected Problems 466

Index 477
 Preface

Approach This text is intended for undergraduate students in mathematics,

physics, and engineering. We have attempted to strike a balance between the pure
and applied aspects of complex analysis and to present concepts in a clear writing
style that is understandable to students at the junior or senior undergraduate level.
A wealth of exercises that vary in both difficulty and substance gives the text flex-
ibility. Sufficient applications are included to illustrate how complex analysis is
used in science and engineering. The use of computer graphics gives insight for
understanding that complex analysis is a computational tool of practical value. The
exercise sets offer a wide variety of choices for computational skills, theoretical
understanding, and applications that have been class tested for two editions of the
text. Student research projects are suggested throughout the text and citations are
made to the bibliography of books and journal articles.
The purpose of the first six chapters is to lay the foundations for the study of
complex analysis and develop the topics of analytic and harmonic functions, the
elementary functions, and contour integration. If the goal is to study series and the
residue calculus and applications, then Chapters 7 and 8 can be covered. If con-
formal mapping and applications of harmonic functions are desired, then Chapters
9 and 10 can be studied after Chapter 6. A new Chapter 11 on Fourier and Laplace
transforms has been added for courses that emphasize more applications.
Proofs are kept at an elementary level and are presented in a self-contained
manner that is understandable for students having a sophomore calculus back-
ground. For example, Green's theorem is included and it is used to prove the
Cauchy-Goursat theorem. The proof by Goursat is included. The development of
series is aimed at practical applications.
Features Conformal mapping is presented in a visual and geometric manner so
that compositions and images of curves and regions can be understood. Boundary
value problems for harmonic functions are first solved in the upper half-plane so
that conformal mapping by elementary functions can be used to find solutions in
other domains. The Schwarz-Christoffel formula is carefully developed and appli-
cations are given. Two-dimensional mathematical models are used for applications
in the area of ideal fluid flow, steady state temperatures and electrostatics. Computer
drawn figures accurately portray streamlines, isothermals, and equipotential curves.
New for this third edition is a historical introduction of the origin of complex
numbers in Chapter 1. An early introduction to sequences and series appears in
Chapter 4 and facilitates the definition of the exponential function via series. A new
section on the Julia and Mandelbrot sets shows how complex analysis is connected

ix
x Preface

to contemporary topics in mathematics. Many sections have been revised including

branches of functions, the elementary functions, and Taylor and Laurent series. New
material includes a section on the Joukowski airfoil and an additional chapter on
Fourier series and Laplace transforms. Modern computer-generated illustrations
have been introduced in the third edition including: Riemann surfaces, contour and
surface graphics for harmonic functions, the Dirichlet problem, streamlines in-
volving harmonic and analytic functions, and conformal mapping.
Acknowledgments We would like to express our gratitude to all the people whose
efforts contributed to the development and preparation of the first edition of this
book. We want to thank those students who used a preliminary copy of the manu-
script. Robert A. Calabretta, California State University-Fullerton, proofread the
manuscript. Charles L. Belna, Syracuse University, offered many useful suggestions
and changes. Edward G. Thurber, Biola University, used the manuscript in his
course and offered encouragement. We also want to thank Richard A. Alo, Lamar
University; Arlo Davis, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Holland Filgo, North-
eastern University; Donald Hadwin, University of New Hampshire; E. Robert Heal,
Utah State University; Melvin J. Jacobsen, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Charles
P. Luehr, University of Florida; John Trienz, United States Naval Academy; William
Trench, Drexel University; and Carroll O. Wilde, Naval Postgraduate School, for
their helpful reviews and suggestions. And we would like to express our gratitude
to all the people whose efforts contributed to the second edition of the book. Our
colleagues Vuryl Klassen, Gerald Marley, and Harris Schultz at California State
University-Fullerton; Arlo Davis, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; R. E. Wil-
liamson, Dartmouth College; Calvin Wilcox, University of Utah; Robert D. Brown,
University of Kansas; Geoffrey Price, U.S. Naval Academy; and Elgin H. Johnston,
Iowa State University.
For this third edition we thank our colleague C. Ray Rosentrater of Westmont
College for class testing the material and for making many valuable suggestions. In
addition, we thank T. E. Duncan, University of Kansas; Stuart Goldenberg, Cali-
fornia Polytechnic State University-San Luis Obispo; Michael Stob, Calvin College;
and Vencil Skarda, Brigham Young University, for reviewing the manuscript.
In production matters we wish to express our appreciation to our copy editor
Pat Steele and to the people at Wm. C. Brown Publishers, especially Mr. Daryl
Bruflodt, Developmental Editor, Mathematics and Gene Collins, Senior Production
Editor, for their assistance.
The use of computer software for symbolic computations and drawing graphs
is acknowledged by the authors. Many of the graphs in the text have been drawn
with the F(Z)™, MATLAB®, Maple™, and Mathematica™ software. We wish to
thank the people at Art Matrix for the color plate pictures in Chapter 4. The authors
have developed supplementary materials available for both IBM and Macintosh
 Preface xi

computers, involving the abovementioned software products. Instructors who use

the text may contact the authors directly for information regarding the availability
of the F(Z)™, MATLAB®, Maple™, and Mathematica™ supplements. The authors
appreciate suggestions and comments for improvements and changes to the text.
Correspondence can be made directly to the authors via surface or e-mail.
John Mathews
Dept. of Mathematics
California State University-Fullerton
Fullerton, CA 92634
[email protected]
Russell Howell
Dept. of Mathematics and Computer Science
Westmont College
Santa Barbara, CA 93108
howell @ westmont.edu
 1
Complex
Numbers

1.1 The Origin of Complex Numbers

Complex analysis can roughly be thought of as that subject which applies the ideas
of calculus to imaginary numbers. But what exactly are imaginary numbers? Usu-
ally, students learn about them in high school with introductory remarks from their
teachers along the following lines: "We can't take the square root of a negative
number. But, let's pretend we can—and since these numbers are really imaginary,
it will be convenient notationally to set i = v ^ ^ " Rules are then learned for doing
arithmetic with these numbers. The rules make sense. If i = >/--T, it stands to reason
that i2 = -1. On the other hand, it is not uncommon for students to wonder all
along whether they are really doing magic rather than mathematics.
If you ever felt that way, congratulate yourself! You're in the company of
some of the great mathematicians from the sixteenth through the nineteenth centu-
ries. They too were perplexed with the notion of roots of negative numbers. The
purpose of this section is to highlight some of the episodes in what turns out to be
a very colorful history of how imaginary numbers were introduced, investigated,
avoided, mocked, and, eventually, accepted by the mathematical community. We
intend to show you that, contrary to popular belief, there is really nothing imaginary
about "imaginary numbers" at all. In a metaphysical sense, they are just as real as
are "real numbers."
Our story begins in 1545. In that year the Italian mathematician Girolamo
Cardano published Ars Magna (The Great Art), ZL 40-chapter masterpiece in which
he gave for the first time an algebraic solution to the general cubic equation
x3, + ax2 + bx + c = 0.
His technique involved transforming this equation into what is called a depressed
cubic. This is a cubic equation without the x2 term, so that it can be written as
x3 + bx + c = 0.
Cardano knew how to handle this type of equation. Its solution had been
communicated to him by Niccolo Fontana (who, unfortunately, came to be known
as Tartaglia—the stammerer—because of a speaking disorder). The solution was
1
2 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

also independently discovered some 30 years earlier by Scipione del Ferro of Bo-
logna. Ferro and Tartaglia showed that one of the solutions to the depressed cubic
is

K J 2
V V4 27 \ 2 V4 27
This value for x could then be used to factor the depressed cubic into a linear term
and a quadratic term, the latter of which could be solved with the quadratic formula.
So, by using Tartaglia's work, and a clever transformation technique, Cardano was
able to crack what had seemed to be the impossible task of solving the general cubic
equation.
It turns out that this development eventually gave a great impetus toward the
acceptance of imaginary numbers. Roots of negative numbers, of course, had come
up earlier in the simplest of quadratic equations such as x2: + 1 = 0. The solutions
we know today as x = ±7~^~» however, were easy for mathematicians to ignore.
In Cardano's time, negative numbers were still being treated with some suspicion,
so all the more was the idea of taking square roots of them. Cardano himself, al-
though making some attempts to deal with this notion, at one point said that quan-
tities such as ^--1 were "as subtle as they are useless." Many other mathematicians
also had this view. However, in his 1572 treatise Algebra, Rafael Bombeli showed
that roots of negative numbers have great utility indeed. Consider the simple de-
pressed cubic equation JC3 — 15JC — 4 = 0. Letting b = —15 and c = —4 in the
"Ferro-Tartaglia" formula (1), we can see that one of the solutions for x is

Bombeli suspected that the two parts of x in the preceding equation could be
put in the form u + v 7 ~ l and — u + vJ—\ for some numbers u and v. Indeed,
using the well-known identity {a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b39 and blindly
pretending that roots of negative numbers obey the standard rules of algebra, we
can see that
(2) (2 + y ^ T ) 3 = 23 + 3(22) v ^ T + 3(2)0
= 8 + 127^1- 6 -
= 2 + llv^T
= 2 + 7-121.
Bombeli reasoned that if (2 + 7 - T ) 3 = 2 + 7 - 1 2 1 , it must be that 2 + 7 ~ T
= Ijl + 7 - 7 2 L Likewise, he showed - 2 + 7 ^ 1 = ^ - 2 + 7 - 1 2 1 . But then
we clearly have
(3) Ul + J^UA - ^-2 + T 1 7 ! ^ = (2 + T 3 ! ) - (-2 + T^T) = 4,

and this was a bit of a bombshell. Heretofore, mathematicians could easily scoff at
imaginary numbers when they arose as solutions to quadratic equations. With cubic
equations, they no longer had this luxury. That x = 4 was a correct solution to the
equation x3 — 15* — 4 = 0 was indisputable, as it could be checked easily. However,
to arrive at this very real solution, one was forced to detour through the uncharted
 1.1 The Origin of Complex Numbers 3

territory of ''imaginary numbers." Thus, whatever else one might say about these
numbers (which, today, we call complex numbers), their utility could no longer be
ignored.
But even this breakthrough did not authenticate complex numbers. After all,
a real number could be represented geometrically on the number line. What possible
representation could these new numbers have? In 1673 John Wallis made a stab at
a geometric picture of complex numbers that comes close to what we use today. He
was interested at the time in representing solutions to general quadratic equations,
which we shall write as x2 + 2bx + c2 = 0 so as to make the following discussion
more tractable. Using the quadratic formula, the preceding equation has solutions
2
x — -b- Jb and = -fc + JW
Wallis imagined these solutions as displacements to the left and right from
the point —b. He saw each displacement, whose value was Jb2 — c2, as the length
of the sides of the right triangles shown in Figure 1.1.

P] (-/7,0) P2 (0,0)

FIGURE 1.1 Wallis' representation of real roots of quadratics.

The points Pi and P 2 in this figure are the representations of the solutions to
our equation. This is clearly correct if b2 — c2 > 0, but how should we picture Pi
and P2 in the case when negative roots arise—i.e., when b2 — c2 < 0? Wallis
reasoned that if this happened, b would be less than c, so the lines of length b in
Figure 1.1 would no longer be able to reach all the way to the x axis. Instead, they
would stop somewhere above it, as Figure 1.2 shows. Wallis argued that P\ and P 2
should represent the geometric locations of the solutions x = — b — Jb2 — c2 and
x = — b + Jb2 — c2 in the case when b2 — c2 < 0. He evidently thought that since
b is shorter than c, it could no longer be the hypotenuse of the right triangle as it
had been earlier. The side of length c would now have to take that role.

(-b, 0) (0, 0)

FIGURE 1.2 Wallis' representation of nonreal roots of quadratics.

4 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

Wallis' method has the undesirable consequence that — J— 1 is represented

by the same point as is J^X. Nevertheless, with this interpretation, the stage was
set for thinking of complex numbers as ''points in the plane." By 1800, the great
Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler (pronounced "oiler") adopted this view con-
cerning the n solutions to the equation xn — 1 = 0. We shall learn shortly that these
solutions can be expressed as cos 6 + J^-\ sin 6 for various values of 6; Euler
thought of them as being located at the vertices of a regular polygon in the plane.
Euler was also the first to use the symbol i for V^T. Today, this notation is still
the most popular, although some electrical engineers prefer the symbol j instead so
that i can be used to represent current.
Perhaps the most influential figure in helping to bring about the acceptance of
complex numbers was the brilliant German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss,
who reinforced the utility of these numbers by using them in his several proofs of
the fundamental theorem of algebra (see Chapter 6). In an 1831 paper, he produced
a clear geometric representation of x 4- iy by identifying it with the point (x, y) in
the coordinate plane. He also described how these numbers could be added and
multiplied.
It should be noted that 1831 was not the year that saw complex numbers
transformed into legitimacy. In that same year the prolific logician Augustus De
Morgan commented in his book On the Study and Difficulties of Mathematics, "We
have shown the symbol J^a to be void of meaning, or rather self-contradictory
and absurd. Nevertheless, by means of such symbols, a part of algebra is established
which is of great utility." To be sure, De Morgan had raised some possible logical
problems with the idea of complex numbers. On the other hand, there were sufficient
answers to these problems floating around at the time. Even if De Morgan was
unaware of Gauss' paper when he wrote his book, others had done work similar to
that of Gauss as early as 1806, and the preceding quote illustrates that "raw logic"
by itself is often insufficient to sway the entire mathematical community to adopt
new ideas. Certainly, logic was a necessary ingredient in the acceptance of complex
numbers, but so too was the adoption of this logic by Gauss, Euler, and others of
"sufficient clout." As more and more mathematicians came to agree with this new
theory, it became socially more and more difficult to raise objections to it. By the
end of the nineteenth century, complex numbers were firmly entrenched. Thus, as
it is with any new mathematical or scientific theory, the acceptance of complex
numbers came through a mixture of sociocultural interactions.
But what is the theory that Gauss and so many others helped produce, and
how do we now think of complex numbers? This is the topic of the next few sections.

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.1

1. Give an argument to show that - 2 + y ^ T = ^/-2 + ,/-121.
2. Explain why cubic equations, rather than quadratic equations, played the pivotal role in
helping to obtain the acceptance of complex numbers.
3. Find all solutions to 27x3 - 9x — 2 = 0. Hint: Get an equivalent monic polynomial,
then use formula (1).
 1.2 The Algebra of Complex Numbers 5

4. By inspection, one can see that a solution to x3 - 6x + 4 = 0 is x = 2. To get an idea

of the difficulties Bombeli had in establishing identities (2) and (3) in the text, try to
show how the solution x = 2 arises when using formula (1).
5. Explain why Wallis' view of complex numbers results in - ^ ^ 1 being represented by
the same point as is y/--\. '
6. Is it possible to modify slightly Wallis' picture of complex numbers so that it ii con-
sistent with the representation we use today? To assist in your investigation of this
question, we recommend the following article: Norton, Alec, and Lotto, Benjamin,
"Complex Roots Made Visible," The College Mathematics Journal, Vol. 15 (3), June
1984, pp. 248-249.
7. Write a report on the history of complex analysis. Resources include bibliographical
items 87, 105, and 179.

1.2 The Algebra of Complex Numbers

We have seen that complex numbers came to be viewed as ordered pairs of real
numbers. That is, a complex number z is defined to be

(1) z = (x,y),
where x and y are both real numbers.
The reason we say ordered pair is because we are thinking of a point in the
plane. The point (2, 3), for example, is not the same as (3, 2). The order in which
we write x and v in equation (1) makes a difference. Clearly, then, two complex
numbers are equal if and only if their x coordinates are equal and their y coordinates
are equal. In other words,

(x, y) = (w, v) iff x = u and y = v.

(Throughout this text, iff means if and only if.)
If we are to have a meaningful number system, there needs to be a method for
combining these ordered pairs. We need to define algebraic operations in a consis-
tent way so that the sum, difference, product, and quotient of any two ordered pairs
will again be an ordered pair. The key to defining how these numbers should be
manipulated is to follow Gauss' lead and equate (x, y) with x + iy. Then, by letting
Z\ = (xi,y\) and z2 = (x2, y 2 ) be arbitrary complex numbers, we see that

z\ + zi = (xuy{) + (x2,y2)
= (*\ + iy\) + to + iyi)
= (*\ + *2) + Ky\ + yi)
= (*\ + *2. y\ + yi)-
Thus, the following should certainly make sense:

Definition for addition

(2) Z\ + z2 = (xuyi) + (x2,y2)
= (*, + x2, y\ + yi)-
6 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

Definition for subtraction

(3) z\ - z2 = (xuyi) ~ (x2,y2)
= (x{ - x2, y\ - y2).

E X A M P L E 1.1 If Z\ = (3, 7) and z2 = (5, - 6 ) , then

z\ + zi - (3, 7) + (5, - 6 ) = (8, 1) and
zx - 2 2 = ( 3 , 7 ) - ( 5 , - 6 ) = (-2,13).

At this point, it is tempting to define the product z\Zi as Z\Zt = {xxx2, yiyi)- It
turns out, however, that this is not a good definition, and you will be asked in the
problem set for this section to explain why. How, then, should products be defined?
Again, if we equate (JC, y) with x + iy and assume, for the moment, that i - V-l
makes sense (so that i2 = -1), we have
z\Zi = (xu yi)(x2, y2)
= (x[ + iy\)(x2 + iy2)
= xxx2 + ixxy2 + ixzyi + i2y\y2
= x{x2 - y{y2 + i(xiy2 + x2yx)
= (x\x2 - yiy2, xxy2 + x2yx).
Thus, it appears we are forced into the following definition.

Definition for multiplication

(4) z\z2 = (xu yx)(x2, y2)
= (x{x2 - ^,y2, xiy2 + x2y{).

E X A M P L E 1.2 If Z\ = (3, 7) and z2 = (5, - 6 ) , then

ziz2 = (3, 7)(5, - 6 ) = (15 + 42, - 1 8 + 35) = (57, 17).
Note that this is the same answer that would have been obtained if we had used the
notation z\ — 3 + li and z2 = 5 — 6/. For then
zizi = (3, 7)(5, - 6 )
= (3 + 7/)(5 - 6/)
= 15 - 18/ + 35/ - 42/ 2
= 15 - 42(-1) + (-18 + 35)/
= 57 + 17/
= (57, 17).
 1.2 The Algebra of Complex Numbers 7

Of course, it makes sense that the answer came out as we expected, since we used
the notation x + iy as motivation for our definition in the first place.

To motivate our definition for division, we will proceed along the same lines
as we did for multiplication, assuming z2 ^ 0.
Z]_ _ (*i,;yi)
zi (x2, y2)
= (x\ + iyi)
(x2 + iy2)'
At this point we need to figure out a way to be able to write the preceding quantity
in the form x + iy. To do this, we use a standard trick and multiply the numerator
and denominator by x2 — iy2. This gives
z± = (x\ + iyi) (x2 - iy2)
z2 (x2 + iy2) (x2 - iy2)

_ *\*2 + y\yi m-xiy2 + *2y\

x\ + y\ xj + y\
x{x2 + yxy2 -xxy2 + x2y\
x\ + y\ x\ + y\
Thus, we finally arrive at a rather odd definition.

Definition for division

Z\ (xuyx)
(5)
z2 (x2, y2)
{
xxx2 + yxy2 -x\y2 + *2y\ , f , n

E X A M P L E 1.3 If Z\ = (3, 7) and z2 = (5, - 6 ) , then

z\ (3,7) / 1 5 - 4 2 18 + 35\ /-27 53
z2 (5, - 6 ) \25 + 36 25 + 36/ \ 61 61
8 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

As we saw with the example for multiplication, we will also get this answer if we
use the notation x + iy:
Zx _ (3, 7)
z2 (5, - 6 )
_ 3 + li
~ 5 - 6/
_ 3 + li 5 + 6/
~~ 5 - 6/ 5 + 6/
_ 15 + 18/ + 35/ + 42/2
~ 25 + 30/ - 30/ - 36/2
_ 15 - 42 + (18 + 35)/
25 + 36
-27 53
= + —/
61 61
_ (zH *l\
~ \ 61 ' 6 1 / "

The technique most mathematicians would use to perform operations on com-

plex numbers is to appeal to the notation x + iy and perform the algebraic manip-
ulations, as we did here, rather than to apply the complicated looking definitions we
gave for those operations on ordered pairs. This is a valid procedure since the
x + iy notation was used as a guide to see how we should define the operations in
the first place. It is important to remember, however, that the x 4- iy notation is
nothing more than a convenient bookkeeping device for keeping track of how to
manipulate ordered pairs. It is the ordered pair algebraic definitions that really form
the foundation on which our complex number system is based. In fact, if you were
to program a computer to do arithmetic on complex numbers, your program would
perform calculations on ordered pairs, using exactly the definitions that we gave.
It turns out that our algebraic definitions give complex numbers all the prop-
erties we normally ascribe to the real number system. Taken together, they describe
what algebraists call afield. In formal terms, a field is a set (in this case, the complex
numbers) together with two binary operations (in this case, addition and multipli-
cation) with the following properties:
(PI) Commutative law for addition: z\ + Zi = Zi + Z\.
(P2) Associative law for addition: z\ + fe + Zs) — (zi + Zi) + Z3.
(P3) Additive identity: There is a complex number co such that z + co = z for all
complex numbers z- The number a> is obviously the ordered pair (0, 0).
(P4) Additive inverses: Given any complex number z, there is a complex
number r\ (depending on z) with the property that z + r| = (0, 0).
Obviously, if z = (x, y) = x + iy, the number r| will be
(-x, -y) = -x - iy.
 1.2 The Algebra of Complex Numbers 9

(PS) Commutative law for multiplication: z\z2 = z2Z\.

(P6) Associative law for multiplication: zAziz?) = (Z]Z2)zi.
(P7) Multiplicative identity: There is a complex number £ such that z£> = z for
all complex numbers z. It turns out that (1, 0) is the complex number £ with
this property. You will be asked to verify this in the problem set for this
section.
(P8) Multiplicative inverses: Given any complex number z other than the
number (0, 0), there is a complex number (depending on z) which we shall
denote by z~l with the property that zz~l = (1,0). Given our definition for
division, it seems reasonable that the number z~l would be z~] = —!— .
z
You will be asked to confirm this in the problem set for this section.
(P9) The distributive law: z\{z2 + Z3) = Z\Z2 + Z\Z3.
None of these properties is difficult to prove. Most of the proofs make use of
corresponding facts in the real number system. To illustrate this, we give a proof of
property PI.

Proof of the commutative law for addition Let z\ = (xu yO and

z2 ~ (*2> yi) he arbitrary complex numbers. Then,
z\ + z2 = (*i,yi) + (*2, y2)
= (X, + X2i Vi + V2)(by definition of addition of complex numbers)
= (x2 + xl9y2 + ^1) (by the commutative law for real numbers)
= (x29y2) + 0cuy\) (by definition of addition of complex numbers)
= Z2+ Z\.
The real number system can actually be thought of as a subset of our complex
number system. To see why this is the case, let us agree that since any complex
number of the form (t, 0) is on the x axis, we can identify it with the real number t.
With this correspondence, it is easy to verify that the definitions we gave for ad-
dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of complex numbers are consistent
with the corresponding operations on real numbers. For example, if x\ and x2 are
real numbers, then
X\X2 = (jti, 0)(x2, 0) (by our agreed correspondence)
= (x\X2 — 0, 0 + 0) (by definition of multiplication of complex numbers)
= (x\X2, 0) (confirming the consistency of our correspondence).
It is now time to show specifically how the symbol i relates to the quantity
y 1 7 ! . Note that
(0, 1)2 = (0, 1)(0, 1)
= (0 — 1,0 + 0) (by definition of multiplication of complex numbers)
= (-1,0)
= —1 (by our agreed correspondence).
10 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

If we use the symbol i for the point (0, 1), the preceding gives i2 = (0, 1)2 = - 1 ,
which means i = (0, 1) = J~—\. So, the next time you are having a discussion with
your friends, and they scoff when you claim that J^-\ is not imaginary, calmly put
your pencil on the point (0, 1) of the coordinate plane and ask them if there
is anything imaginary about it. When they agree there isn't, you can tell them
that this point, in fact, represents the mysterious ^f-\ in the same way that (1,0)
represents 1.
We can also see more clearly now how the notation x + iy equates to (x, y).
Using the preceding conventions, we have
/ m i /n i\/ r^ (by our previously discussed conventions,
* + ,? = (*, 0) + (0, i)(y,o) ^=p(JC>0Xetyc)
= (x, 0) + (0, y) (by definition of multiplication of complex numbers)
= (x, y) (by definition of addition of complex numbers).
Thus, we may move freely between the notations x + iy and (x, y), depending on
which is more convenient for the context in which we are working.
We close this section by discussing three standard operations on complex
numbers. Suppose z = U, y) = x + iy is a complex number. Then:
(i) The real part of z, denoted by Re(z), is the real number x.
(ii) The imaginary part of z, denoted by Im(z), is the real number y.
(iii) The conjugate of z, denoted by z, is the complex number (x, —y) = x — iy.

EXAMPLE 1.4 R e ( - 3 + 7/) = - 3 and Re[(9, 4)] = 9.

EXAMPLE 1.5 I m ( - 3 + 70 = 7 and Im[(9, 4)] = 4.

EXAMPLE 1.6 - 3 + li = - 3 - li and (9, 4) = (9, - 4 ) .

The following are some important facts relating to these operations that you
will be asked to verify in the exercises:

(6) Re(z) = i ± i .

z-z
(7) Im(z) =
2/

(8) ^ ) = ^ Xz2*0.
V zi ) z2
 1.2 The Algebra of Complex Numbers 11

(10) zizi = u zi-

(11) ! = z.
(12) Re(fe) - -Im(z).
(13) Im(iz) = Re(z).
Because of what it erroneously connotes, it is a shame that the term imaginary
is used in definition (ii). Gauss, who was successful in getting mathematicians to
adopt the phrase complex number rather than imaginary number, also suggested that
we use lateral part of z in place of imaginary part of z. Unfortunately, this sugges-
tion never caught on, and it appears we are stuck with the words history has handed
down to us.

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.2

1. Perform the required calculation and express the answer in the form a + ib.
(a) (3 - 2/) - /(4 + 50 (b) (7 - 2/)(3/ + 5)
(c) (1 + /)(2 + 0(3 + i) (d) (3 + /)/(2 + 0
(e) ( i - 1)3 (f) i5
1+2/ 4 - 3/ 2
(g) (h) (1 + 0
3-4/ 2-/
^ (4 - /)(1 ~ 3/)
(j) (1 + / x /3)(/ + J3)
- 1 + 2/
2. Find the following quantities.
(a) Re[(l + 0(2 + 0] (b) Im[(2 + i)(3 + 01

(0 Re(^f)
(e) Re[(/ - \y\
<- *H)
(0 Im[(l + i)-2]
( 1 \
(g) Re[(*i - iy\)2] (h) 1ml . 1
\*i - *Vi /
(i) Re[(*, + /y,)(x, - /y,)] (j) Im[(x, + /v,)3]
3. Verify identities (6) through (13) given at the end of this section.
4. Let z\ = Ui, Yi) and z2 = (x2, y{) be arbitrary complex numbers. Prove or disprove the
following.
(a) Re(z, + z2) = Refei) + Re(z2) (b) Re(z,z2) = Re(z,)Re(z2)
(c) Im(z, + zi) = Im(zi) + Im(z2) (d) Im(ziz2) = Im(zi)Imfe)
5. Prove that the complex number (1,0) (which, you recall, we identify with the real
number 1) is the multiplicative identity for complex numbers. Hint: Use the (ordered
pair) definition for multiplication to verify that if z = (x, y) is any complex number,
then (jc,y)(l,0) = (x, y).
6. Verify that if z = (x, y), with x and y not both 0, then z~l = —!— I i.e., z~] = —
z \ z
l (1,0)
Hint: Use the (ordered pair) definition for division to compute z~ = . Then, with
(x, y)
the result you obtained, use the (ordered pair) definition for multiplication to confirm
thatzz- 1 = (1,0).
7. Show that zz is always a real number.
12 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

8. From Exercise 6 and basic cancellation laws, it follows that z~[ = — = -:- The nu~
z zz
merator here, z, is trivial to calculate, and since the denominator zz is a real number
(Exercise 7), computing the quotient z/(zz) should be rather straightforward. Use this
fact to compute z ' if z = 2 + 3/ and again if z = 1 ~ 5/.
9. Explain why the complex number (0, 0) (which, you recall, we identify with the real
number 0) has no multiplicative inverse.
10. Let's use the symbol * for a new type of multiplication of complex numbers defined by
Z\ * Zi ~ {x\x2, y\y2)- This exercise shows why this is a bad definition.
(a) Using the definition given in property P7, state what the new multiplicative identity
would be for this new multiplication.
(b) Show that if we use this new multiplication, nonzero complex numbers of the form
(0, a) have no inverse. That is, show that if z = (0, a), there is no complex number
z~l with the property that zz~l = ¢, where C, is the multiplicative identity you found
in part (a).
11. Show, by equating the real numbers X| and x2 with (xu 0) and (x2, 0), that the complex
definition for division is consistent with the real definition for division. Hint: Mimic the
argument the text gives for multiplication.
12. Prove property P9, the distributive law for complex numbers.
13. Complex numbers are ordered pairs of real numbers. Is it possible to have a number
system for ordered triples, quadruples, etc., of real numbers? To assist in your investi-
gation of this question, we recommend bibliographical items 1, 132, 147, and 173.
14. We have made the statement that complex numbers are, in a metaphysical sense, just
as real as are real numbers. But in what sense do numbers exist? It may surprise you
that mathematicians hold a variety of views with respect to this question. Write a short
paper summarizing the various views on the theme of the existence of number.

1.3 The Geometry of Complex Numbers

Since the complex numbers are ordered pairs of real numbers, there is a one-to-one
correspondence between them and points in the plane. In this section we shall see
what effect algebraic operations on complex numbers have on their geometric
representations.
The number z = x + iy = (x, y) can be represented by a position vector in the
xy plane whose tail is at the origin and whose head is at the point (x, v). When the
xy plane is used for displaying complex numbers, it is called the complex plane, or
more simply, the z plane. Recall that Re(z) = x and lm(z) = y. Geometrically, Re(z)
is the projection of z = (x, y) onto the x axis, and Im(z) is the projection of z onto
the y axis. It makes sense, then, that the x axis is also called the real axis, and the
y axis is called the imaginary axis, as Figure 1.3 illustrates.

Imaginary axis
y
A

>^T\ I t—• x Real axis

FIGURE 1.3 The complex plane.

 1.3 The Geometry of Complex Numbers 13

Addition of complex numbers is analogous to addition of vectors in the plane.

As we saw in Section 1.2, the sum of Z\ = x\ + iy\ = (xu y\), and zi = x2 + iy2 =
(*2, yi) is (AI -f x2, y\ + V2). Hence, Z\ + Zi can be obtained vectorially by using
the parallelogram law, which Figure 1.4 illustrates.

-v [Copy of vector z{
((positioned at the tail of vector z2).

Copy of vector z2
(positioned at the tail of vector z}).

FIGURE 1.4 The sum z, + z2

The difference z\ — Zi can be represented by the displacement vector from the

point zi = {x2, v2) to the point z\ = (x\, vO, as Figure 1.5 shows.

(Copy of vector z, - z2
f [(positioned at the tail of z2).

Copy of vector -z2

(positioned at the tail of vector z,).

FIGURE 1.5 The difference z, - z2-

The modulus, or absolute value, of the complex number z = x + iy is a

nonnegative real number denoted by I z I and is given by the equation

(1) |z| = y ^ T 7 .
The number | z | is the distance between the origin and the point (x, y). The only
complex number with modulus zero is the number 0. The number z = 4 + 3/ has
modulus 5 and is pictured in Figure 1.6. The numbers | Re(z) | , | lm(z) |, and | z |
are the lengths of the sides of the right triangle OPQ, which is shown in Figure 1.7.
The inequality \z\\ < \zi\ means that the point z\ is closer to the origin than the
point z2, and it follows that
(2) |JC| - I Re(z) I < | z | and |;y| = | Im(z) | < | z | .
14 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

);
4 P = (x,y) = z
4(o,>')
Um(z)l

lRe(z)l
o == (0, 0) <2 = (JC,0)

FIGURE 1.6 The real and imaginary FIGURE 1.7 The moduli of z and its
parts of a complex number. components.

Since the difference z\ — Zi can represent the displacement vector from z2 to z\, it
is evident that the distance between z\ and zi is given by \z\ — Zi \ • This can be
obtained by using identity (3) of Section 1.2 and definition (1) to obtain the familiar
formula
(3) dist(zi, <:2> = \z\ - z2\ = J(xi - x2)2 + (y\ - v2)2.
If z — (x, y) = x -\- iy, then — z = (—JC, —y) = —x — iy is the reflection of z
through the origin, and z = (x, — v) = x — iy is the reflection of z through the x
axis, as is illustrated in Figure 1.8.

) i

i V

, ( >-(0,y)"-J>z = (x,y)
y^ j = x + iy
A r ± tar
(-*To) / S. u*o> * x
4 (
-z = (-x, -y) z = (x, -y)
= -x - iy = x- iy

FIGURE 1.8 The geometry of negation and conjugation.

There is a very important algebraic relationship which can be used in estab-

lishing properties of the absolute value that have geometric applications. Its proof
is rather straightforward, and it is given as Exercise 3.
(4)
\z r ~ zz.
A beautiful application of equation (4) is its use in establishing the triangle
inequality. Figure 1.9 illustrates this inequality, which states that the sum of the
lengths of two sides of a triangle is greater than or equal to the length of the third
side.
 1.3 The Geometry of Complex Numbers 15

(5) The triangle inequality: \z\ + z2 | < \z\\ + | z2 \.

Proof
\Zx + Z 2 | 2 = (Zl + Zi) (Z\ + Z2) (by equation (4))
= fei + z2) (z? + zi) (by identity (9) of Section 1.2)
= Z]Zj + Z1Z2 + Z2Z] + Z2Z2
Zl | 2 + Z1Z2+Z1Z2 +
lZ2p (by equation (4) and the commutative law)
2
Z l | + ZiZ2" + ( ^ ) + |Z2|2 (by identities (10) and (11) of Section 1.2)
Zi|2 + 2Re(z,z2)+ |z 2 | 2 (by identity (6) of Section 1.2)
2
< Zi| + 2|Re(zizi)| + |z 2 p
* |zi| 2 + 2| Z l zi + Zl\ (by equations (2))
2
= ( N + |z2|) .
Taking square roots yields the desired inequality.

:, + ¾

FIGURE 1.9 The triangle inequality.

E X A M P L E 1.7 To produce an example of which Figure 1.9 is a reasonable

illustration, let z\ = 7 + / and z2 = 3 + 5/. Then |zi | = >/49 + 1 = ^ 5 0 and
|z 2 | = J9 + 25 = 734- Clearly, z{ + Zi = 10 + 6i, hence |zi + z 2 | =
VlOO + 36 = 7136. In this case, we can verify the triangle inequality without
recourse to computation of square roots since
\zy + z2\ = 7136 = 2 ^ 3 4 = V34 + v / 3 4 < v / 5 0 + v / 3 4 = | z i | + | z 2 |

Other important identities can also be established by means of the triangle

inequality. Note that
| z i | = |(Z) + Z 2 ) + (-2 2 ) I
^ |zj + z 2 | + I -zi\
= \z\ + z 2 | + | z 2 | .
Subtracting | zi | from the left and right sides of this string of inequalities
gives an important relationship that will be used in determining lower bounds of
sums of complex numbers.
16 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

(6) \zi + z2\ ^ \ z \ \ - \z2\.

From equation (4) and the commutative and associative laws it follows that
| Z\Z2 I2 = (Z\Z2)(Z\Z2) = (Z\Z~\)(Z2Z2) = | Z\ P | Zl | 2 .
Taking square roots of the terms on the left and right establishes another important
identity.
(7) | 2iZ2 | = |Z1 I I 22 I •
As an exercise, we ask you to show

(8) provided zi ^ 0.
Z2

E X A M P L E 1,8 If zi = 1 + 2/ and zi = 3 + 2i\ then \Z[ = 7 1 + 4 = 7 5

and \z2\ = J9 + 4 = JT$. We also see that z\Z2 = - 1 + 8/, hence
\ziz2\ = Vl + 64 = 7 6 5 = 7 5 7 1 3 = I zi J \z2\.

Figure 1.10 illustrates the multiplication given by Example 1.8. It certainly

appears that the length of the z\Z2 vector equals the product of the lengths of zi and
z2, confirming equation (7), but why is it located in the second quadrant, when both
Z\ and z2 are in the first quadrant? The answer to this question will become apparent
in Section 1.4.

y/ A H-\ 1 • X

FIGURE,!.10 The geometry of multiplication.

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.3

1. Locate the numbers z\ and z2 vectorially, and use vectors to find z\ + Zi and z\ - Zi
when
(a) zi = 2 + 3/ and z2 = 4 + i
(b) zi = - 1 + 2/ and z2 = ~2 + 3«
(c) zi = 1 + ;73andz 2 = - 1 + ijl
 1.3 The Geometry of Complex Numbers 17

Find the following quantities.

(a) |(1 + /)(2 + i)\ (b) ' " (C) (1 + i)5'
2 -
(d) | zz |, where z = x + iy (e) z -
3. Prove identities (4) and (8).
4. Determine which of the following points lie inside the circle | z — i \ = 1.
(a) y + i (b) 1 + y
\ is/2 -l
(C) + (d) +
T 2 T '^
5. Show that the point (zi + Z2V2 is the midpoint of the line segment joining z,\ to zi-
6. Sketch the set of points determined by the following relations,
(a) \z + 1 - 2/1 = 2 (b) Re(z + 1) = 0
(c) J z + 2/1 < 1 (d) Im(z - 20 > 6
7. Show that the equation of the line through the points z\ and zi can be expressed in the
form z = Z] + Kzi - Zi) where t is a real number.
8. Show that the vector z\ is perpendicular to the vector zi if and only if ReUizT) = 0.
9. Show that the vector z\ is parallel to the vector Z2 if and only if Im(ziZ2~) = 0.
10. Show that the four points z, z, —z, and - z are the vertices of a rectangle with its center
at the origin.
11. Show that the four points z, iz, — z, and —iz are the vertices of a square with its center
at the origin.
12. Prove that Jl\z\ > | Re(z) | + | Im(z) |.
13. Show that | z\ - zi | ^ \z\\ + | Z21.
14. Show that |ziz 2 ^| = \z\\ \z2\ | * j | .
15. Show that | z" | = | z |" where H is an integer.
16. Show that \\z\\ - \zi\\ ^ |z\ - zi \.
17. Prove that \z\ = 0 if and only if z - 0.
18. Show that Z1Z2 + ~\Z2 is a real number.
19. If you study carefully the proof of the triangle inequality, you will note that the reasons
for the inequality hinge on Re(ziZ2> ^ \z\I2\ • Under what conditions will these two
quantities be equal, thus turning the triangle inequality into an equality?
20. Prove that | zi - z 2 1 2 = | Zi | 2 - 2 Re(ziZi) + | z2 \2.
21. Use mathematical induction to prove that

S z* =£ E
A=l it=l
ZA

22. Let z\ and Z2 be two distinct points in the complex plane. Let K be a positive real con-
stant that is greater than the distance between z\ and z2. Show that the set of points
{z: I z - z.\ I + I z — Z21 — K} is an ellipse with foci z\ and z2-
23. Use Exercise 22 to find the equation of the ellipse with foci ±2/ that goes through the
point 3 + 2/.
24. Use Exercise 22 to find the equation of the ellipse with foci ±3i that goes through the
point 8 — 3/.
18 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

25. Let z\ and z2 be two distinct points in the complex plane. Let K be a positive real con-
stant that is less than the distance between z\ and zi- Show that the set of points
{z: \\z — Z\\ — | z - Z21 | = K} is a hyperbola with foci z\ and z2-
26. Use Exercise 25 to find the equation of the hyperbola with foci ±2 that goes through
the point 2 + 3/.
27. Use Exercise 25 to find the equation of the hyperbola with foci ±25 that goes through
the point 7 + 24/.
28. Write a report on how complex analysis is used to understand Pythagorean triples.
Resources include bibliographical items 94 and 97.

1.4 The Geometry of Complex Numbers, Continued

In Section 1.3 we saw that a complex number z = x + iy could be viewed as a
vector in the xy plane whose tail is at the origin and whose head is at the point (x,
y). A vector can be uniquely specified by giving its magnitude (i.e., its length) and
direction (i.e., the angle it makes with the positive x axis). In this section, we focus
on these two geometric aspects of complex numbers.
Let r be the modulus of z (i.e., r = \z\), and let 9 be the angle that the line
from the origin to the complex number z makes with the positive x axis. Then as
Figure 1.11 shows,
(1) z = (r cos 6, r sin 6) = r(cos 6 + i sin 6).

= (r cos 6, r sin 9) - r(cos 6 + i sin 6)

FIGURE 1.11 Polar representation of complex numbers.

Identity (1) is known as dipolar representation of z, and the values r and 6 are called
polar coordinates of z. The coordinate 6 is undefined if z = 0, and as Figure 1.11
shows, 9 can be any value for which the identities cos 9 = x/r and sin 9 = y/r hold
true. Thus, 9 can take on an infinite number of values for a given complex number
and is unique only up to multiples of In. We call 9 an argument of z, and use the
notation 9 = arg z. Clearly,

(2) 9 = arg z = arctan — if x ^ 0,

x
but we must be careful to specify the choice of arctan(yA) so that the point z cor-
responding to r and 9 lies in the appropriate quadrant. The reason for this is that
tan 9 has period 7C, whereas cos 9 and sin 9 have period 2n.
 1.4 The Geometry of Complex Numbers, Continued 19

EXAMPLE 1.9
n n
A" ^ • UK ^ . 137C
V 3 + i = 2 cos — + u sin — = 2 cos ——\- i2 sin ——
6 6 6 6
2 cos( — + 2nn I + /2 sin! — + 2nn ),

where n is any integer.

E X A M P L E 1.10 If z = - s/3 - i, then

r = | z | = | — V^ — /1 = 2 and
v -1 7K
8 = arctan — = arctan j= = — , so
x -73 6

— V 3 - / = 2 cos — + /2 sin —
6 6
7
= .2 cosl/ — * + 27C«
. \I + i2 • / 7—
.. sinl * + 2nn
.

where n is any integer.

If 8o is a value of arg z, then we can display all values of arg z as follows:

(3) arg z = B0 + 2nk, where k is an integer.
For a given complex number z ^ 0, the value of arg z that lies in the range
-71 < 6 < n is called the principal value of arg z and is denoted by Arg z. Thus,
(4) Arg z = 6, where -n < 8 < n.
Using equations (3) and (4) we can establish a relation between arg z and Arg z:
(5) arg z = Arg z + 2nk, where & is an integer.
As we shall see in Chapter 2, Arg z is a discontinuous function of z because it
"jumps" by an amount of 2n as z crosses the negative real axis.
In Chapter 5 we will define ez for any complex number z. You will see that
this complex exponential has all the properties of real exponentials that you studied
in earlier mathematics courses. That is, ez-\ ez^ = ez^+z^ and so forth. You will also
see that if z = x + iy9 then
(6) ez — ex+i>' = ex(cos y + i sin y).
We will use these facts freely from now on, and will prove the validity of our actions
when we get to Chapter 5.
If we set x = 0 and let 8 take the role of y in equation (6), we get a famous
equation known as Euler's formula:
(7) eiB = ( c o s e + / s i n e) = (cos 8, sin 8).
20 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

If 6 is a real number, e'9 will be located somewhere on the circle with radius
1 centered at the origin. This is easy to verify since
(8) |e' e | = Vcos20 + sin20 = 1.
Figure 1.12 illustrates the location of the points eiQ for various values of 8.

/ 2 = (0, 1) = 1

" ^ 2 ' 2 ' ~ 2 2l

ei0n = ei2n=(\, 0) = 1

\/-f = ,-(f = (^_v|) = v | _ v | .

2'~ 2 ' ~ 2 ~ 2
The unit circle

FIGURE 1.12 The location of eiB for various values of 6.

Notice that when 6 = n, we get elK = (cos n, sin n) = ( - 1 , 0 ) = - 1 , so

(9) ein + 1 = 0.
Euler was the first to discover this relationship. It has been labeled by many as the
most amazing equation in analysis, and with good reason. Symbols with a rich
history are miraculously woven together—the constant n discovered by Hippocrates;
e the base of the natural logarithms; the basic concepts of addition ( + ) and equality
(=); the foundational whole numbers 0 and 1; and i, the number that is the central
focus of this book.
Euler's formula (7) is of tremendous use in establishing important algebraic
and geometric properties of complex numbers. As a start, it allows us to express
a polar form of the complex number z in a more compact way. Recall that if
r = | z | and 8 = arg z, then z = r(cos 8 + i sin 0). Using formula (7) we can now
write z in its exponential form:
(10) z ~ re".

EXAMPLE 1.11 With reference to Example 1.10, with z ~ — V^ — /, we

have z = 2eiiln/6).

Together with the rules for exponentiation that we will verify in Chapter 5,
equation (10) has interesting applications. If zi = rje'0' and z2 — r2e1^, then
(11) z\Zi = rie'B'r2e''62 = nr2e(<ei+e2) = r]r2[cos(91 + 82) + i sin(6, + 92)].
 1.4 The Geometry of Complex Numbers, Continued 21

Figure 1.13 illustrates the geometric significance of equation (11). We have already
seen that the modulus of the product is the product of the moduli; that is,
\z\Zi\ = \z\\ \zi\* Identity (11) establishes that an argument of Z\Zi is an argument
of Zi plus an argument of z2\ that is,
(12) arg(zjz2) = arg z\ + arg z2.
This fact answers the question posed at the end of Section 1.3 regarding why the
product z\Zi was in a different quadrant than either z\ or z2- This also offers an
interesting explanation as to why the product of two negative real numbers is a
positive real number—the negative numbers, each of which has an angular displace-
ment of n radians, combine to produce a product which is rotated to a point whose
argument is K + K = 2% radians, coinciding with the positive real axis.

FIGURE 1.13 The product of two complex numbers z3 = z\Zj

Using equality (11), we see that z~{ = — = —- = ~e~i%. In other words,

z relU r

(13) z~i = —[cos(-e) + i sin(-O)] = ~e~l\

r r

Notice also that

(14) z = r(cos 0 - i sin 0) = r[cos(-0) + i sin(-0)] = re~^ and
(15) - = - [ c o s ( 0 j - 6 2 ) + i sin(8i - 0 2 )1 = -<?<'<°i-«2>.
Zi r2 r2

If z is in the first quadrant, Figure 1.14 shows the numbers z, z9 and zl in the case
where \z\ < 1. Figure 1.15 depicts the situation when \z\ > 1.
22 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

The unit circle

FIGURE 1.14 Relative positions of z, z, and z~\ when |z| < 1.

The unit circle

FIGURE 1.15 Relative positions of z, z, and z _l , when |z| > 1.

EXAMPLE 1.12 If z = 5 4- 12/, then r = 13 and z~x = M ~ (12//13)] has

modulus 73 .

E X A M P L E 1 . 1 3 If zi = 8/ and z2 = 1 + *>/3, then the polar forms are

Zi = 8[cos(7c/2) + i sin(7t/2)l and zi = 2[cos(7t/3) + i sin(rc/3)]. So we have
71 7C _7t_ 7i \ i _
cosl — I + i sin 41 cos — + i sin —
Z2 2 2" ~ TJ J ~ 6 6
= 273 + 2/.
 1.4 The Geometry of Complex Numbers, Continued 23

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.4

1. Find Arg z for the following values of z.
(a) 1 - i (b) - 7 3 + / (c) ( - 1 - /73) 2
(d) (1 ~ 0 3 (e) , , , , - l(0
1 + /73 " i- 1

<«> ( i V ^ (h) (1 + /73)(1 + 0

Represent the following complex numbers in polar form.
(a) - 4 (b) 6 - 6/ (c) -li
(d) - 2 7 3 - 2/ (e) (f)
(1 - 0 2 w
/ + 7 3
3
(g) (5 + 5/) (h) 3 + 4/
3. Express the following in a + ib form.
(a) eM2 (b) 4e~'"/2 (c) 8e'7n/3
W6 1
(d) - 2 e ' (e) lie-' ™* (f) 6*''2,l/V"
(g) eV* (h) e ^ V "
4. Use the exponential notation to show that
(a) ( 7 3 - 0(1 + /73) - 2 7 3 + 2/ (b) (1 + /) 3 - - 2 + 2/
(c) 2/(73 + /)(1 + /73) = - 8 (d) 8/(1 + /) = 4 - 4/
5. Show that arg(ziZ2Z3) = arg z\ + arg zi + arg z3. f//nt: Use property (12).
6. Let z = 7 3 + /. Plot the points z, /z, - z , and — iz and describe a relationship among
their arguments.
7. Let z\ = - 1 + / 7 3 and Z2 = — 7 3 + /. Show that the equation
Arg(ziZ2) = Arg z\ + Arg Z2 does not hold for the specific choice of zt and zi-
8. Show that the equation Arg(ztzz) = Arg z\ + Arg zi is true if we require that
-7i/2 < Arg zt < Ti/2 and -nil < Arg z2 < nil.
9. Show that arg z.\ = arg z2 if and only if Z2 = cz\, where c is a positive real constant.
10. Establish the identity arg(zi/z2) = arg z\ — arg zi-
11. Describe the set of complex numbers for which Arg(l/z) ^ — Arg(z).
12. Show that arg(l/z) = - a r g z.
13. Show that arg(ziZz) = arg zi - arg z2.
14. Show that
(a) Arg(zz) = 0 (b) Arg(z + z) = 0 when Re(z) > 0.
15. Let z 7^ Zo. Show that the polar representation z - Zo = p(cos ty + i sin ¢) can be used
to denote the displacement vector from zo to z as indicated in Figure 1.16.
16. Let zi, Z2, and z3 form the vertices of a triangle as indicated in Figure 1.17. Show that

L
a = argl — ) = arg(z2 - Z\) - arg(z3 - Zi)
\Z3 - Zi /

is an expression for the angle at the vertex z\.

24 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

FIGURE 1.16 Accompanies Exercise 15. FIGURE 1.17 Accompanies Exercise 16.

1.5 The Algebra of Complex Numbers, Revisited

The real numbers are deficient in the sense that not all algebraic operations on them
produce real numbers. Thus, for ^f--\ to make sense, we must lift our sights to the
domain of complex numbers. Do complex numbers have this same deficiency? That
is, if we are to make sense out of expressions like J\ + /, must we appeal to yet
another new number system? The answer to this question is no. It turns out that any
reasonable algebraic operation we perform on complex numbers gives us complex
numbers. In this respect, we say that the complex numbers are complete. Later we
will learn how to evaluate complicated algebraic expressions such as ( - 1)'. For now
we will be content to study integral powers and roots of complex numbers.
The important players in this regard are the exponential and polar forms of a
complex number, z = re'* = r(cos 6 + i sin 6). By the laws of exponents (which,
you recall, we have promised to prove in Chapter 5!) we clearly have
(1) zn = (rei*y _ fieim = ^[cos^B) + i sin(ttB)], and
(2) z-n = (reiQ)~n = r~ne-in» = r-"[cos(-rc6) + i sin(-rcO)].

EXAMPLE 1.14 Show that (-V3 - 0 3 = - 8 * in two ways.

Solution 1 We appeal to the binomial formula and write

(- V3 - 0 3 = ( - ^ 3 ) 3 + 3(-V3) 2 (-/) + 3 ( - ^ 3 ) ( - / ) 2 + (-/) 3 = - 8 / .

Solution 2 Using identity (1) and Example 1.11, we have

(- V3-/) 3 = ( 2 / ^ ) 3 = ( 2 ^ ) = 8 (cos ^ +.sin 215) = - 8 / .

Which of these methods would you use if you were asked to compute
(-V3 - 030?
 1.5 The Algebra of Complex Numbers, Revisited 25

EXAMPLE 1.15 Evaluate ( - 7 3 ~ i)-<\

/ iiA~6 1
6
Solution (- 73 - / ) = \2e 6 = 2-6e-f7lt = 2~6(~1) = .

An interesting application of the laws of exponents comes from putting the

equation (e'*)n = eine into its polar form. This gives
(3) (cos 0 + / sin %)n = (cos n% + i sin «6),
which is known as De Moivre's formula, in honor of the French mathematician
Abraham De Moivre (1667-1754).

EXAMPLE 1.16 De Moivre's formula (3) can be used to show that

cos 50 = cos 6 - 10 cos30 sin2B + 5 cos 0 sin4B.
5

If we let n = 5, and use the binomial formula to expand the left side of equation
(3), then we obtain
cos59 + /5 cos46 sin 6 - 1 0 cos30 sin26 - 10/ cos26 sin38
+ 5 cos 6 sin40 + i sin58.
The real part of this expression is
cos56 - 10 cos36 sin26 + 5 cos 6 sin46.
Equating this to the real part of cos 56 + i sin 58 on the right side of equation (3)
establishes the desired result.

A key ingredient in determining roots of complex numbers turns out to be a corollary

to the fundamental theorem of algebra. We will prove the theorem in Chapter 6.
Our proofs must be independent of conclusions we derive here since we are going
to make use of the corollary now:

Corollary 1.1 (Corollary to the fundamental theorem of algebra) IfP(z) is

a polynomial of degree n (n > 0) with complex coefficients, then the equation
P(z) = 0 has precisely n (not necessarily distinct) solutions.

E X A M P L E 1.17 Let P(z) = z3 + (2 - 2i)z2 + (-1 - 4i)z - 2. This poly-

nomial of degree 3 can be written as P(z) - (z - i)2(z + 2). Hence, the equation
P(z) = 0 has solutions z\ - /, z2 = /, and z3 = - 2 . Thus, in accordance with
Corollary 1.1, we have three solutions, with Z\ and z2 being repeated roots.
26 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

The corollary to the fundamental theorem of algebra implies that if we can find n
distinct solutions to the equation zn ~ c (or zn - c = 0), we will have found all the
solutions. We begin our search for these solutions by looking at the simpler equation
zn = 1. You will soon see that solving this equation will enable us to handle the
more general one quite easily.
To solve zn = 1, let us first note that from identities (5) and (10) of Section
1.4 we can deduce an important condition determining when two complex numbers
are equal. Let z\ = ne' 6 ' and z2 = r2e'^. Then,
(4) Z\ = z2 (i.e., r,e'ei = r2e^) iff r, = r2 and 0i = B2 + 2nk,
where k is an integer.
That is, two complex numbers are equal if and only if their moduli agree, and
an argument of one equals an argument of the other to within an integral multiple
of 2n. Now, suppose z = reie is a solution to z" = 1. Putting the latter equation in
exponential form gives us r"e'"d = 1 • e'°, so relation (4) implies
rn = 1 and «6 = 0 + 2nk,
Ink
where k is an integer. Clearly, for z = re'8, if r = 1, and 6 = , we can generate
n
n distinct solutions to z" = 1 (and, therefore, all solutions) by setting k = 0, 1,2,
. . . , n — 1. (Note that the solutions for k = n, n + 1,. . . , merely repeat those
for k = 0, 1, . . . , since the arguments so generated agree to within an integral
multiple of 2%.) As stated in Section 1.1, the n solutions can be expressed as
/I** 2nk Ink
n
(5) Zk = e — cos f- i sin
, for k = 0, 1, . . . , n — 1.
n n
They are called the nth roots of unity. The value co„ given by

/— 2ft 2n
(6) a>n = e n = cos 1- i sin —
n n
is called a primitive nth root of unity. By De Moivre's formula, the nth roots of
unity can be expressed as
(7) l,o)m^,. . .,0c1.
Geometrically, the nth roots of unity are equally spaced points that lie on the unit
circle (z: | z \ = 1} and form the vertices of a regular polygon with n sides.

E X A M P L E 1 - 1 8 The solutions to the equation z 8 = 1 are given by the 8 values

/2M 2nk . 2nk r ,

Zk =e =
— — y 1sm
cos , for & = 0, 1, . . . , 7.
8 8
In Cartesian form these solutions are ±1, ±1, ±{^2 + i>/2)/2, and ±{J2 - ijl)!2.
From expressions (7) it is clear that o)8 = z\. Figure 1.18 gives an illustration of
this.
 1.5 The Algebra of Complex Numbers, Revisited 27

V2-fV2 ft-i<(2=mi

FIGURE 1.18 The eight eighth roots of unity.

The preceding procedure is easy to generalize in solving z" = c for any nonzero
complex number c. If c = pe'* = p(cos <j) + /' sin ¢), our solutions are given by
. ¢) + Ink
(|> + 2TT/: <|> + 27C/:
(8) Zk = pUne " = p w "l cos i sin , for

k = 0, 1, . . . , n - 1.
Each solution in equation (8) can be considered an nth root of c. Geometrically, the
nth roots of c are equally spaced points that lie on the circle {v \z\ = p17"} and
form the vertices of a regular polygon with n sides. Figure 1.19 pictures the case
for n = 5.

)
5
i
z = c = p*1'*
:
i r M
z
• :

Z Z
• 3 • 4

FIGURE 1.19 The five solutions to the equation z5 = c.

It is interesting to note that if t, is any particular solution to the equation

zli = c, then all solutions can be generated by multiplying £ by the various nth roots
of unity. That is, the solution set is

(9) ^ , , , ½ . • • .;<-'.
28 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

The reason for this is that for any j , (^taj,)" = ^ ( c ^ ) " = ^"(co^y = £" = c, and that
,^ 2K
multiplying a number by oo„ = e " increases the argument of that number by — ,
so that expressions (9) contain n distinct values.

E X A M P L E 1 . 1 9 Let's find all cube roots of 8« = 8[cos(rc/2) + i sin(7t/2)]

using formula (8). By direct computation, we see that the roots are

Zk f
= 2 cos•
(71/2) + Ink
3
.
+ i sin
(71/2) +
3
Ink,
for A; = 0, 1,2.

The Cartesian forms of the solutions are zo = v ^ + i, Z\ = — >/3 + /, and

Zl = —2i, as shown in Figure 1.20.

FIGURE 1.20 The point z = 8/ and its three cube roots z0, zi, and z2.

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.5

1. Show that (,/3 + 0 4 = - 8 + (8 7 3 in two ways:
(a) by squaring twice (b) by using equation (3)
2. Calculate the following.
(1 + if
(a) (1 -<V3) 3 (v/3 + 0 2 (b) (c) (V3 + 06
(1 - 0 s
3. Use De Moivre's formula and establish the following identities.
(a) cos 36 = cos39 - 3 cos 6 sin26 (b) sin 36 = 3 cos28 sin 6 - sin38
 1.5 The Algebra of Complex Numbers, Revisited 29

4. Let z be any nonzero complex number, and let n be an integer. Show that zn + (z)" is
a real number.
For Exercises 5-9, find all the roots.
5. ( - 2 + 2/)173 6. (-64) ! / 4 7. ( - l ) i / 5
8. (16/) !/4 9. (8) ,/6
10. Establish the quadratic formula.
11. Find the solutions to the equation z2 + (1 + i)z + 5* = 0.
12. Solve the equation (z + 1)3 = z\
13. Let P(z) = anz" + an_\zn~~] + • • • + a\z + a{) be a polynomial with r^a/ coefficients
#„, <z„_i, . . . , an, An- If Zi is a complex root of P(z), show that zT is also a root. Hint:
Show that P(zD = ^(zi) = 0.
14. Find all the roots of the equation z 4 — 4z3 + 6z2 - 4z + 5 = 0 given that z\ = / i s a
root.
15. Let m and « be positive integers that have no common factor. Show that there are n
distinct solutions ton'" = z'" and that they are given by
m(G + Ink) m(8 + Ink)
1_ i s m
,/1-1.

16. Find the three solutions to z3/2 = 4^/2 + / 4 ^ 2 .

17. (a) If z ^ 1, show that 1 + z + z2 + • • • + z" = Z
1- z '
(b) Use part (a) and De Moivre's formula to derive Lagrange's identity:

„+i>]
1 + cos 9 + cos 29 + • • • + cos nB = — + where 0 < 6 < 2n.
2 2 sin(8/2)
18. Let Zk 7* 1 be an /ith root of unity. Prove that
1 + zk + z\ + • • • + zT' = 0.
19. If 1 = z0, zi, Z2, • • • , z„-\ are the /ith roots of unity, prove that
(z - z\)(z - z2) • - • (z ~ z,,_i) - 1 + z + z2 + • • • + z"-'.
20. Identity (3), De Moivre's formula, can be established without recourse to properties of
the exponential function. Note that this identity is trivially true for n = 1, then
(a) Using basic trigonometric identities, show the identity is valid for n — 2.
(b) Use induction to verify the identity for all positive integers.
(c) How would you verify this identity for all negative integers?
21. Look up the article on Euler's formula and discuss what you found. Use bibliographical
item 169.
22. Look up the article on De Moivre's formula and discuss what you found. Use biblio-
graphical item 103.
23. Look up the article on how complex analysis could be used in the construction of a
regular pentagon and discuss what you found. Use bibliographical item 114.
24. Write a report on how complex analysis is used to study roots of polynomials and/or
complex functions. Resources include bibliographical items 50, 65, 67, 102, 109, 120,
121, 122, 140, 152, 162, 171, 174, and 178.
30 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

1.6 The Topology of Complex Numbers

In this section we investigate some basic ideas concerning sets of points in the plane.
The first concept is that of a curve. Intuitively, we think of a curve as a piece of
string placed on a flat surface in some type of meandering pattern. More formally,
we define a curve to be the range of a continuous complex-valued function z(t)
defined on the interval [a, b]. That is, a curve C is the range of a function given by
z(t) = (x(t), y(t)) = x(t) + /y(f), for a < t < b, where bothx(t) and y(t) are continuous
real-valued functions. If both x(t) and y(t) are differentiate, we say that the curve
is smooth. A curve for which x(t) and y(t) are differentiable except for a finite number
of points is called piecewise smooth. We specify a curve C as
(1) C: z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) for a < t < b,
and say that z(t) is a parametrization for the curve C. Notice that with this param-
eterization, we are specifying a direction to the curve C, and we say that C is a
curve that goes from the initial point z(a) = (x(a), y(a)) = x(a) + iy(a) to the terminal
point z(b) — (JC(6), y(b)) = x(b) + iy(b). If we had another function whose range
was the same set of points as z(t) but whose initial and final points were re-
versed, we would indicate the curve this function defines by — C. For example, if
Zo = *o + iyo and z\ — x\ + /vi are two given points, then the straight line segment
joining z0 to z\ is
(2) C: z(t) = [xo + (x, - xo)t] + i[yo + (>, - yl})t] for 0 < t < 1,
and is pictured in Figure 1.21. One way to derive formula (2) is to use the vector
form of a line. A point on the line is zo = XQ + iyo and the direction of the line is
Z\ — Zo; hence the line C in formula (2) is given by
C:z(t) = zo + (zi ~ z0)t f o r 0 < r < 1.
Clearly one parametrization for — C is
- C : y(r) = zi + (zo - zi)t for 0 < t < 1.
It is worth noting that y(t) = z(I - t). This illustrates a general principle: If C is a
curve parameterized by z(t) for 0 < t < 1, then one parameterization for — C will
bez(l - t), 0 < t < 1.

FIGURE 1.21 The straight line segment C joining z0 to Z[.

 1.6 The Topology of Complex Numbers 31

A curve C with the property that z(a) = z(b) is said to be a closed curve.
The line segment (2) is not a closed curve. The curve *(t) = sin 2r cos t, and
y(t) = sin 2t sin t for 0 < t < 2% forms the four-leaved rose in Figure 1.22. Observe
carefully that as t goes from 0 to n/2, the point is on leaf 1; from 7c/2 to n it is on
leaf 2; between n and 3TI/2 it is on leaf 3; and finally, for t between 3n/2 and 2n it
is on leaf 4. Notice that the curve has crossed over itself at the origin.

• x

FIGURE 1.22 The curve x(t) = sin 2t cos t, v(t) = sin 2t sin t for 0 < t < 2TT,
which forms a four-leaved rose.

Remark In calculus the curve in Figure 1.22 was given the polar coordinate
parameterization r = sin 26.

We want to be able to distinguish when a curve does not cross over itself.
The curve C is called simple if it does not cross over itself, which is expressed
by requiring that z{t\) ^ zfo) whenever t\ 7^ t2, except possibly when t\ = a and
t2 = b. For example, the circle C with center zo = *o + iyo and radius R can be
parameterized to form a simple closed curve:
(3) C: z(t) = (x0 + R cos t) + i(y0 + R sin t) = z0 + Re"
for 0 < t < 2 7i, as shown in Figure 1.23. As t varies from 0 to 271, the circle is
traversed in a counterclockwise direction. If you were traveling around the circle in
this manner, its interior would be on your left. When a simple closed curve is
parameterized in this fashion, we say that the curve has a positive orientation. We
will have more to say about this idea shortly.
32 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

Z(7t) z(0) = 2(2TT)

FIGURE 1.23 The simple closed curve z(t) = zo + Re" for 0 < t < 2%.

We need to develop some vocabulary that will help us describe sets of points
in the plane. One fundamental idea is that of an E-neighborhood of the point z0> that
is, the set of all points satisfying the inequality
(4) \z-Zo\ <e.
This set is the open disk of radius e > 0 about zo shown in Figure 1.24. In particular,
the solution sets of the inequalities
\z\ < 1, |z - i| < 2 , | z + 1 + 2i| < 3
are neighborhoods of the points 0, / , - 1 - 2/, respectively, of radius 1, 2, 3,
respectively.

1
f***£N*

FIGURE 1.24 An e-neighborhood of the point zo-

An e-neighborhood of the point z0 is denoted by De(zo), and is also referred

to as the open disk of radius e centered at Zo- Hence,
(5) D e fe))= {z: \z- zo\ < e } .
We also define the closed disk of radius e centered at zo,
(6) 5 E (zo)= {z: \z- Zo\ ^ eh
and the punctured disk of radius e centered at zo,
(7) D;(3>) = { Z : 0 < | Z -ZO| <e}.
 1.6 The Topology of Complex Numbers 33

The point zo is said to be an interior point of the set S provided that there
exists an e-neighborhood of Zo that contains only points of S; zo is called an exterior
point of the set S if there exists an 8-neighborhood of zo that contains no points of
S. If zo is neither an interior point nor an exterior point of S, then it is called a
boundary point of S and has the property that each e-neighborhood of zo contains
both points in S and points not in S. The situation is illustrated in Figure 1.25.

y
k

^ x

FIGURE 1.25 The interior, exterior, and boundary of a set.

The boundary of DR(zo) is the circle depicted in Figure 1.23. We denote this
circle by C/?(zo)> and refer to it as the circle of radius R centered at zo< The notation
C^(zo) is used to indicate that the parameterization we chose for this simple closed
curve resulted in a positive orientation. C^(zo) denotes the same circle, but with a
negative orientation. (In both cases counterclockwise denotes the positive direction.)
Using notation we have already introduced, it is clear that C^(zo) = — CR(ZQ).

EXAMPLE 1.20 Let S = {z: \z\ < 1}. Find the interior, exterior, and
boundary of S.

Solution Let zo be a point of S. Then |zo| < 1 so that we can choose

e = 1 — | zo | > 0. If z lies in the disk | z — Zo | < £, then
\z\ = | zo + z - ZQ\ ^ |zo| + \z - zo I < I zo I + e = 1.
Hence the e-neighborhood of zo is contained in S, and zo is an interior point of S. It
follows that the interior of S is the set {z: | z | < 1}.
34 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

Similarly, it can be shown that the exterior of S is the set {z: \z\ > 1 }• The
boundary of S is the unit circle {z: \z\ = 1}. This is true because if zo = ^/6n is any
point on the circle, then any 8-neighborhood of ZQ will contain the point
(1 — e/2)eie°, which belongs to S, and (1 + e/2)e'B», which does not belong to S.

A set S is called open if every point of S is an interior point of S. A set S is

called closed if it contains all of its boundary points. A set S is said to be connected
if every pair of points z\ and z2 can be joined by a curve that lies entirely in 5.
Roughly speaking, a connected set consists of a "single piece." The unit disk D =
{z: \z\ < 1} is an open connected set. Indeed, if zi and zi lie in D, then the straight
line segment joining them lies entirely in D. The annulus A = {z: 1 < \z\ < 2} is
an open connected set because any two points in A can be joined by a curve C that
lies entirely in A (see Figure 1.26). The set B = {z: \ z + 2 | < 1 or | z - 21 < 1}
consists of two disjoint disks; hence it is not connected (see Figure 1.27).

FIGURE 1.26 The annulus A {z: 1 < I z I < 2} is a connected set.

We call an open connected set a domain. For example, the right half plane
H = {z: Re(z) > 0} is a domain. This is true because if zo = *o + ^o is any point
in H, then we can choose e = x0, and the e-neighborhood of zo lies in H. Also, any
two points in H can be connected with the line segment between them. The open
unit disk |z | < 1 is also a domain. However, the closed unit disk \z\ < 1 is not a
domain. It should be noted that the term "domain" is a noun and is a kind of set.
 1.6 The Topology of Complex Numbers 35

y
i

-3 fe> > J-1 it,- /3

FIGURE 1.27 B = {z: \ z + 2 | < 1 or | z - 2 | < 1} is not a connected set.

A domain, together with some, none, or all of its boundary points, is called a
region. For example, the horizontal strip {z: 1 < lm(z) < 2} is a region. A set that
is formed by taking the union of a domain and its boundary is called a closed region-,
that is, the half plane {z: x < y} is a closed region. A set is said to be bounded if
every point can be enveloped by a circle of some finite fixed radius, that is, there
exists an R > 0 such that for each z in S we have \z\ ^ R. The rectangle given by
{z: \x\ < 4 and |v| < 3} is bounded because it is contained inside the circle
| z | = 5. A set that cannot be enclosed by a circle is called unbounded.
We mentioned earlier that a simple closed curve is positively oriented if its
interior is on the left when the curve is traversed. How do we know, however, that
any given simple closed curve will have an interior and exterior? The following
theorem guarantees that this is indeed the case. It is due in part to the work of the
French mathematician Camille Jordan.

Theorem 1.1 (The Jordan Curve Theorem): The complement of any simple
closed curve C can be partitioned into two mutually exclusive domains I and
E in such a way that I is bounded, E is unbounded, and C is the boundary for
both I and E. In addition, I U E U C is the entire complex plane. (The domain
I is called the interior of C, and the domain E is called the exterior of C.)

The Jordan curve theorem is a classic example of a result in mathematics that

seems obvious but is very hard to demonstrate. Its proof is beyond the scope of this
book. Jordan's original argument, in fact, was inadequate, and it was not until 1905
that a correct version was finally given by the American topologist Oswald Veblen.
The difficulty lies in describing the interior and exterior of a simple closed curve
analytically, and in showing that they are connected sets. For example, in which
domain (interior or exterior) do the two points depicted in Figure 1.28 lie? If they
are in the same domain, how, specifically, can they be connected with a curve?
36 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

Although an introductory treatment of complex analysis can be given without

using this theorem, we think it is important for the well-read student at least to be
aware of its significance.

FIGURE 1.28 Are z\ and zi in the interior or exterior of this simple closed curve?

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.6

1. Sketch the curve z(i) = t1 + It + /(t + 1)
(a) for - 1 < t < 0. (b) for 1 < t < 2.
Hint'. Use x = t2 + 2f, y = t 4- 1 and eliminate the parameter t.
2. Find a parameterization of the line that
(a) joins the origin to the point 1 + L (b) joins the point i to the point 1 + i.
(c) joins the point 1 to the point 1 + i. (d) joins the point 2 to the point 1 + i.
3. Find a parameterization of the curve that is a portion of the parabola v = x2 that
(a) joins the origin to the point 2 + 4i. (b) joins the point - 1 + i to the origin.
(c) joins the point 1 + i to the origin.
Hint. For parts (a) and (b), use the parameter t = x.
4. Find a parameterization of the curve that is a portion of the circle \z\ = 1 that joins
the point — i to i if
(a) the curve is the right semicircle. (b) the curve is the left semicircle.
5. Find a parameterization of the curve that is a portion of the circle | z \ = 1 that joins
the point 1 to i if
(a) the parameterization is counterclockwise along the quarter circle.
(b) the parameterization is clockwise.
 1.6 The Topology of Complex Numbers 37

For Exercises 6-12, refer to the following sets:

(a) {z:Re(z)> 1}. (b) {z: - 1 <Im(z) < 2}.
(c) {z: |z - 2 - «| < 2}. (d) {z: |z + 3i| > 1}.
(e) {re*: 0 < r < 1 and - K/2 < 0 < ic/2} (f) {re*: r > 1 and 7i/4 < 0 < 7t/3}.
(g) {z: \z\ < l o r | z - 4 | < 1}.
6. Sketch each of the given sets. 7. Which of the sets are open?
8. Which of the sets are connected? 9. Which of the sets are domains?
10. Which of the sets are regions? 11. Which of the sets are closed regions?
12. Which of the sets are bounded?
13. Let S = {zi, Z2, • • • , z„} be a finite set of points. Show that S is a bounded set
14. Let S be the open set consisting of all points z such that | z + 2 | < 1 or
I z — 2 | < 1. Show that 5 is not connected.
15. Prove that the neighborhood z ~ zo < e is an open set.
16. Prove that the neighborhood z - zo < e is a connected set.
17. Prove that the boundary of the neighborhood z - Zo < e is the circle z - zo = e.
18. Prove that the set {z: z\ > 1} is the exterior of the set S given in Example 1.20.
19. Prove that the set {z: z\ = 1} is the boundary of the set S given in Example 1.20.
20. Look up some articles on teaching complex analysis and discuss what you found. Re-
sources include bibliographical items 7, 11, 24, 27, 33, 43, 74, 84, 90, 101, 102, 103,
105, 114, 123, 134, 137, 160, 171, and 185.