Protozoa

Unit 2
Medica Zoology
Kingdom Protista
General Characteristics
Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic
Single-celled eukaryotic microorganisms belonging microorganisms lacking a cell wall and
to kingdom protista are classified as Protozoa (Greek
belonging to the Kingdom Protista. Protozoa
Protos: first; zoon: animal).
The single protozoal cell performs all functions. reproduce asexually by fission, schizogony,
Most of the protozoa are completely non-pathogenic or budding. Some protozoa can also
but few may cause major diseases such as malaria, reproduce sexually.
leishmaniasis, and sleeping sickness.
Protozoa like Cryptosporidium parvum and Toxoplasma
gondii are being recognized as opportunistic pathogens
in patients a ected with human immunode ciency
virus (HIV) and in those undergoing immunosuppressive
therapy.
Protozoa exhibit wide range of size (1–150 µm), shape,
and structure.
Structure The chromatin may be distributed along periphery
The typical protozoan cell is bounded by a trilaminar unit (peripheral chromatin) or as condensed mass
membrane, supported by a sheet of contractile fibrils around
enabling the cell to move and change in shape. the karyosome.
Cytoplasm
It has 2 portions:
Ectoplasm: Outer homogeneous part that serves as
the organ for locomotion and for engulfment of food
by producing pseudopodia is called as the ectoplasm.
It also helps in respiration, discharging waste material,
and in providing a protective covering of cell.
Endoplasm: The inner granular portion of cytoplasm
that contains nucleus is called endoplasm. The endoplasm
shows number of structures—the golgi bodies,
endoplasmic reticulum, food vacuoles, and contractile
vacuoles. Contractile vacuoles serve to regulate the
osmotic pressure.
Nucleus
The nucleus is usually single but may be double or multiple;
some species having as many as hundred nuclei in a single
cell.
The nucleus contains one or more nucleoli or a central
Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction can be:
Asexual reproduction Conjugation: In ciliates, the sexual process is
Sexual reproduction. conjugation,
Reproduction usually occurs asexually in protozoans; in which two organisms join together and reciprocally
however, sexual reproduction occurs in cillates and exchange nuclear
Gametogony ormaterial (e.g. sporozoa,
syngamy:In Balantidium coli).
male and
sporozoas. female
gameto cytes are produced, which after fertilization form
Asexual Reproduction the zygote, which gives rise to numerous sporozoites by
Binary ssion: It is a method of asexual reproduction, sporogony (e.g. Plasmodium).
by which a single parasite divides either longitudinally
or
transversally into two or more equal number of Life Cycle
parasites. Single Host: Protozoa like intestinal agellates and
Mitotic division of nucleus is followed by division of the cillates require only 1 host, within which they multiply
cytoplasm. In amoebae, division occurs along any asexually in trophic stage and transfer from one host to
plane, another by the cystic form.
but in agellates, division is along longitudinal axis and Second host: In some protozoa like Plasmodium,
in ciliates, in the transverse plane (Fig. 2.1). asexual method of reproduction occurs in one host
Multiple ssion or schizogony: Plasmodium exhibits (man) and sexual method of reproduction in another
schizogony, in which nucleus undergoes several host (mosquito).
successive divisions within the schizont to produce
large number of merozoites (Fig. 2.1).
Endodyogeny: Some protozoa like Toxoplasma,
 Entamoeba histolytica
• History and Distribution
E. histolytica was discovered by Lösch in 1875, who demonstrated
the parasite in the dysenteric feces of a patient in St. Petersburg in
Russia.
• In 1890, William Osler reported the case of a young man
with dysentery, who later died of liver abscess. Councilman and
Lafleur in 1891 established the pathogenesis of intestinal and
hepatic amoebiasis and introduced the terms 'amoebic dysentery'
and 'amoebic liver abscess’.
• E. histolytica is worldwide in prevalence, being much more
common in the tropics than elsewhere. It has been found wherever
sanitation is poor, in all climatic zones
• It has been reported that about 10% of world population and 50% of
the inhabitants of developing countries may be infected with the
parasite.
• The infection is not uncommon even in affluent countries about 1%
of Americans being reported to be infected
• While the majority of infected humans (80–99%) are asymptomatic,
invasive amoebiasis causes disabling illness in an estimated 50
million of people and causes 50,000 deaths annually, mostly in the
tropical belt of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• It is the third leading parasitic cause of mortality, after
malaria and schistosomiasis
 Entamoeba histolytica
Pseudopodia are finger-like projections formed by sudden jerky movements of ectoplasm in one direction, followed by the
streaming in of the whole endoplasm.

Typical amoeboid motility is a crawling or gliding movement and not a free swimming one. The direction of movement
may be changed suddenly, with another pseudopodium being formed at a different site, when the whole cytoplasm flows in
the direction of the new pseudopodium. The cell has to be attached to some surface or particle for it to move. In culture
tubes, the trophozoites may be seen crawling up the side of the glass tube. Pseudopodia formation and motility are inhibited
at low temperatures.

Nucleus is spherical 4–6 µm in size and contains central karoyosome, The nucleus is not clearly seen in the living
trophozoites, but can be clearly demonstrated in preparations stained with iron-hemotoxylin.

The trophozoites from acute dysenteric stools often contain phagocytosed erythrocytes. This feature is diagnostic as
phagocytosed red cells are not found in any other commensal intestinal amoebae.

The trophozoites divide by binary fission in every 8 hours.

Trophozoites survive upto 5 hours at 37°C and are killed by drying, heat, and chemical sterilization. Therefore, the infection
is not transmitted by trophozoites. Even if live trophozoites from freshy-passed stools are ingested, they are rapidly
destroyed in stomach and cannot initiate infection
Morphology
E. histolytica occurs in 3 forms (Fig. 3.1).
Trophozoite
Precyst
Entamoeba
Cyst.
histolytica
Trophozoite
Trophozoite is the vegetative or growing stage of the
parasite (Fig. 3.1A). It is the only form present in tissues.
It is irregular in shape and varies in size from 12–60 µm;
average being 20 µm. It is large and actively motile in freshly-
passed dysenteric stool, while smaller in convalescents and
carrriers. The parasite, as it occurs free in the lumen as a
commensal is generally smaller in size, about 15–20 µm and has
been called the minuta form.

Cytoplasm: Outer ectoplasm is clear, transparent, and

refractile. Inner endoplasm is finely granular, having a
ground glass appearance. The endoplasm contains
nucleus, food vacuoles, erythrocytes, occasionally
leucocytes, and tissue debris
Precystic Stage
Trophozoites undergo encystment in the intestinal lumen. Encystment does not occur in the tissues nor in feces
outside the body.
Before encystment, the trophozoite extrudes its food vacuoles and becomes round or oval, about 10–20 µm in size. This is the
precystic stage of the parasite (Fig. 3.1B).
It contains a large glycogen vacuole and two chromatid bars.
It then secretes a highly retractile cyst wall around it and becomes cyst.

Cystic Stage
The cyst is spherical in shape about 10–20 µm in size.
The early cyst contains a single nucleus and two other structures—a mass of glycogen and 1–4 chromatoid bodies or chromidial
bars, which are cigar-shaped refractile rods with rounded ends (Fig. 3.1C).
As the cyst matures, the glycogen mass and chromidial bars disappear and the nucleus undergoes 2 successive mitotic divisions
to form 2 (Fig. 3.1D) and then 4 nuclei.
The mature cyst is, thus quadrinucleate (Fig. 3.1E).
The cyst wall is a highly refractile membrane, which makes it highly resistant to gastric juice and unfavorable
environmental conditions.
 Life cycle

Life cycle: Cysts of Entamoeba are formed in

bowel of man and are passed with stools. Cysts
are swallowed with contaminated food and
drinks by man. They pass through stomach
and reach intestine. Cyst wall is weakened
because of alkaline pH and cytoplasmic mass
containing 4 nuclei (metacyst) comes out. The
nuclei divide by binary fission giving rise to 8
daughter trophozoites. Trophozoites which
are actively motile moves towards ileocaecal
region
Pathology (Study of Disease) Laboratory Diagnosis
• Man is the reservoir of infection. • Macroscopic examination of stool (dark red stool mixed with
• Entamoeba histolytica produces dysentery blood and mucus).
with frequent passing of stools mixed with • Microscopic examination of stool for demonstration of
mucus and blood. trophozoite or cyst of Entamoeba histolytica
• Intestinal lesions are acute amebic dysentery • biopsy samples collected under direct vision by endoscopy
and chronic intestinal amebiasis. may reveal trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica, if otherwise
• Extraintestinal lesions (metastatic) include: not demonstrable.
liver (amebic hepatitis and amebic liver • Serological techniques are not useful for the patient of acute
abscess), lungs (primary small abscess or intestinal lesions. However, in chronic intestinal cases and in
multiple abscess in one or both lungs), brain (a extraintestinal cases, they are useful.
small cerebral abscess), spleen (splenic Serological tests include:
abscess), skin (granulomatous lesion i. ELISA (Using monoclonal antibody)
(ameboma) near visceral lesion, e.g. liver ii. Counter current immunoelectrophoresis
iii. Latex agglutination
iv. Gel diffusion precipitation
v. Indirect immunofluorescence.
SEROLOGICAL TESTS IN INVASIVE AMEBIASIS
1. Latex agglutination slide test to detect antibodies to Entamoeba hislolytica.
2. Cellulose acetate precipitin test is simple specified and inexpensive. It becomes positive early
during early invasive amebiases. It becomes negative in 3 months after successful treatment.

The principle is based on the fact that specified antibodies and soluble antigen diffuse on cellulose
acetate paper towards each other. It forms a line of precipitation where they meet.

Treatment
Metronidazole, chloroquine, tinidazole, diloxanide furoate, emetine and secnidazole are
effective drugs
Treatment
Metronidazole, chloroquine, tinidazole, diloxanide furoate,
emetine and secnidazole are
effective drugs.

Non-pathogenic Amebae
Entamoeba coli (Table 57.4)
• It habitates in the lumen of large gut but
does not invade tissues.
• Trophozoite is 10 to 40 µ, blunt granular
slow pseudopodia.
• Cyst is 10 to 30 µ thread-like pointed chromotoid bodies
(1 to 8).
• It is commensal of large intestine.
 Parasitic Protozoa - flagellates
Parasitic protozoa, which possess whip-like flagella as their
organs of locomotion are called as flagellates.
Depending on their habitat, they can be considered
under:
Lumen-dwelling flagellates: Flagellates found in the
alimentary tract and urogenital tract.
€Hemoflagellates: Flagellates found in blood and tissues

Most luminal flagellates are nonpathogenic commensals.

Two of them cause clinical diseases—Giardia lamblia,
which can cause diarrhea and Trichomonas vaginalis,
which can produce vaginitis and urethritis
 Giardia Lamblia
History and Distribution
It is one of the earliest protozoan parasite to have been recorded.
The flagellate was first observed by Dutch scientist Antonie von
Leeuwenhoek (1681) in his own stools.

It is named 'Giardia' after Professor Giard of Paris and 'lamblia' after

Professor Lamble of Prague, who gave a detailed description of the parasite.

It is the most common protozoan pathogen and is

worldwide in distribution.
Endemicity is very high in areas with low sanitation, especially tropics and
subtropics.

Visitors to such places frequently develop traveller's diarrhea caused by

giardiasis through contaminated water.
Trophozite
Habitat

G. lamblia lives in the duodenum and upper jejunum and

is the only protozoan parasite found in the lumen of the
human small intestine.