ZETECH UNIVERSITY

THIKA ROAD CAMPUS

EGE 112: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY I

MAY-AUGUST 2021 SEMESTER

DR. CHARLES OTUNGA

E-mail: [email protected] ;
[email protected]
Mobile: 0723939938 / 0753200888 /
0758065424

DEPARTMENT: EDUCATION ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES (EASS)

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topic Page

1 Introduction 4
Scope of physical geography; The life layer; Goals of
physical geography

2 The lithosphere 8
Processes; Exogenic; Endogenic; Energy sources

3 Origin of the lithosphere 11

Big - bang theory; Formation of, Solar system, Planets, Moons

4 Age of the lithosphere 19

Geological time scale; Relative and absolute dating

5 Internal structure of the earth 30

Study of meteorites; Seismology; Interior of the earth

6 Plate tectonic theory 43

Crust (continental, oceanic); Plate boundaries (types); Continental
drifting (historical aspects, evidence)

7 Composition of the lithosphere 65

Igneous rocks (classification, types); Sedimentary rocks
(mode of formation, classification, types); Metamorphic rocks
(mode of formation, types)

2
8 The atmosphere 73
Weather and climate; Meteorology; Climatology (origin,
Development)

9 Composition and structure of the atmosphere 77

Atmosphere; composition; structure

10 Solar energy in the atmosphere 84

Solar radiation (insolation); Electromagnetic spectrum
(Short wave, long wave); Global energy (latitudinal differences)

11 Atmospheric circulation 90
Forces (pressure gradient, coriolis, friction); Pressure belts of
the world; Convection cells (Hadley, ferrel, polar)

12 Weather elements and measurements 98

Temperature (Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin); Thermometer
(Maximum, minimum, dry bulb, wet bulb, humidity);
Precipitation (types); Wind (sixteen point compass, wind
vane, knots, anemometer)

3
1.0 Introduction to physical geography
1.1 Introduction
In the previous lessons on Development of geographic thought, geography was defined as
a discipline that is primarily concerned with the relationship between man's way of life
and the places in which he lives. It was also noted that the aim of geography is to
understand the earth as the world of man, with particular reference to the differentiation
and integration of places.

In this section we are going to introduce physical Geography, as a branch of geography

that brings together and interrelates the important elements of physical environment (non-
living - solid, liquids and gases) and biological environment (living) the most important
being human beings.

1.2 Objectives
i) To build upon knowledge and experience encountered in previous geography courses.
ii) Discuss the various elements of physical geography and their interactions with
biological environment
iii) Describe the role of physical geography in the study of the quality of the life layer of
the earth.

1.3 Scope of physical geography

Physical geography is areas of study that beings together and interrelates the important
elements of the physical environment of humans. Physical geography draws on several
natural sciences for this subject matter, among them include;
- Science of the atmosphere (meteorology, climatology):
- Sciences of the solid earth (geology), landforms (geomorphology) soils (soil science),
-Science of the hydrosphere (water -on- the land surface (hydrology), Oceans
(oceanography));
Sciences of biological environment (animals and plants; biogeography in general)

4
Physical geography then weaves information from the above sciences into patterns of
interaction with humans. As a branch of geography, physical geography also emphasizes
spatial relationships. This involves the systematic arrangements of environmental
elements into regions over the earth's surface, and the causes for those patterns.

The main focus of physical geography is on the life layer. This is a shallow zone of the
lands and oceans containing most of the world of organic life, which is collectively
known as biosphere.

1.4 The life layer

The quality of the life layer is a major concern of physical geography. Here quality means
the sum of the physical factors that make the life layer habitable for all forms of plants
and animals, but more particularly for humans. The quality of the physical environment
of the lands is established by factors, forces and inputs coming from both the atmosphere
above and the solid earth below. The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope surrounding the
solid earth. The atmospheric layer dictates climate, which governs the exchange of heat
and water between atmosphere and ground. The atmosphere also supplies vital elements,
like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen that are needed to sustain all life of the lands.

The solid earth or lithosphere forms the stable platform for the life layer and is also
shaped into landforms. These landscape features, for example; mountains, hills, valleys
and plains, brings another dimension to the physical environment and provide varied
habitats for plants. The solid earth is also the basic source of many nutrient elements,
without which plants and animals cannot live. These elements pass from the rocks into
the shallow soil layer, where they are held in forms available to organisms.

Water another essential material of life, permeates the life layer, the overlying
atmosphere, and the underlying solid earth. In all its forms, water on the earth constitutes
the hydrosphere. In summary, the study of physical geography can be described in the
broadest of terms as a study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere in relation to
the biosphere.

5
1.5 Goals of physical geography
Understanding the activities and changes that go on everywhere within the life layer
requires a physical geographer to think in terms of flow systems of matter and energy.
Each flow system consists of connected pathways through which matter, or energy or
both move continuously. Most of the systems physical geography is concerned with are
powered by solar energy and involve, air, water, mineral matter, or living organisms. the
inputs of energy and materials into the life layer from atmosphere and solid earth
determines the quality of the environment and the richness or poverty of the organic life
it can support. Therefore, an understanding physical geography is vital when planning for
survival of the earth's rapidly expanding human population.

Another goal of physical geography is to evaluate the impact of humans on the natural
environment. Because survival of human population will depend from pollution and
destruction. Actually, the study of the interaction between humans and their environment
is gaining wide recognition today. Physical geography has always been at the heart of
environmental studies because it is strongly oriented towards the interaction between
humans and their environment.

Summary-The study of physical geography can be described in the broadest of terms as a

study of the Lithosphere, Atmosphere and Hydrosphere in relation to the Biosphere.
Physical geography 1 (EGE 112) introduces the major characteristics of the solid earth
(or lithosphere) and the gaseous envelope surrounding it (that is, the atmosphere).

1.6 Key words

Lithosphere:- Includes rocks of the earth; how they are formed, and how they are being
acted upon by various processes (for example, denudation, deposition).
Atmosphere:- This is the region above the earth's surface to some extent. Here we have
different forces that are brought about by wind currents and pressure of the various gases.
Hydrosphere:- This includes the waters of the earth; for example, Seas, Oceans, Rivers
and also water in the atmosphere.

6
Life Layer:- This is a shallow zone of the land and oceans (and the surrounding
atmosphere), containing most of the world of organic life known as biosphere.

1.7 Exercises
a) What does physical geography encompass?
b) How can one benefit from studying the physical geography of his/her environment?

1.8 Further reading

1. Goudie, A. (1989). The nature of the environment. Basil Blackwell Ltd. U.K.
2. Knapp, B.J. (1994). Challenge of the natural environment. Longman group. U.K.

2.0 Lithosphere

2.1 Introduction
This section introduces learners to the processes (or forces) that tend to shape the solid
outer cover of the earth (lithosphere). The section also explains the sources of the energy
for these processes.

2.2 Objectives
To describe the processes that shape the lithosphere.
To illustrate how the various processes alter (mould) the earth's surface.
To explain the sources of energy for the various processes.

2.3 Types of processes

Two processes tend to shape (or mould) the lithosphere. These are (a) endogenic (b)
exogenic processes.

2.3.1 Endogenic processes:

The term endogenic is made up of two words; endo means insides and genic means
source, or generate from. Hence Endogenic means coming from inside. Processes coming
from inside the earth includes;

7
 -Volcanic activity (i.e. vulcanicity)
-Faulting (breaking & sliding against)
-Folding (Bending of layers of the earth)
Energy for the three processes comes from within the earth. And it is provided from the
decay of radioactive isotopes. Radioactive isotopes are substances which occur naturally
in the inside of the earth. These isotopes are radioactive because they gives off radiant
energy when disintegration (or decay) of their atomic nucleus takes place. Radiant energy
(or radiation) is the energy which is sent out from atoms as they undergo internal change
(disintegrate or decay). This internal change (disintegration or decay) cause simultaneous
changes in the atoms thus giving out energy in form of heat. The generated heat is the
main source of energy for endogenic processes. Endogenic processes tends to increase
relief of the earth's surface. Figure 2.0 shows how a volcanic eruption increases surface
relief.

Note:- Relief is the difference between highlands and lowlands.

Highland

Relief

Lowland

Figure 2.0 Volcanic mountain showing relief difference.

2.3.2 Exogenic processes

Exo means from outside. Therefore exogenic means originating or coming from outside.
Exogenic processes takes place at the contact of lithosphere with atmosphere on one side
and with hydrosphere on the other side. For example, when rocks of lithosphere are in
contact with air from the atmosphere and water from hydrosphere. Exogenic processes on
the lithosphere starts with weathering of rock materials so as to prepare them for erosion
and consequently transportation. Solid rock cannot normally be transported from its place

8
of origin unless it is first broken down by weathering into manageable fragments or
soluble chemicals. Once solid rock has been broken down by weathering, it can be
transported away form its original site. and later deposited. Agents of erosion,
transportation and deposition of weathered materials includes, water, wind and ice.
The main source of energy for exogenic processes is from the sun. Solar radiation creates
movements of atmosphere and hydrosphere. It is the driving power of the hydrological
cycle. Exogenic processes tends to decrease the relief of landforms (figure2.1).

Erosion Transport

Reduction
in relief

Deposition

Figure 2.1 Reduction of relief by erosion and deposition of surface materials.

2.4 Questions
a) What is the source of energy for endogenic and exogenic processes?
b) How do the two processes relate to the relief of the earth's surface?

2.5 Key words

a) Endogenic processes:- Processes originating from inside the earth.
b) Exogenic processes:- Processes taking place on the surface of the earth.
c) Radioactive isotopes:- Substances which occur naturally in the earth, that gives off
radiant energy when disintegration (or decay) of their atomic nucleus takes place.

2.6 Further readings

a) Strahler, R.J. (1974). Physical geography, 4th edition. Arnold. London.
b) Holmes, A. (1979). Elements of physical geology. Prentice Hall. New York.

9
3.0 Origin of the lithosphere

3.1 Introduction
This section introduces the learners to the various theories that explain the possible
evolutionary sequences of the solid earth (and hence, the lithosphere). The theories trace
the origin of the earth from an understanding of the origin of the Universe.

3.2 Objectives
a) To describe the origin of the constituents of the universe.
b) To explain theories that have been brought forward to suggest the possible origin of
both the universe and it's major parts.
c)To describe how the nature of light radiation supports theories that advocates expansion
of the universe.

3.3 Origin of the earth

Lithosphere is the rocks (solid part) making up the earth. Therefore, the origin of the
lithosphere is well covered under the origin of the earth. Earth is part of the solar system
i.e. sun and its planets (plus their moons). The entire of this is part of the larger universe.
Universe is the totality of matter, energy and space. The study of the universe is called
cosmology . The universe is made up of Galaxy. Galaxy is a collection of stars, gases and
dust which forms some groups. For example, the milky way seen in the sky at night is a
Galaxy. They are disc like in shape. Earth is part of this galaxy. That is, the milky way.
Our neighbouring galaxy is called Andromeda galaxy. A galaxy is held together by the
help of gravity and the number of stars in a given galaxy varies from one galaxy to the
next. But generally, within a given galaxy there are a lot of stars. Sun is a star within the
galaxy. Our milky way galaxy has more than 200 billion stars. Star (like the sun) is a
sphere of gases that are held together by its own gravity; and it must be large enough to
have a high temperature inside. Processes within the interior of a star (that is nuclear
fusion) emit energy which is in the form of heat and light. Each star makes up a solar
system. For example, constituents of our solar system consists of the sun and its planets
which are orbiting objects. There are 9 (confirmed), planets surrounding the sun. Within

10
the solar system there are also a number of natural satellites for example, the moons. Our
earth has one moon. Some planets have more than one. We also have asteroids. These are
small solid planet like bodies that are moving in their own orbits between 4 th and 5th
planets. Lastly we have comets. These are not spherical and they have very irregular
orbits. The earth itself is oval in shape. That is EW is not equal to N.S. For example,
equatorial radius that is, EW is 6378 Km while polar radius (N.S) is 6357 Km.

Summary:-
1) The constituents of the solar system includes;1 Star (sun) plus 9 planets and other
bodies
2)Galaxy contains about 200 billion stars
3) Universe is estimated to be having about 400 million galaxies.

3.4 Origin of the universe

One theory explaining the origin of the universe; believes that the universe is expanding
and that objects in the universe are moving further apart, and that galaxies are also
moving away from each other. This theory of the universe being very small and then
expanding is known as the Big Bang theory.

3.4.1 Big Bang theory

Evidence that supports the big bang theory may be explained (or studied) from the
measurements of the nature of light radiation. For example, light is transmitted in the
form of waves, and light of different colours have different wavelengths. Blue light has
short wavelengths and red light have a long wavelength. Light from distant galaxies is
shifted towards the red portion of the spectrum. This is known as the "Red Shift", Hence
we see stars (from distant galaxies at night) as Red. On the other hand Doppler effect
applies to both light and sun itself. Doppler effect states that if there is some thing
emitting radiation (vibrations) and something receiving radiation (vibrations) and the two
are moving towards each other, there is change in the wavelengths (that is, vibrations will

11
be shorter). If they are moving away from each other, the result is that the wavelength
will be longer. Therefore, when moving away from the receiver the light becomes more
reddish, (for example, the sun and other stars). But when moving towards the receiver,
the light becomes more bluish. The sky looks blue because what we see above us is
coming towards the earth (which is the receiver). This means that our neighboring
galaxies are moving away from the earth. If they were stationary, the light should be
whitish in colour. Therefore, according to this theory the universe is expanding and
galaxies are moving away from each other. This means that the universe was once
squeezed together (held together as a compact mass of matter and energy) into a single
nucleus or cosmic egg. Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe is further sub-
divided into two; open big bang and closed big bang theories.
Open Big-Bang theory:- The theory was put forward by Professor Martin Ryle of
Cambridge university 1961. According to this theory,between 10-20 billion years ago, all
the matter in the universe was compressed in a high density body (nucleus) which was
under high temperatures. For some reason this mass became unstable and there occurred
cosmic explosion (matter in this superdense fireball exploded. Most scientists believed
that internal energy in the nucleus caused it to explode. The cosmic explosion is what is
referred to as the Big-Bang. The theory believes that after the initial explosion, matter has
continued to expand (Figure 3.0).

Maximum expansion
Coming together
Big-bang explosion
Big crunch
Expansion
Next expansion

Now
20 billion years

Figure 3.0 Graphic representation of Big - Bang theory

Now during the expansion, elements were formed by the fusion of atomic protons,
electrons and neutrons. It is believed that the first elements in the universe were gases

12
hydrogen and Helium. These are the simplest chemical elements, that is, Hydrogen
followed by Helium. According to the theory, there were regions with high
concentrations of hydrogen and helium than others. Regions with high concentration
attracted regions of low concentration of these particles of gages. This created the (stars)
high density body whose matter was compressed and at high temperature. The first cut of
vast clouds of gases and dust that wee drawn together by the gravitational attraction of
neighbouring matters. During this consolidation process, the squeezed clouds of atoms
became so heated that self sustaining nuclear reactions started to emit energy causing
them to glow. In this way they became stars, like our sun
Closed or oscillating Big - bang theory:- Also known as the sandage theory has the same
basic assumptions like the open big bang theory (see figure 3.0). According to this
theory, there was high density body that exploded, and hence expanded. Expansion
continues up to a certain maximum, then, the universe begins to come together and
compression begins again. After compression of matter into a cosmic egg, explosion
breaks again and another phase of expansion of the universe begins. A third theory
related to the origin of the universe is known as Steady Theory.

3.4.2 Steady theory

This theory states that the universe has no beginning or end and its density remains the
same. The theory relates the formation of the universe to infinity past, ever since cloud
forming hydrogen atoms have condensed into planets, stars, galaxies and galaxial cluster.
It implies that things are constant in the universe. That is, the universe has not changed.

We need to note that;

The so-called 'big bang' theory leaves unanswered the question of the source of the
material that originated at the time of the tremendous explosion.
The steady state theory does not explain where the materials come from that go into
constant creation.

13
3.5 Formation of the Solar system

The universe was formed 20 billion years ago. Our own galaxy came into form about 10
billion years ago, while the solar system began to form about 5 billion years ago. The
theory about solar system formation came from "Nebular Hypothesis". According to this
study; in certain parts of the galaxy there occurred some concentrations of gases at one
region, while others were empty. High concentration was mainly at the center. The outer
parts were occupied by small concentrations scattered all over. Small concentrations
started to have some random movement around the central big particles of high
concentration. This movement was inherited from the original gas movement.
The central high concentration does not move about but only spins on its own axis
(rotates). Small concentrations spin on their axis and revolve around the central high
concentrations of gases in their own orbits. Now the small concentrations are the planets,
and the bigger central particle is the sun, which is the center of the solar system. The sun
has a temperature of about 10 million degrees centigrade and very high pressures.

3.6 Formation of the Planets and Moon

Although there are billions of stars (each with its own set of planets), the only planets we
can detect are the nine that are circling our own sun. Since our sun seems to be an
average star, it is assumed that many stars have similar planetary systems. However, they
are invisible even through the most powerful telescopes, because planets give off only
reflected light, which is extremely faint compared with light emitted by the furnace sun
like stars. The most widely accepted explanation of the birth of our planetary system
solar system) is that of Harold Urey, an American chemist (and winner of a Nobel prize).
Urey proposed that our solar system began as a rotating, disk - shaped cloud of gases and
dust. As the center of the cloud condensed to form the star we call the sun, the outer
portions broke into separate eddies that themselves condensed into spinning swarms of
solid matter in the form of planetesimals.

14
Gravitational attraction caused the separate swarms of planetesimals to condense
individually to form the existing planets. The moons of the planets are regarded as left
over planetesimal masses.
Several types of evidence indicate that the earth formed in this manner about 4.6 billion
years ago.

Note:-
Urey's theory is supported by two simple facts.
1. All the planets circle the sun in the same direction, presumably the direction of spin of
the original cloud of matter.
2. The orbits of all the planets lie in approximately the same plane, which is thought to be
the plane of the disk-like cloud.

The rotation imported to the earth at its creation is gradually showing and its what
produces the cycle of daylight and darkness. The rotation is also a primary cause of
atmospheric motion and thereby weather and climate. Revolving along its orbit results to
different seasons of the year. Now, at the beginning, the earth was composed of gases
having high temperature which cooled into a fluid (liquid) and then to a solid. According
to Urey's model, the earth was formed by the condensation of planetesimals at moderate
temperatures.

Our planet's hot interior is thought to have developed later by heating resulting from the
radioactive decay of elements in the earth's. This process continues up to present.
However, the heat that is generated is transported outward and is lost at the surface.
Radioactive decay affects the atoms of certain unstable heavy elements (such as
uranium); that change by casting off protons from the atomic nuclei. This releases energy
that heats the surrounding materials. As the earth's interior was strongly heated by
radioactive decay of unstable elements, solid material began to melt and move. Over
millions of years, according to Felix Andries vening Meinesz (1887-1966, a Dutch
geophysicist); the lighter material slowly rose and accumulated on the surface to form

15
granitic continental masses and an underlying basaltic shell of oceanic masses,
collectively known as the crust. The outer cover of the crust comprises the lithosphere.
The heaviest materials sank towards the center to form the iron/nickel core. Materials of
intermediate weight were left in between the two layers to for the mantle. The mantle
comprises of peridotite material. Eventually three concentric shells evolved as shown in
figure 3.1. The structure of the earth will be covered in detail in section 5.6.

Crust

Mantle

Core

Figure 3.1 Concentric shells (layers) making up the earth

Now, before the formation of the earth, everything was at estimates (of age) based on
how the cosmologists thought.
When the earth came into being, measurements were for the earth and not for the entire
universe. This measurement of the age of the earth or more precisely the age of rocks
making up the earth is referred to as geological time.

3.7 Key words

a) Asteroids:- Are solid bodies between Mars and Jupiter. They are thought to be pieces
of an ancient planet that disintegrated perhaps by collision of two small planets.
b) Milky way:- Is a spiral burning with the light of more than 200 billion stars.

16
3.8 Exercises
a) How did the universe began?
b) What makes the sun shine?
c) Where did the planets come from?
d) What happens when a meteorite hits the earth?
e) Which are the main constituents of the solar system?

3.9 Further reading

a) Holmes, A. (1979). Elements of physical geology.Prentice Hall. New York.
b) Ollier, C. (1981). Tectonics and landforms. Longman group Ltd. New York.

17
4.0 Age of the lithosphere

4.1 Introduction
This section introduces learners to the various methods used to place lithosphere rocks
and any material in their positions in time. Advantages and disadvantages of using the
different types of measurements of age are also described.

4.2 Objectives
(i) To introduce the geological timescale and its major units.
(ii) To describe the two types of measurements of geological time
(iii) To explain the principles and facts about the two types of dating.

4.3 The geological time scale

To place crustal rocks and any material in their positions in time, we need to refer to
some major units in the scale of geological time. Geological time is divided into 4-eras
(geological eras). The geological eras are subdivided into various periods as shown in the
table 4.0. Then, the periods are subdivided into Epoch, each with a specific age and
duration of time.

Measurements of geological time helps us (as geographers) to arrive at the age(s) of rocks
making up the earth. When measuring the age of a rock, we also measure the activity or
process that brought it into existence. For example, such activities or processes include,
volcanic eruption, deposition like in the case of sedimentary rocks and so on. There are
two types of measurements of geological time. These are; Relative and Absolute dating.

4.4 Relative dating

Relative dating method is based on, older than or younger than or same age. It is divided
into two techniques; The principal of superposing and Fossil evidence.

18
Table 4.0 Geological Time Scale.
ERA PERIOD EPOCH DURATION AGE Million
Million Years. Years B.P.
Cenozoic Quaternary Holocene (recent) 10,000 yrs 2
Pleistocene 2
Tertiary Pliocene 3 5
Miocene 19 24
Oligocene 13 37
Eocene 21 58
Paleocene 8 66
Mesozoic Cretaceous 78 144
Jurassic 64 208
Triassic 37 245
Paleozoic Permian 41 286
Carboniferous 34 320
40 360
Devonian 48 408
Siluvian 30 438
Ordovician 67 505
Cambrian 65 570
Precambrian Late Precambrian
0.3 - 0.4 0.9 - 1.0
Middle 1.6 - 2.5
Precambrian
Early 0.9 - 1.0 3.6 - 3.8
Precambrian

Note;- Earth accretion was completed 4.6 - 4.7 billion years (b.y.) before present
(B.P.) Age of the universe 17 - 18 b.y. B.P.

4.4.1 Principle of superposing

This type of dating states that under normal conditions underlying rocks are older than
the ones over them. For example, a sedimentary rock made up of three layers as shown in
figure 4.0, will have the youngest rocks being on the top layer.

3 Youngest (top)

2 Intermediate

1 Oldest

Figure 4.0 Layers of a sedimentary rock

19
In the case of a volcanic eruption, the situation is almost the same (Figure 4.1).

Vent

3 youngest layer

2 intermediate layer

1 oldest layer

Figure 4.1 Layers in a volcanic eruption

Also, if two different rocks at different places have the same properties it means that they
are of the same age. For example, rock A will be the same as rock B and C, hence the
same age.
Lake

A
………… C

Figure 4.2 Superposing of sedimentary layers

In figure 4.2, the lake water may deposit sediments on top of the rock layers (strata) such
that younger rocks will be introduced in that section.

20
In such a situation the rocks under this layer will still have the same properties with the
other rocks which are on top of the sequence at (A, B and C). But even at such a
condition, rocks A, B and C are considered to be of the same age. There are a number of
problems associated with this type of dating. For example, the principle of superposing
(That is, to put on top of something else) can only be applied when you have a good
vertical sequence of rocks. (road or construction cutting).

To overcome this; one can drill the rocks and check rock specimens at different depth.
But even here; complication arise where we have a lot of tectonic activities, for example,
folding, faulting and also volcanic activity.

In the case of faulting you start with a straight strata.

Downward movement
3 3
3
2 2
2
1 3
1 2
1
Fault line

After severe faulting activity a

Figure 4.3 Reversal of strata sequence after faulting

reverse in the order of layering occurs. In the intrusive type of volcanic eruption (sill)
such areas can easily confuse the superposing order as shown in figure 4.4. At A (sill),
intrusive material was forced in after layer 2 and 3 were already formed. This means that
although A is below layer 3 , obviously 3 is older.

21
If you observe the chemical composition of layer 3 and 2 around 'A',you will note that
they have been altered by the great heat accompanying the volcanic eruption.

4
A
3

Figure 4.4 Complication due to a volcanic intrusion.

Therefore the principle of superposing needs detailed mapping and a skill of the geology
of an area.

(b) Fossil evidence:- Fossils are the remains of bodies of once living organisms (animals,
plants, insects etc), that have been preserved within rocks. They undergo minelization
e.g. silization like of mineral silica. These processes hardens the remains or traces of
plant or animal life of some previous geological age, thus this is preserved in the earth's
crust. Hence, the structure of the original organism is preserved. This enables a study of a
fossil to determine what it was. Fossil rocks dating assumes the principle of evolution
(that is, change of living organisms with time). According to the principle of evolution;
creatures on earth at early stages were very simple (unicellular). These are the single
celled organisms (for example, amoeba). Through time, living organisms have become
larger and more complex.

22
 Fossil A

Fossil B

Tree of evolution

Figure 4.6 Evolution tree

If fossil B is younger than fossil A it means that all rocks around fossil B are younger
than those rocks around fossil A. Therefore, the procedure here involves the following
steps.

-Look for the fossil (dig)

-Determine the source (animal or plant).
-Then, check where the organism (animal or plant) fits in the evolution tree.

There are two major problems associated with fossil evidence. For example, many rocks
don't contain fossils. Fossils are mostly found in sedimentary rocks but not all. Also, in
most situations, fossils are hard to identify, because they may be many broken pieces of
say bones in case of animals.

Note; Also that,

A general problem of relative dating methods is that:
Both these methods (i.e. principal of superposing and fossil evidence) gives the order
older than or younger than, but does not give difference (s) in years. To overcome this
absolute dating is used.

23
4.4.2 Absolute dating. This method is generally known as "Isotopic dating or radioactive
dating. The principle underlying absolute dating technique is based on the following; -
Elements are made up of atoms.
-Atoms are minute particles (diameter 10-8 cm)
-Atoms of different elements vary in character and structure. But atoms of one element
are the same.
Atoms can further be divided into smaller particles. There are 3 particles which make up
an atom.
(i) Electron: negative electric charge (E).
(ii) Proton: positive electric charge (P).
(iii) Neutrons: electrically neutral (N).

Now, atoms consists of a central part called the nucleus. This is made up of protons and
neutrons which are tightly packed. Around this central part is electrons in circular paths.

We describe elements by their atomic numbers. Atomic number is the number of protons
in the nucleus. The number of protons is always equal or identical to the number of
electrons which move round the nucleus. For an atom to be electrically neutral it must
have equal number of protons and electrons. As said earlier neutrons are electrically
neutral. Therefore, you can have 1, 2 or more neutrons (than protons) in the nucleus but
this can not change the character of an atom. That is, the atom remains electrically
neutral. This brings about the existence of isotopes. Isotopes are different varieties of a
particular elements where the number of protons and electrons remain fixed but the
number of neutrons vary.

Atomic number of an element = number of protons in its nucleus = number of electrons.

Atomic weight or mass number = no of protons + no of Neutrons. For example, the
element Oxygen has 3 different isotopes or exists in 3 different isotopic forms.

(i) Most common oxygen 16 - O16 =8P; 8E;

8N Atomic Number = 8

24
Atomic Weight = 16.
(ii) Oxygen 17 - O17 = 8P; 8E;
9N At No -8
At weight - 17
(iii) Oxygen 18 - O18 = 8P; 8E; 10N
At No - 8
At weight - 18

Another example is Carbon;

C12 - 6P; 6E; 6N
C13 -6P; 6E; &N
C14 - 6P; 6E; 8N

Potassium has the following isotopes

K39 - 19P; 19E; 20N
K40 - 19P; 19E; 21 N
K41 - 19P; 19E; 22N

The important thing about these isotopes is that quite a number of them are radioactive,
e.g. O18; C14 and K40. Some of these isotopes occur naturally while others are prepared
in the laboratory. Most isotopes are stable, therefore they can undergo normal chemical
reaction. Radioactive isotopes undergo normal chemical reaction but decay
spontaneously in which the atom of the element change into another atom and give
energy. This process is known as radioactive decay and is the one used in "isotopic dating
or Radioactive dating.

25
Note;- Some facts about decay.
-For a particular radio-active isotope, decay takes place at a steady rate. That is, every
isotope has a particular rate of decay.
-The rate of decay of an isotope is not influenced by external conditions i.e. temperature,
pressure, moisture and/or chemical combination in the isotope.
-The rate of decay is expressed as a quantity "HALF LIFE'' of that isotope. Definition of
half life: - If we start with X atoms how long will it take to reduce x atoms into X/2 (sec,
hrs, minutes).
i.e., the time taken for the number of atoms to be reduced from x atoms X/2 atoms.

-Some decay extremely quickly (i.e. one second to some few hours)
-Isotopes which takes long to decay are the ones used in isotopic dating (absolute dating).
e.g. C14 takes between 5577 - 5600 years i.e. its half -life is 5577.
K40 has a half-life of 1300 million year or 1.3 billion years.
-It is possible to measure accurately the relative amount of different isotopes present in a
rock or a fossil (bone, wood etc). This is measured using a mass spectrometer. Stable
isotope of an atom in a given sample is > 99%.
Radioactive isotope of an atom in a given sample is < 1%.
-We use mass spectrometer to measure these ratios. With the ratios we can be able to
calculate the number of half lives and hence the age of a sample.

4.4.3 Example of radioactive dating

Potassium argon dating (k/ar):- This method is used for dating volcanic rocks and some
metamorphic rocks. As volcanic rocks cool, they form crystals (framework of atoms).
Many volcanic rocks have felspar crystals. Among components of feldspar is potassium
(K) which have K39; K41, both stable and K40 which is unstable. K40 (unstable ), is
undergoing decay, and it decays in several ways. K40 decays giving atoms of the gas
Argon (Ar).

26
That is, 19K40 ----decay--to 18Ar40 + 1e0
If the crystals of Potassium (K),are solid and strong the atoms of Argon (Ar) are trapped
inside the crystal. As time passes and more atoms of k 40 decays, there will be maximum
Potassium and zero Argon. As time passes and as long as the crystals remain
undisturbed, the amount of K40 will become less and the amount of Argon increases.
Hence, K40 is "mother isotope and Ar is "Daughter isotopes''. When a volcanic rock is
collected, feldspar is removed in the laboratory and the amount of K40 and Ar present is
measured. The more the daughter (Ar) isotope the more older the rock is. The more the
mother isotope (K40) the younger the rock is. Potassium/Argon dating is used for dating
very old rocks e.g. rock in western Kenya that are over 2900 million years.

K40 /Ar dating has some disadvantages. For example;

1) Although K40 & Ar are abundant not all rocks contain them.
2) Argon is a gas therefore atoms of it will leak to the atmosphere if crystals are
not compact, this will mean that the mother rock will seem younger than it is.
3) Quantities formed are very small, therefore a small error in counting will give very
wrong results.
4) Apparatus used are very expensive, also skilled techniques are needed thus limiting
the K40 /Ar dating. -

4.5 Key words

a) Isotopes:- Are different varieties of a particular element where the number of
protons and electrons remain fixed but the number of neutrons vary.
b) Half life:- This is the time taken for the number of atoms to be reduced to half after
each radioactive decay.
c) Fossils:- Are remains of once living organisms that have been preserved within rocks
by undergoing mineralization.

27
4.6 Questions
a) Differentiate between Era and Period in Geological time scale.
b) Which are the epochs of quaternary period?
c) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the various dating techniques.

4.7 Further reading

1) Weyman, D. (1981). Tectonic processes. Allen & Urwin Ltd. London.
2) Holmes, A. (1979). Elements of physical geology. Prentice Hall. New York.

28
5.0 Internal structure of the earth

5.1 Introduction
This section describes how the study of meteorites and earthquake waves may be used
to explain the internal structure of the earth. The various concentric shells (layers) of the
earth are illustrated. Lastly, the section describes the different parts of the crust.

5.2 Objectives
a) To describe how the constituents of meteorites may be used to deduce the
internal structure of the earth.
b) To illustrate how the behaviour of seismic waves may be used to establish the nature
of the concentric layers in the earth.
c) To explain the various regions of the crust.

5.3 Introduction
In the interior of the earth there are high temperatures and pressures, and it is believed
that matter does not behave exactly like the matter on the surface. Unfortunately, rocks in
the interior can not be observed due to the large distances across the interior of the earth.
But we can collect data on the interior by;

(i)- Deep drilling: But here we can only drill about 10 km. We can not drill deeper
than this into the interior.
(ii)- Study of volcanic rocks: One problem here is that volcanic rocks originate near the
surface but not at the center of the earth. Another problem is that during eruption the lava
(magma) changes in form (it solidifies rapidly).
(iii)- Dating of rocks to get age of formation: As mentioned earlier, this is only
applicable to those rocks that are at or near the surface of the earth.
(iv)- Study of meteorites:- This is an indirect way of finding about the interior of the
earth. Meteorites are small objects which are part of the solar system, thus they move
in orbits around the sun.

29
5.4 Meteorites
As the earth moves around the sun it frequently passes near small solid objects that
are found in interstellar space (i.e. space between planets, or stars).

Question: What is the source of meteorites?

The solid objects are attracted by the earth's gravity and hence fall towards the earth.
They are seen as meteors when they enter the earth's atmosphere. An estimated and
billion of these meteoroids enter the earth's atmosphere daily. Most meteoroids are very
tiny (the size of a sand grain or smaller), but some are quite big. They cannot be seen
during the day, but on a clear night one can see the path of these bodies as they fall
through the sky because they illuminate the dark atmosphere as a result of giving off
light. They are often referred to as shooting stars. They glow (that is, become white hot)
in the dark giving off light because of ionizing the atmosphere as they fall. Now, as a
meteorite passes through the atmosphere it vaporizes and particles fly off. Therefore,
some do not reach the ground surface of the earth. The scientific name for the luminous
stage is meteor. That is, meteor is the shooting star. Then, meteors that strike the ground
are called meteorites. Large meteorites are rarely encountered on the surface of the
earth. The largest known meteorite is one found in South Africa weighing 59,000
kilograms, but the majority weigh only a few kilograms. But hundreds of tons of
meteorite dust are added to the earth daily. There are two types of meteorites;

1) - Metallic meteorites, consist of an iron-nickel alloy and, 2) - Stony meteorites, that

consist of rocks.

We can deduce something from the composition of meteorites. Scientists believe that the
composition of meteorites can tell something about the interior of the earth because they
have the same age as the earth (4.5 - 4.7 billion years). Thus they came into existence at
the same time as the earth. Because they are part of the solar system, we believe that they
were formed in the same way as the earth but didn't grow as large as the earth. There are
ten different types of meteorites. 9 out of 10 of them are stony and contain the same

30
minerals as the earth. That is, Silica and feldspar. The other type (1 out of 10) is metallic
and contain iron and nickel. From this study of the composition of meteorite we deduce
that part of the earth is stony while the other is metallic. We can also study the interior
of the earth by seismic survey. Such a study is referred to as seismology.

5.5 Seismology
This is the most modern method used to study the composition of the earth. It is the
study of vibrations in the earth caused by earthquakes. Similar vibrations can also
be formed by underground activities for example, radioactivity.

Question: How is an earthquake formed?

5.5.1 Earthquakes
An earthquake is formed by the development of stress between rocks. Stress develop
from endogenic processes, causing one layer or block of rock to act on another block.
This causes stress that builds up until it exceeds the stress of a rock. Thus the rock
breaks and moves, releasing energy. When the rock breaks the energy stored in it is
released to all parts of the crust and we fill it as vibrations that are called seismic waves.
An earthquake takes place when seismic waves reaches the surface of the earth.

Note: An earthquake does not cause folding, faulting or vulcanicity: - But these
processes are the ones that causes earthquakes. When a fold, fault or volcanic eruption
take place the energy released is transmitted as seismic waves and felt as an earthquake
on the surface.

5.5.2 Seismic waves

When energy is released by faulting, folding and so on, it is transmitted in all directions
from the point where there was faulting or folding. The instrument used to measure
these transmissions is called a seismograph (Figure 5.0).

31
 Spring

Weight
Drawing pen

Cylinder

Figure 5.0 Various parts of a Seismograph

The seismograph contains a cylinder rotating at a known speed. On the cylinder is a paper
and against the cylinder an arm with a pen. This pen is just touching the paper and it has
ink. If there is any change (or if there are vibrations), the pen draws a map (graph) on the
paper. The arm has a weight and a spring on it. If a vibration hits the ground, the arm
moves up and down; and because one end is fixed, the end with a pen will make some
drawings on the paper against the cylindrical drum. These drawings on the seismograph
paper represents the vibrations of the ground (Figure 5.1).

Amplitude

Figure 5.1 Drawings on a Seismograph showing the amplitude of a seismic wave

32
5.5.3 Behaviour of seismic waves
There are different types of seismic waves We have the body waves and surface waves.
Surface waves are transmitted along the surface of the earth. Body waves are transmitted
to the interior of the earth. The body waves are called the P and S waves From these, we
can be able to define the vibrations of the earth.

P- (primary) waves are also called the "push and pull waves because of their nature of
vibrations. These waves can be transmitted through any medium solid and liquid. S -
(Secondary) waves , also called the shear waves, are concerned with sideways
movement. These waves moves up and down with vibrations transmitted only in solids.
P- waves moves faster than S - waves in solids. S - waves do not pass through a liquid.
Now, both waves (P and S waves) travels faster in rocks of higher densities. Then, in one
kind of rock P-waves will always travel faster than S - waves. When the waves move
between rocks of different densities, the speed changes and also the direction. This
changing of direction is called refraction. Hence the waves do not move in a straight line
within the earth's crust but the direction changes.
At any part of the crust of the earth, P-waves travel at 5 Km/sec and S - waves travel at
3 Km/sec. At the base of the mantle, P - waves travels at 13km/sec and S waves at 6-7
km/sec.

Sources of these two types of seismic waves (P and S) are earthquakes. The origin of an
earthquake is known as a Focus. This is where an earthquake originates. The focus of the
earthquake is where a rock is releasing energy when breaking. We define the focus
according to the depth from the ground. Shallow focus is less than 100km, but deep
focus earthquakes are as deep as 700km below the surface. On the other hand, epicentre:
of an earthquake, is the place on the earth's surface vertically above the focus. It can be
identified on a map because it is on the earth's surface. It is usually a place at which the
earthquake is first and greatly felt (that is, an area with highest magnitude). Magnitude is
obtained from measuring the amplitude of the graph drawn on a seismo graph (figure
5.1).

33
 The amplitude expresses the total energy released by an earthquake and is expressed
according to the Richter scale. This scale has values 1-9; but there are also decimals
e.g. 5.6; 8.7; 3.4 etc on the Richter scale. For example, 8.9 on the Richter scale is a very
strong earthquake.

Question: How do earthquakes tell about the interior of the earth?

Seismic
waves F(earthquake focus at time T.

S4
S1

Seismographs at
Core
various stations (s1;s2;s3 and s4)

S2
S3

Shadow zone

Figure 5.2 How seismic waves travels through the earth

The seismograph picks and records vibrations which can't be felt by human beings.
Vibrations travel through the earth (Figure 5.2), and recordings are made at seismographs
S1, S2, S3, S4 etc.

Note:
The density of a rock controls the speed of vibrations. For each seismograph time of
arrival of vibrations will be recorded. Also, the state of rocks below, either solid or liquid
controls the time taken. Therefore by use of the time taken, the density can be arrived at.

If vibrations from F (focus) to S3 is faster than expected, it means that the density is
higher for the rocks through which vibrations passed. According to figure 5.2, there is no

34
S - waves recorded at S3, only P waves. Since S-waves does not pass through a liquid, it
means that in the center of the earth, there is a liquid which blocks S-waves from passing.
Shadow zone is a region on the surface opposite the focus "F" where S waves are not
recorded:

Summary
We can use deductions from earthquake vibrations to establish the nature of the
interior of the earth: This may be done by noting: -
(i) - The arrival time and time of the earthquake. After that, we can deduce the speed of
transmission of waves. From this we then investigate the density of rocks through
which the waves passed.
(ii) - We also need to know whether the S-waves are blocked or not; then we can be
able to know whether the vibrations passed through a rock that is in a liquid state/or not.

This has helped geologists to come up with the present structure of the interior of
the earth.

5.6The interior of the earth

Crust

Mohorosovicic discontinuity

Mantle (upper and lower)

Gutenberg discontinuity

Inner core

Outer core

Figure 5.3 Internal structure of the earth

35
 Table 5.0 Depth of the various layers in the interior of the earth.
UNIT DEPTH (KM)
From To
CRUST 0 10-65
UPPER MANTLE 10-65 400
Transmission zone - (T Z) 400 1000
LOWER MANTLE 1000 2900
OUTER CORE 2900 4980
T. Z. 4980 5120
INNER CORE 5120 5370

5.6.1 Crust
The crust starts from the surface of the earth, a thickness ranging from 10 km below the
seas and oceans to 65 km on the high mountains (Figure 5.4).

High mountain

Continent
Sial
Upper crust Sea level

65km 35 km

Lower crust 10km

Sima

Continental shelf

Figure 5.4 Structure of the crust

36
Below high mountains, the crust is extended downwards. The crust is divided into upper
and lower crust. The upper crust is the Sial because it contains mainly silica and alumina
minerals. These minerals are the main constituents of granitic rocks. 92 % of the sial is
igneous and metamorphic rocks, the remaining 8% are sedimentary rocks. The sial does
not extend to the deep seas and oceans. The region of the upper crust which is below the
oceans or seas is called continental shelf (Figure 5.4). The lower crust is called Sima. It
contains silica and magnesium minerals. These are the constituents basaltic rock (oceanic
rock), whose density is 3.0gm/cm3. Most of the continental crust is older than 1500
million years, but some parts are as old as 3500 million years.
The sima or oceanic rocks are older than 200 million years, but towards the middle of the
oceans, some rocks are even younger.

Note
The rocks of the crust are solid and rigid. They transmit both S and P waves. At the base
of the crust (that is, Mohorovicic discontinuity), there is a sudden change in velocity of S
and P waves. In the lower parts of the mantle it is 8Km/sec; but after entering the crust it
is 6 - 7 Km/sec. This change in velocity shows that the mantle has a higher density.

5.6.2 Mantle
It is believed that the mantle is rocky rather than metallic. The average density is 4.5
gm/cm3. This density leads us to deduce that it is rocky because metallic compounds are
more dense. The other evidence is by analysing rocks that are found close to the surface
of the earth and with (or containing) mantle compounds. There are certain geological
situations where rocks from the upper mantle are close to the surface e.g. in Cyprus at
Troodos mountains. The rocks found in these mountains are of high density called
Peridotite (similar to mantle compounds).

37
Another situation which can give evidence is in the diamond mines (Figure 5.5).

Surface
Diamond pipe

120 km

Figure 5.5 Diamond pipe

Diamond represent rocks, which have come below the crust. Diamond themselves are
accompanied by the rocks Eclogite which is a dense form of basalt (also a compound of
the mantle). Both of these evidence give us information about the mantle. The division of
the upper and lower mantle, and the transitional zone is based on density. The whole of
the crust and part of the upper mantle form the Lithosphere. This is about 70km from the
earth's surface. The lithosphere is a strong and rigid layer that is solid. We believe this
because the P and S waves are transmitted in the lithosphere. P and S waves moves more
slowly after passing a region called low velocity zone which is below the lithosphere.
This is a zone of low density and is below the low velocity zone. It has a depth of 250 km
and is known as Asthenosphere (Figure 5.6).

38
 Asthenosphere is an area of weakness. The region is believed not to be rigid and about
1% -10% of the rocks are melted (that is, fluid). Astheno - means weak or no strength.
Asthenosphere is between the low velocity zone down to a depth of 250 km

Change in density

Change in structure

Crust
Mohorovicic discontinuity

Lithosphere

Low velocity zone Upper

mantle

Asthenosphere 250km

Low density zone - rocks may be melted (i.e. fluid)

Figure 5.6 Transmission of seismic waves in the lithosphere and asthenosphere

In the molten (fluid) region (i.e. the asthenosphere) there is a low velocity in the
transmission of waves. At the base of the mantle, 2900 km, temperatures are estimated to
be 3700oC and pressure of 1.2 megabars (1.2 million times the atmospheric pressure
which is just 1 bar). Below the mantle we have the gutenberg discontinuity.

5.6.3 Gutenberg discontinuity

Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the mantle and the core. S waves do not
pass through the core and therefore we can conclude that rocks in the core are in the
liquid state. There is a transition zone between the outer and inner core. The outer core is
in liquid state and the inner core in the solid state. All this is based on wave vibrations set
by earthquakes.

39
5.6.4 Core
The density ranges between 10-13 gm/cm3. These high density elements are metals.
The metallic elements are Iron and Nickel Metallic meteorites are believed to be similar
with the inner core of the earth.

The earth has a magnetic field, we believe that the magnetic field is generated from
within the interior of the earth. This is generated from a magnetic substance like, Iron,
nickel, cobalt and steel (since the core is made up of Iron & Nickel- it can do the job. A
liquid core made up of Iron and Nickel can have a movement, which can cause this
magnetic field.

The pressure in the inner core is estimated to be 3.2 megabars and temperatures of
4300oC. This is quite high compared to the crust. At the surface of the earth rock
temperature is 6oC. At 400 M below the surface- temperature is about 27oC. At the base
of the crust (that is, approximately 800M), temperatures are between are 600 - 1000oC.

Question: Where does this heat come from?

The source of heat is from the decaying of radioactive elements like Potassium 40,
Thorium 232, Uranium 235, 238 etc. Therefore, heat of the earth is continually being
generated and not inherited from an original molten earth. This means that the earth was
never in complete molten liquid form. If the earth was molten, it means that it would have
given all its heat since the time of its formation. In future when all radioactive decays, the
earth will lose its heat.

40
Summary
The crust has got the lowest temperature and temperature increases as we go deep into
the earth. But, the increase is not uniform for all parts of the earth. In some regions the
source of heat is quite near the surface, whereas in others it is located far deep into the
earth. The location of the source(s) of heat with respect to the surface determines the
stability of the crust at different parts of the earth. To explain the stability of the crust,
geologists have come up with the theory of plate tectonics.

5.7 Key words

i) Meteors: Small solid pieces of asteroids that travel through space. They can not
be seen during the day, but on a clear night one can see the path of these bodies as
they fall through the sky, because they illuminate the dark atmosphere.
ii) Meteorites: These are the meteors that strike the ground surface of the earth.
iii) Seismic waves: Vibrations that are transmitted in all directions within the earth
from the focus.
iv) Focus: This is the point within the earth where a rock releases energy that sets the
vibration.

5.8 Questions
a) How do meteorites compare with the earth?
b) What is the difference between P and S waves?
c) How can seismic waves be used to interpret the internal structure of the earth?
d) What makes earthquakes to happen?

5.9 Further reading

1. Nyamweru, C.K. (1980) Rifts and volcanoes. Thomas Nelson & sons Ltd. Nairobi.
2. Goudie, A. (1989) The nature of the environment. Basil Blackwell Ltd. U.K.

41
6.0 Plate tectonics theory

6.1 Introduction
The crust plus a small section of the upper mantle forms the lithosphere. Lithosphere is
not continuous cover over the earth, but is broken into a number of pieces. These pieces
are referred to as plates. Plates are not equal in size.

This section describes the various regions making up the crust and their respective
positions on plates. The properties and movements of plates are also considered. The
movement of plates and how this relates to the continental drifting theory is explained.
Lastly, an explanation of the stages in the formation of the present continents and the
underlying evidence for their existence in the past is provided.

6.2 Objectives
a) To describe the various regions of the crust.
b) To relate the properties and movements of the plates to continental drifting.
c) To trace the various stages in the formation of the present continents.
d) To illustrate the different classes of evidence that may be used to justify continental
drift theory.

6.3 Regions of the crust

The crust is made up of two regions; (a) Continental and (2) Oceanic crusts. Continental
crust carries the continents while oceanic crust is the part occupied by oceans (or oceanic
floor).

6.3.1 Continental crust

The parts occupied by the continent can be divide into 4 different Regions depending on
the activities and materials making them. These are; platforms, shields, semi - mobile and
mobile belts.

42
a) Platforms: These are stable regions, which are made up of metamorphic rocks. They
have been worn down over the last 500 million years ago by erosion. At present they
have been covered by layers of young sedimentary rocks. Here, no faulting or folding
have taken place. Examples include; North Africa in Sahara, N. America in the Great
plains.

b) Shields: They are stable regions of old metamorphic rocks which are heavily eroded.
They are not covered by young rocks. Hence they have been exposed to the surface. For
example, shields in Sweden, Scandinavia and Finland.

c) Semi Mobile Belts: These are the old fold mountain ridges. Folding took place 250-
500 million years ago. Then, there was uplift again about 50 million years ago. At present
they are stable. Examples include, Appalachian mountains, in N. America and Snowy
mountains in Australia.

d)Mobile Belts: Are regions where endogenic processes concentrated. They can be
divided into three categories depending on how recent the endogenic processes are.
(i) Young fold mountains: - (120 million years ago) These are still forming (from 25
million years to present. At the same time rapid erosion is taking place. Examples
includes Alps, Rocky, Himalayas and Atlas mountains.
(ii) Volcanic Zones:- Regions where rapid volcanically is taking place for example, along
some continental margins.
(iii) Major Rift valleys: - For example, East African Rift Valley with continuous
extension to Red Sea. It was formed about 30 million years ago and its activity is still
going on.

43
Summary
The major characteristics of mobile belts in general is that:-
- they tend to be elongated. For example, volcanoes are in long chain of a line
- Endogenic processes do not occur in isolation. They interact or combine. For example,
fold mountains can be in areas of volcanic eruptions.
- volcanoes and rifting occur together
- earthquakes are common in or near the belts. Earthquakes are as a result of endogenic
processes and not vice versa. That is, they do not generate the processes (volcanicity,
folding, faulting or rifting)

6.3.2 Oceanic Crust

In old days, it was difficult to measure the depth of oceans. In recent days we use echo -
sounding to measure the depth under ocean waters. This helps in understanding its
composition of ocean floor. Division between continent and ocean does not take place at
sea level. There is a wide continental margin (A), at the border of land and sea (figure
6.0). Platform that extends below sea-level is called continental shelf (i). The average
length of continental shelf is about 65km and 200m in depth. Next there is a steep slope
where the continental shelf ends, this is called continental slope (ii). This is about 750-
2000m deep.

Material of sediments are brought down and moves across the continental shelf,
continental slope and down to the bottom of the ocean, thus bringing about continental
rise (iii).

44
a) Ocean basin floor
The topography here is different from sea level across. The actual ocean basin floor,
known as Abyssal plains(B), is a wide area of low gradient (Figure 6.0). In most cases,
they are covered by sediments, which originate from land surface and brought down the
continental shelf and slope.

Coast (i) (ii) (iii) Sea level Sea mount Trench Island arc Coast

A
A B C B A

A - Continental margins - (i) Continental shelf

(ii) Continental slope
(iii) Continental rise
B - Ocean basin floor (abyssal plains)
C - Mid - ocean ridge system

Figure 6.0 The various parts of ocean basin floor.

There are hills rising above abyssal plains called sea mounts, oceanic hills or knolls.
(Figure 6.0). The hills vary in height and are quite common in pacific ocean. Most of the
sea mounts are made up of volcanic rocks. This means that volcanic eruption took place
below oceanic waters. There are also trenches that are long narrow and steep sided

45
(common in western pacific). Here oceans get deepest (some are even 11, 000 M below
sea level). Trenches are zones of intensive earthquake activities (or seismic activity).
We also have island arcs. These are lines of active volcanoes that occur between trenches
and the main land. Some go to the extent of rising above sea level as islands. For example
the Japanese islands.
Question: Which features do we expect to find from South America across the Atlantic
ocean to western coast of Africa.
b) Mid - oceanic ridge system
Mid - oceanic ridge systems are active (or unstable), because there are a lot of endogenic
processes that take place. Mid ocean ridge is a broad swelling of about 1000 Km length
and 1000 - 3000 m in height. It is a convex updoming and at the top there is a narrow
trough very similar to a rift valley, as shown in figure 6.0. The trough has variable width
(80-320km) and depth of about 1000m. The depth came to be known recently, after the
discovery of echo sounding. Ridges are important because they are the centres of
volcanic and earthquake activities. In the Atlantic ocean, there is a mid ocean ridge
between S. America and W.Africa called Mid - Atlantic ridge (Figure 6.1). Crest of
Ridge

Africa

South America

Mid-Atlantic ridge

Figure 6.1 Mid - Atlantic ridge system in Atlantic ocean

46
Everywhere this ridge is below sea level, but there are few places where volcanoes have
raised rocks to form islands.
For example, South Atlantic region has such islands known as Tristan da Cunha. In
Northern Atlantic Iceland Islands is an example - These islands are made up of volcanic
rocks.
Question:- What makes mid - oceanic ridges important.?
Mid oceanic ridges are important because they are the boundaries of stable regions of the
crust. Some of the activities and features in the stable and unstable regions of the crust
are shown in table 6.0.

Table 6.0 Some features and activities in the unstable and stable regions of the crust.
Unstable regions Stable regions
- much endogenic activity Little endogenic activity
- earthquakes Very few earthquakes
-mid ocean Ridges Abyssal plains
- trenches Platforms
-islands arcs Shields
-rift Valley Old fold mountains
- young fold mountains Semi mobile belts.
- volcanic chains on continents
- mobile belts.

Earthquakes, volcanoes and high mountains are not randomly distributed over the earth's
surface. They are often concentrated in active zones (unstable regions). The active zones
coincide with boundaries of the plates on which the continents are transported (Figure
6.2). In between these active zones you get wide areas of relative stability - where there is
little or no activity.
Question:- Why does the earth have this contrast Or why, do we have differences in
stability?.

47
Geologists have come up with the theory of plate tectonics. Tectonics are force from
within that produce changes on the earth. The theory explains about the earth's major
geological structures and in particular, the theory discusses about their past, present and
future positions.

Figure 6.2 Earth's plate boundaries. Earthquakes, volcanoes and high mountains often
coincide with plate boundaries.

48
Note;-
Plate tectonics is a very young theory; It outlines or it is based on the following
principles.
i) The earth surface is made up of a number of plates. These plates are made of
lithosphere, (that is, the crust plus some small section of upper mantle). Plates are not
equal in size. All plates form in stable (inactive) zones.
ii) Between the plates, there are boundaries, which are the mobile active (unstable)
zones.

6.3.3 Properties of plates.

1) Relatively stable
2) Plates tends to be rather broad areas.
3) They may be continental or oceanic That is, either continental lithosphere and oceanic
lithosphere. The boundaries of plates need not run along the margins of a continent.
4) Plates are solid and rigid since they are made of lithosphere.
5) Plates seem to float on the underlying asthenosphere (that is, low velocity zone).
Asthenosphere is partly fluid.
6) Plates are capable of moving across the asthenosphere. It is possible that convection
currents within the asthenosphere cause plates to move (Figure 6.3).

Compression
Plate 1
boundary Plate 2 Plate 3
Extension boundary

Continent Continent
A B Continent
C

Convection cell Convection cell

Figure 6.3 Plate tectonics and continental drift

49
7) This movement is not noticeable at the middle of the plate, but the effect will be
noticeable at the boundaries.

6.3.4 Plate boundaries

These are unstable or mobile zones. They are recognised by the high frequency of
earthquakes in these areas. However, three different kinds of boundaries are recognised
depending on the relative movement of plates.
1) Plates could be moving away form each other.
2) Plates could be moving towards each other
3) Moving past each other sideways. This is called lateral or shear movement.

These movements are known as:-

Extension Boundaries :- Two plates moving away from each other
Compression Boundaries : - Two plates moving towards each other.
Transform fault boundaries: - Two plates moving laterally past each other.

6.4 Different types of boundaries

6.4.1 Extension Boundaries
These are the mobile zones where two plates are moving apart. Along these boundaries
these is an upward movement of volcanic rock from upper mantle into the crust. Most
extension boundaries lie below the ocean. Very few lie on the land. Rift valley is an
example of extension boundary on the land. When volcanic material (mantle materials)
moves up into the crust, two things may occur:-
i) Either the materials are erupted on the surface as volcanic eruption, on land or below
sea level (floor of the ocean).
ii) The magma (material form mantle) cools and hardens within the lithosphere close to
the earth's surface (that is, intrusive volcanic activity or hypabyssal rock when near the
surface).

50
Either way the new magma when it cools pushes the older rock out of the way on both
side.

New rock

1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 1

Oldest rock
Oldest rock Youngest rocks
Figure 6.4 Upward movement of magma at an extension plate boundary

Therefore the two rocks will be different in age. What happens is that the original rock is
opened up, then the molten rocks come in with a great force pushing it apart. Eruption
episodes may continue, such that the rocks at the middle are the youngest and those at the
far ends are the oldest.

Isotope dating of rocks below the mid-ocean ridges indicates that these rocks are younger
that those far away from it. For example, all rocks of the ridge between South America
and Africa; (extension boundary at Mid - Atlantic ridge) are the youngest.

Note that:-
The oldest oceanic rock are > 1700 million years. About 200 million years ago, the gap
between Africa and S. America was only a small trench, something similar to Red sea.
Before this, Africa and S. America were joined together to form a continental block. The
first thing that happened was the development of narrow trench built of basalt lava from
the mantle. After this more basalt lava came up and pushed the existing rock apart. Thus
the continents were pushed apart and sea floor spread. This process is called sea-floor
spreading. This is when basaltic magma moves from the asthenosphere, pushes the
existing magma apart and spreads on the sea floor. The rate at which the sea floor
spreads is about 1 cm per year that is, 1 metre in 100 years or 1 km per 100,000 years.

51
6.4.2 Compression boundaries

Two plates are moving towards each other. In the process one plate is thrust beneath
another plate into the asthenosphere. This is called subduction. Therefore these
boundaries are subduction zones.
There are 3 types of subductions depending on the nature of the plates moving towards
each other:-
i) Ocean - Ocean plates
ii) Ocean - Continent plates
iii) Continent - Continent plates.

1. Two ocean plates moving towards each other (Figure 6.5).

Island arc
Sea level

Lithosphere

Asthenosphere

Melting slab of lithosphere

Uprising magma
(volcanic eruption)

Figure 6.5 Two ocean plates moving towards each other

2. Ocean and continent plates moving towards each other (Figure 6.6).

52
 Range of volcanoes (also fold
Mountains)
Ocean trench Sea level

Lithosphere

Continent asthenosphere

Melting slab of
Uprising magma lithosphere

Figure 6.6 Ocean and continent plates moving towards each other

In the above case, continental plate always slides over the oceanic plate.

3. Continent - continent plates (Figure 6.7).

Continental plates moving towards each other. For example, India is moving towards
China.

Fold mountains (e.g. Himalayas)

Metamorphism Igneous intrusions

Figure 6.7 Continental plates moving towards each other

53
6.4.3 Transform Faults
These are fracture zones where plates basically slide past each other. That is, plates are
moving relative to each other (lateral movement) as shown in figure 6.8.

Transform fault plate boundary

Plate 2

Plate 1

Figure 6.8 Transform fault boundary

This type of situation is known as conservative zone because plate movement is mainly
parallel to the boundary, and therefore the crust is neither created or destroyed. This is a
zone of intense earthquake activity, because the movement along the faults is irregular
rather than a smooth process of gradual creep movement.

6.5 Historical aspects of plate tectonics

Plate tectonic is the study of the way plates move and interact. Since the plates carries the
continents, it means that the continents also moves (drifts). Therefore continental drift
theory is achieved when we talk about plate tectonics. Continental drift tells us that the
present arrangement of continents does not always apply, in the past the continents were
arranged differently and in future they will be arranged differently. Continental drift has
been going on since the continents were made. As continents move with respect to one
another some oceans are enlarged, while other close up

6.5.1 Stages in the formation of the present continents

1. About 550 M.Y (Lower Paleozoic). Refer to the Geological time scale
table. The earth was made up of 3 land masses (or primordial continents).

54
These were separated by a huge ocean called Panthalassa. The land masses were Angara,
Euramerica and Gondwanaland.

Euramerica
Angara

panthalassa
Gondwanaland

Figure 6.9 Lower Paleozoic continents

2. Between 220-300 MY ago (lower Mesozoic).

A supercontinent named pangea is believed to have formed from the collision of these
primordial continents.

Panthalassa

Land mass (Pangea)

Figure 6.10 Lower Mesozoic Pangea

The rest of the surface of the earth was a large ocean basin called Panthalassa.
3 land masses called Laurasia and Gondwana.. About 190 MY (end of Triassic); the
supercontinent (pangea) started to split into two

55
 Laurasia

Tethys sea

Gondwana

Figure 6.11 Laurasia and Gondwana continents

When laurasia and Gondwana split a sea called Tethys was left between them.
- Laurasia comprised of the northern continents that is, North America, Eurasia
(excluding India).
- Gondwanaland compressed of the great southern continents:- India, Africa, Australia,
South America and Antarctica.

4. Continued drifting of Laurasia and Gondwana formed most of the present

continents.This was at the end of Jurassic period (136MY). Laurasia got split into North
America and Eurasia, while; Gondwana formed South America, Africa, India, Australia
and Antarctica. By then, the NE part of South America was joined to the western coast of
Africa. Also, Madagascar was joined to the Eastern coast of Africa.
South America was not joined to North America; and Atlantic was joined to Australia.

56
 North
America Eurasia

South
America

Australia
Antarctica

Figure 6.12 Splitting of Laurasia and Gondwana continents

5. By the end of cretaceous (that is, 65 MY)

South America drifted away from Africa, Madagascar also drifted away from Eastern
part of Africa. N. Eastern Africa drifted to merge with Eurasia (at the Suez). North
America was still joined to Eurasia. Australia was also still joined to Antarctica. Now,
continued drifting made India to merge with Eurasia. Also, North America merged with
South America through Panama.

Note that; originally Laurasia was closer to the equator than today, but it drifted away
towards the north pole or into higher latitudes. Gondwanaland was close to the South
pole, and some parts were actually over. When it got split its components drifted towards
the equator.

Question:-
i) Is there evidence to support continental drift theory?
ii) Did Gondwanaland and Laurasia continents drift to the present position?

There are six classes of evidence to prove that Gondwanaland and Laurasia actually
existed, and that they drifted to their present positions.

57
6.5.2 Evidence that Gondwanaland and Laurasia existed
Classes of evidence.(six)
1) Topography
2) Tectonic evidence
3) Geological evidence
4) Palaeoclimatology
5) Palaeozoology and botany
6) Isotopic dating evidence.

1. Topography
It means the fit of continents that is, the jig saw fit arrangement.
Continents facing each other have shapes which can fit into each other in a form of Jig
saw fit.
For example, South America and Africa.

West Africa

South America

Figure 6.13 How south America fits to the west coast of Africa

58
Note that:- When doing this ,
i) The margin or actual edge of the continental slope is used.
ii) You have to ignore young features. That is, anything less than 200 MY cannot be
used. Because these are mainly sedimentary rocks that didn't exist before continental
drifting took place

2. Tectonic evidence
This is the distribution and nature of major geological structures for example, fold
mountains, faults and sedimentary deposits. If we reconstruct the continents that is, we
rejoin them; similar old structures can be seen to extend on the other continents. For
example, Caledonian fold mountains in Norway are also found in Scotland; East England,
and finally make the Appalachian mountains, in United states of America. If you bring
these together, they cover the same continuous feature in the Eurasia.
3. Geological evidence
This is the nature of rocks on opposite sides of the ocean. For example, Africa and South
America. If the N.E. part of S. America and western Africa were close together it means
that both sides will have sedimentary rocks of the same age. For example, a type of
sedimentary rock known as Roraima formation was formed when the two continents were
joined together. Roraima formation was laid down (deposited) by running water (may be
in a river) and had a lot of minerals. For example, diamond which is deposited by running
water, that is ,it is an alluvial deposit. The diamond of Roraima: was eroded from Africa
mainland and transported on the landmass and deposited on S. America. This was before
the two land masses split apart to form separate continent. Another geologic evidence in
these two continents is the rocks of Namibia and those of SE Brazil. These rocks are the
same, meaning that the part occupied by Namibia extended to what is now called Brazil,
before Gondwanaland split. These rocks are as old as 550 MY - 210 MY.

To get this information, geologists studied the rocks in different layers (strata), both in
Brazil and Namibia. They found that the rocks in the stratum (layers) on both sides were
the same by age and composition. Both rocks had evidence of glaciation, then swamp

59
(vegetation) deposits with seams of coal (stratum of coal), and lastly on the top layers
there were desert deposits. These two areas had the same endogenic processes. After 200
MY, (When splitting started) there were thin marine deposits. This appeared to indicate
that a sea was formed between these rocks on either side. Then there was Lava deposits;
which represented volcanic activity which took place along the new boundary
(extension). Then after lava deposits, there was another marine deposits. After this there
was a divergence in deposition on either side. Meaning that the two costs were wide apart
to experience the same deposition sequence.

4. Palaeoclimatology
This is the study of past climates and is mainly carried out in sedimentary rocks. Because,
sedimentary rocks carry the story of how they were formed. For example, climatic
conditions when Gondwanaland and Laurasia were joined is not the same as today.
Gondwanaland was colder than it is today, because it was closer to south pole. There is
evidence to prove that Gondwanaland was close to south pole. For example, the presence
of the rocks called Tillites. These are fossil boulder clay which were laid down under an
ice sheet. Boulder clay consists of angular coarse particles randomly scattered in clay.
With time these have been consolidated into a solid rock. Examples of such rocks today
is the Dwyka Tillite, which extends up to parts of Tanzania and Kenya (found in Duruma
sandstone). Another example, is striated surfaces. These are surfaces with narrow layers
alternating with wider layer formed only by glacial action. These are also known as
varved clays. They are mainly found under the tillites. They are narrow layers in the form
of fine material and wide layers of coarse materials. They are formed when sediment
deposit in a lake is being built up by glacial melt water. Each band (1 narrow and 1 wide)
represents one year, (that is, deposits in a given year). The narrow, thin band (layer)
represent deposition during winter when little melt water is present. The thick, wide band
represents summer condition when there is a lot of melt water bringing debris (sediments)
down. Today, we have varved clays in Morogoro in Tanzania and Taru near Mombasa.
These clay deposits are about 300-350 MY. Similar varved clays are also found in India
and Australia.

60
Question:- Is evidence from Laurasia continents similar to that from Gondwanaland?

Evidence from Laurasia: is very different. Here temperatures were higher than today,
meaning that it was closer to the equator. Evidence for this is the coal deposits found in
these areas today. Coal is a fossil tropical swamp vegetation. Coal deposits in U.S.A
Canada, China, and Germany looks like the composition of equatorial region of today.
Another evidence is the fossil coral reefs (which is made up of limestone) found in
Laurasia, This is similar to the one found near the equatorial coasts today because it is
warm. Fossil coral reefs are found in Scotland and Canada, where the present conditions
are not suitable (favourable). Also evaporates (for example rock salt ) are found in
Laurasia like in Germany, where the present climate is too cold for their formation. All
this proves that Laurasia was on low latitude near the equator, while Gondwanaland was
on a high latitude near the south pole.

5. Palaeozoology and Botany

These are studies of past animals and plants or flora and fauna. About 200 - 400 M.Y.
ago, plants in Gondwanaland before splitting were the same. That is, there were same
plant communities in Australia, Africa, S. America and so on. At present, it is not
possible to have the same plant in different continents because of the difference in
climate. But, even if, the climate is identical, the same species occurring naturally can't be
the same in different continents. What happens is that when plant and animal
communities are isolated from one another they evolve or evolution takes place. This
makes the species to become different. If the distance between species (both animals and
plants) increases the more they diverge in their appearance. This is because the species
are not genetically interbreeding to give new species through different generations. This
is what is called evolution. For example, fossil reptile lizards) found in rocks of S. Africa
and S. America are the same. This means that, this creature was identical in both places
hence we may deduce that these lands were once one block of land where these lizards
were maintained as one species. Today reptile species in both places are not identical
because of divergence in evolution as they don't breed anymore together, due to lack of
contact.

61
6. Isotopic dating evidence
This gives the sequence of events. For example, by measuring the age of basalt lava,
which is the rock of ocean basin we can be able to get the different in age of rocks
between two continents. Youngest rocks are at the mid-oceanic ridges and then the age in
years increases as you go farther away. Dating also shows that some rocks though wide
apart on neighbouring landmasses, can be of the same age. For example, Madagascar
though away from African continent, have rocks which are the same as those of SE
African coast. This means that Madagascar was once joined to the East African Coast;
before it split (or drifted away). Now, East African Rift Valley represents another
beginning of such splitting. Land to the east of the Rift Valley might split away from the
rest of Africa and become an island like Madagascar. This would happen 600 million
years to come (consider split of 1 cm/year). It is possible that the rift system represent the
first stage in the splitting of a crustal plate (continental), where magma is moving up into
the Lithosphere and beginning to flow apart.
Before 30 MY ago there was no rift valley with associated faulting and volcanic activity.
Today this region is very unstable. There are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other
tectonic activities like faulting.

6.6 Key words

i) Plates:- Pieces of solid crust that float on the mantle. The plates fit together like a
jig saw, and the places where they meet are called plate boundaries.

6.7 Questions
i) Describe the properties of plates and their boundaries.
ii) Differentiate between the various types of plate boundaries.

6.8 Practical Exercise

Using a world map, trace out the five continents. Cut the edges of each continent and try
to fit them like in a jig - saw.
How well do they fit?

62
6.9 Further reading
1) Nyamweru, C.K. (1980). Rifts and volcanoes. Thomas Nelson & sons Ltd. Nairobi.
2) Buckle, C. (1978). Landforms in Africa.Methuen. London.

63
7.0 The composition of the lithosphere

7.1 Introduction
This section describes materials of the lithosphere. In particular, the types, composition
and mode of formation of the different materials are discussed.

7.2 Objectives
i) To describe the different types of rocks.
ii) To explain the mode of formation and composition of each of the types of rocks.
iii) To discuss the interaction and linkages between the formation of rocks and the
atmosphere.

7.3 Types of rocks

Any material that forms part of the earth's crust is a rock. For example, a soft clay or sand
grain is a rock. We have three different types of rocks depending on their origin. These
are Igneous, Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

7.3.1 Igneous means

Igneous rocks are formed after magma or lava cools and hardens. They are then classified
by their texture (that is, grain size) and their mineral compositions. When magma cools
and crystallizes, there is great diversity in the types of rocks created because of the large
number of variables involved. But a general (broad) classification can be based on 3
variables. These are magma's chemical (mineral) composition, colour and texture.

64
1. Magma's chemical composition
Magma may contain high concentrations of calcium -ca++; magnesium, mg++ and iron,
Fe++ with associated low amounts of AL++, silicon and oxygen. These are referred to as
basic rocks.
Magma on the other hand have high amounts of potassium, K+; sodium- Na+; then higher
amounts of silicon and oxygen. These are referred to as acidic igneous rocks.

2. Colour
Basic rocks are generally darker in colour and of high density. Acidic rocks are lighter in
colour with low density.

3. Texture
Texture of all igneous rocks is dependent upon the rate of cooling.
- Fine-grained, glassy or pyroclastic rocks are indicative of fast cooling: - this is mainly
common in extrusive eruptions (these are volcanic or extrusive rocks).
- Coarse grained rocks are indicative of slow cooling (like in the case of intrusive
eruptions) at considerable depth, where the crystals have time to grow to large sizes.
These rocks are referred to as plutonic or hypabyssal rocks.

The most common coarse-grained rock is granite. Fine grained igneous rocks are
crystalline, but the minerals are too small; because, they form by cooling at moderately
rapid rates, as in lava flows. The most common fine-grained igneous rock is basalt.
Basalt, is a very hard, resistant rock, and consequently, it is used extensively as crushed
rock. Crushed rock is what is commonly referred to as ballast.

7.3.2 Sedimentary rocks

Weathered rock transported by streams, glaciers, and the wind is eventually deposited as
layers upon the rocks of the earth's crust. The layers are known as strata or beds and the
plane between each layer is the bedding plane. Organic accumulation may also become
buried together with transported weathered materials. These layered unconsolidated
materials are called sediments.

65
Note:-
Sediment is a mass of disconnected solid particles, grains and fragments of rock that
have been worn from older rocks, transported and then deposited.

With time, these layers of sediment may become firmly consolidated to form sedimentary
rocks (Figure 7.0).

Bedding planes
Strata (layers)

Figure 7.0 Layers of a sedimentary rock

3/4 of the land area of the earth is covered by sediments and sedimentary rocks, and only
1/4 is covered by igneous and metamorphic rocks. The bottom of most lakes and rivers
are covered by sediments, and the sea floor contains vast areas where sediments have
accumulated for millions of years. Sedimentary rocks contain mineral resources
especially useful to man. For example, oil, gas and coal. Other sedimentary rocks of
economic value include ceramic clay, building materials (stones) and ores of several
metals.

Sedimentary rocks are also valuable in the study of the history of the earth because they
contain the fossils record of life (living things). The relative age of a sediment can be
determined by its fossils content. Igneous and metamorphic rocks contain very few
fossils. Sedimentary rocks may be grouped or classified according to the sources(s) of
sediments making them.

66
7.3.2.1 Classification of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary materials may be placed into three major categories depending on the mode
of formation. These are;
1. Detrital sediments: - Mechanical deposition of sediments which are transported as
solid particles.
2. Chemical sediments: - Formed by precipitation of salts in solution, and by chemical
reactions or evaporation of water.
3. Organic sediments: - Derived from organisms (living) buried with chemical deposits
and/or detrital sediments.

1. Detrital sediments: - These are inorganic particles of rock fragments. They are
transported by various agents (for example wind, running water, glacier and so on) and
are laid down by deposition in layers. The deposition is purely mechanical (physical)
means.The sediments may be derived from any type of rock, including other sedimentary
rocks.

The sediments that are laid down in layers are compressed by the weight of the overlying
materials such that water is pushed out from the original deposit. This compaction
reduces the thickness of the buried layer. The expelled water may leave behind a kind of
cement which is mainly calcium carbonate or silica that bonds the particles together. The
combination of compaction and cementation changes the originally soft disconnected
sediment into a hard sedimentary rock. When detrital sediments are compacted and
cemented together they form clastic sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are
named according to their main constituents. For example, fine grains of clay (mineral),
when compacted forms the rock shale Medium sized grains like sand grains forms a
sandstone and larger fragments (gravel, boulders) forms a conglomerate.

2. Chemical Sediments: - These forms chemical sedimentary rocks. They are formed by
the precipitation of minerals from water. For example, rock salt forms in evaporating seas
or lakes. These are also referred to as evaporites; like in Lake Magadi. When water

67
precipitate calcium carbonate limestone is formed. Then the rock Dodomite is formed by
the deposits of the mineral dolomite, CaMg (Co 3) 2.

3. Organic Sediments: - Organic sedimentary rocks are formed from the remains of
once living plant and animal organisms. These may accumulate in thick layers and be
prevented from completely decaying by being sealed in with a covering of clay or other
sediments. For example, peat layers form coal. Peat forms when organic materials
accumulate faster in swamps, than decay destroys them. Another sedimentary rock of
organic origin is the Diatomite. This is made up of Diatomaceous silt. Diatomaceous silt
is an accumulation of the remains of single-celled plants called Diatoms. Diatoms grow
abundantly in the sea and in fresh water lakes. Upon death, they accumulate at the bottom
(on the bed) to form the diatomaceous earth, which occurs in Grey to whitish layers.
Examples of Diatomite deposits can be found at Kariandus and Kockum near Lake
Elmenteita and Olorgesailie. A special type of organic sedimentary rock is the coral reef
of tropical coasts.

Question:- What is the nature of coral?

Coral is a limestone (caco 3) rock, made up of the skeletons of tiny marine organisms
called coral polyps. Coral polyps can not grow out of water. They thrive under special
conditions. They require;
i) Sea temperature of about 21oC (70oF)
ii) Sunlit, clear salt water down to a depth of about 55 metres. Hence extensive coral
formations develop between 30 oN and 30oS, especially on the eastern sides of land
masses (for example, East African coast), where warm currents flow near to the coasts.

7.3.3 Metamorphic rocks

These are formed from pre-existing rocks being changed by the influence of the
following;
i) Great pressure (compression)
ii) Great heat

68
iii) Chemical action
The three activities contributes to the process of rock metamorphism: -

Rock metamorphism: - May be defined as the physical and chemical alterations of solid
rocks that transform their textures, structures and mineral composition in response to
changes in their environmental conditions within the earth. These changes may be:
i) Compression (great pressure)
A layer of any type of rock may be compressed by the weight of overlying rocks or by
movement within the earth's crust. Figure 7.1 is an example of rock metamorphism due to
compression.
ii) Great heat
It may be heated, either by pressure or by heat caused by the intrusion of molten rock.
(iii) Chemical action: -
It may also be affected by the chemical action of gas or water containing other minerals.
And, the result in each case is a change in the nature of the original rock.

Clay Shale Slate (schist)

- particles lie haphazardly - particles squeezed together - particles tightly packed

- rock is soft -rock is hard and - rock is hard , splitting
very brittle (easily broken) easy into sheets(e.g.
mica)

Figure 7.1 Metamorphism due to the effect of compression

69
Some types of metamorphic rocks
Original rock metamorphic rock
1. Granite becomes Gneiss
2. Sandstone '' Quartzite
3. Shade '' Slate (schist)
4. Limestone '' Marble

7.4 Interaction of the lithosphere and atmosphere

The atmosphere dictates climate and governs the exchange of heat and water between
atmosphere and the solid earth (lithosphere). This exchange is the driving force(s) of the
various exogenic processes that shapes the ground surface into landforms. Denudation
and deposition are the main exogenic processes that shape the solid earth. Denudation is
the destruction of the earth's surface and consists of weathering and erosion. The process
lowers the level of the land by wearing it away. Deposition on the other hand is the laying
down of materials transported by agents of erosion (for example, wind and water) after
denudation has taken place.

7.5 Summary
There are interactions or linkages between the three types of rocks. The formation of
sedimentary rocks involves interactions between earth environments, whereas igneous
and metamorphic rocks are products of the solid-earth environment alone. The initial
rock materials are brought to the surface by solid-earth processes (endogenic processes
for example, volcanic activity). These forms Igneous rocks.
Then, the atmosphere including hydrosphere (water) and living organisms interacts with
the different rocks (including sedimentary rocks) to produce sediments and dissolved
minerals. These form the basis of sedimentary rocks. Then, the rocks irrespective of the
type can undergo metamorphism and the cycle continues.

7.6 Key words

i) Sediments:- Are the layered unconsolidated materials that have been transported
and deposited by various agents upon rocks of the earth's crust.

70
ii) Metamorphism:- The physical and chemical alterations of solid rocks that
transforms a rock's texture, structure and mineral composition in response to
changes in their environmental conditions within the earth.

7.7 Questions
1) Describe the mode of formation of Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks.
2) How is the formation of sedimentary rocks different from that of igneous and
metamorphic rocks?

7.8 Further reading

1) Ollier, C. (1981). Tectonics and landforms. Longman group Ltd. New York.
2) Weyman, D. (1981). Tectonic processes. George Allen & Unwin Ltd. London.
3) Buckle, C. (1978). Landforms in Africa. Methuen. London.

71
8.0 The Atmosphere

8.1 Introduction
This section introduces the learners to the atmosphere and its control on weather and
climate. Further, it describes weather and climate and also traces the origin and
development of climatology. Weather patterns and elements are explained; together with
their spatial and temporal variations.

8.2 Objectives
i) To describe weather and climate.
ii) To outline and explain the important elements of weather.
iii) To provide a historical background on the origin and development of climatology.

8.3 Weather and climate

The composition and structure of the atmosphere are the framework within which the
processes of heating, movement, and water circulation take place to cause weather and
climate.

Weather can be described as the state of the atmosphere at any place at a particular time.
Before a pattern can be seen in the weather and variations in it explained, the weatherman
has to record its main elements. Among the most important elements recorded are;

1) Atmospheric pressure
2) Relative humidity
3) Precipitation
4) Cloud types heights and amounts
5) Visibility
6) Temperature
7) Sunshine and radiation
8) Wind speed and direction

72
These elements are recorded in the lower atmosphere below 10 metres above ground
level. Observations of the upper atmosphere are also made using instruments such as
satellites to record changes in temperature pressure, winds and humidity.

Using data observed from both the lower and upper atmosphere and the knowledge of
forecasting, the weatherman is able to predict what is happening in the atmosphere of a
given place at a given time (that is, the weather).

Climate on the other hand refers to weather conditions considered for longer periods that
is, days, months, seasons, years and for longer areas. When a record of the weather has
been kept for a number of years (preferably 30 to 35 years), and the averages of the
various elements calculated an annual pattern appears. This pattern differs in different
parts of the world and, as a result a number of different climates occur. Climate does not
only refer to average conditions, but it also refers to the extremes of weather and to the
probability or likelihood of different events occurring at a place or over a region.

8.4 Meteorology and climatology

Meteorology is the scientific study of weather. It is concerned with the processes of
weather phenomena with a view to understanding these processes for the purpose of
forecasting and making available this information for human use.

Climatology on the other hand is the scientific study of climates. It involves the statistical
understanding of the fluctuations and changing nature of climate. It also involves an
understanding of the long term variability or trends of climate and the interrelated
influence of all the weather element spatially and temporally.

8.5 Origin and development of climatology

Origin of climatology as a science is credited to ancient Greek scholars. The word
“climate” is in fact derived from a Greek word meaning, “slope”. In such a context it
refers to the slope or inclination of the earth’s axis and is applied to an earth region at a
particular elevation on the slope. That is, the location of a place in relation to parallels of

73
latitudes. The Greeks therefore concluded that the earth must slope up to the sun in the
south and slope down away from the source of heat towards the north. This theory was
eventually rationalized into a latitudinal division of the earth’s surface into torrid,
temperature and frigid zones. This interpretation of climate remained valid for some two
thousand years and it was not until the great voyage of discovery in the 15 th and 16th
centuries, that the real complexity of regional climatic distribution began to be apparent.

The first quest for knowledge about the world resulted in treatises on the atmosphere. The
first climatography is attributed to hippocrates who wrote airs, waters and places in 400
BC. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote the first meteorological treatise called meteorologica.

Rapid development of the science of the atmosphere had to wait for the technological
revolution of the renaissance period. New emphasis on experiment and observation was
greatly facilitated by the subsequent development of meteorological instruments such as
the thermometer constructed in 1593 by Galileo, and the mercury barometer invented by
his pupil Torricelli in 1643. In 1662 Boyle discovered the fundamental relationship
between pressure and volume in a gas, thus a better understanding of the processes taking
place in the atmosphere.

15th century period was marked by improvement in instruments and their standardization.
This led to extensive data collection and description of regional climates. Explanation of
the observed phenomena through the study of the physical processes causing them began
in the following century.

In 1817 Alexander Von Humboldt constructed what appears to be the first map that
showed temperatures using isotherms. Soon after Dore in 1827 explained local climate in
terms of polar and equatorial air currents. Thereafter, contributions became more frequent
and ideas essential to understanding the atmosphere slowly evolved.

Today climatology seeks not only to describe the spatial and temporal patterns of the
weather elements but also to explain the atmospheric processes causing these patterns.

74
The atmosphere is dynamic not static and efforts must be made to understand the
processes and interactions taking place within the atmosphere-earth interface.

8.6 Summary

The atmosphere is an important natural resource. It protects the earth from harmful
radiation such as ultraviolet radiation and cosmic radiation. It transfers heat from the
equator to the poles and water from the equator to the poles and water from the oceans
to the continents. Its gaseous content contains air we breath for the sustainance of plant
and animal biosphere. Within the atmospheric envelope, weather systems form. Their
development and motion are the basis of most global climates.

8.7 Key words

i) Weather:- The state of the atmosphere at any place at a particular time.
ii) Climate:- Weather conditions considered for longer periods; That is, months,
seasons, years and so on.
iii) Meteorology:- Is the scientific study of weather for the purpose of forecasting
and making available the information for human use.

8.8 Questions
1) What is the difference between weather and climate?
2) Describe the origin of climatology.

8.9 Further reading

1) Barring, R.C. and Cherley, R.J. (1976). Atmosphere, weather and climate. Methuen.
London.
2) Cole, F.W. (1970). Introduction to meteorology. John Wiley and sons, Inc. New
York.
3) Knapp, B.J. (1994). Challenge of the natural environment. Longman group. U.K.

75
9.0 Composition and structure of the atmosphere

9.1 Introduction
This section describes the composition and also the proportion of the various components
of the atmosphere. Distinctions of the major layers of the atmosphere on the basis of
vertical temperature differences and other physical properties are detailed in the section.

9.2 Objectives
i) To describe the main components of the atmosphere.
ii) To distinguish between the various layers of the atmosphere.
iii) To explain how atmospheric pressure varies with latitudes across the world.

9.3 Composition and structure of the atmosphere

The earth's atmosphere forms a relatively thin envelope of air, dust, and water droplets
around the planet. It fades (disappears) into space several hundred kilometers above the
surface. About 99% of the atmosphere's mass is in the lowest 100 KM layer. Despite this
shallowness, the atmosphere is vital to the existence of living organisms and plays a
major part in molding surface all forms, (through various process).
The atmosphere is made up of different layers from the surface to the center limit where
it borders space.

On the basis of various properties, there are different layers as one moves up form the
earth's surface. Different categories (properties) are used to identify the various layers.
These are;

(i) Layering by chemical composition

(ii) Layering by temperature.
(iii) Layering by pressure.
(iv) Layering by ions (+ve or -ve charges).

76
9.3.1 Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is composed of a variety of gases, suspended dust particles, and

condensed moisture droplets. The atmospheric composition is different in the lower part
compared with the upper reaches (parts). In the 80 Km nearest the ground, the major
atmospheric gases are as follows;

1) Nitrogen 78% (chemically inert)

2) Oxygen 21% (Chemically active)
3) Argon 0.98% (chemically inert)
4) Co2 0.033% (absorbs heat and also takes part in photosynthesis)

The proportions of these gases in this layer do not vary, and so it is often known as the
homogeneous atmosphere. Therefore in the homogeneous atmosphere there is constant
composition up to about 80 Kilometres. This layer is known as Homosphere. Above the
homosphere layer, various gases and other particles vary in their proportions from one
region to another. For example, above 80 Km, we have four layers of gas atoms,
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Helium and finally Hydrogen. Due to the heterogeneous nature of this
layer, it is referred to as Heterosphere. Other components of this layer includes;

1. Water vapour; variable quantity ,very important as it absorbs heat.

2. Dust from volcanoes and desert sands.
3. Soot from cities and grass or forest fires.
4. Plant spores and pollen.
5. Salt particles from the ocean surface or dry lake beds.
6. Cosmic dust from disintegrated meteorite fragments. These minute particles serve as
nuclei for the condensation of water vapour.

77
9.3.2 Structure of the atmosphere

On the basis of vertical temperature differences, the atmosphere can be divided into
layers. Now, the atmosphere is heated from below and thus the expected change is for
temperature to decrease with altitude. The structure of the atmosphere is a series of layers
that result from heating by solar radiation and the decrease in atmospheric density away
from the earth's surface. We have 4 layers based on temperature differences. These are;
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere (Figure 9.0).

1) Troposphere
This is the layer of air next to earth's surface. It is a very important layer because the
processes giving rise to weather are restricted to this layer. This layer is heated from the
ground up. As a result, temperatures generally decline with height in the troposphere. The
top boundary of the troposphere occurs where temperature ceases to decrease with height.
The boundary, is known as the tropopause.

Question:- Why is troposphere important?

78
 Figure 9.0 Layers of the atmosphere based on temperature changes

The boundary varies in height differently over different regions of the earth. For example,
it is 8-9 Km above earth's surface near the poles and 16-17 km over the equator. At the
equator the ground absorbs more solar energy and can hence heat a deeper layer of air.
The tropopause provides an effective lid (cover) that prevents most tropospheric
turbulence (for example, wind currents, pressure belts and so on), from extending
upwards.

2. Stratosphere
The stratosphere is the layer above the tropopause. Temperatures change little with height
in the lower part of the stratosphere, but rise near the top because the concentration of
ozone in the upper part of the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet solar rays and heats the

79
layer. The upper limit of the stratosphere is the stratopause. Here, temperatures cease to
increase with height.

3. Mesosphere
The mesosphere lies above the stratopause and has even thinner air than the stratosphere.
Temperature fall to 90oC at its upper surface, known as the mesopause.

4. Thermosphere
Thermosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. It is above 80 Km and is of
extremely low density. Here, temperatures rise to as much as 1200 oC. Ions in this layer
absorb most of the short wave solar radiation (for example, X - rays, gamma rays and
ultraviolet rays). Such rays would be harmful to living organisms if they reached the
earth's surface. These various layers within the atmosphere show that it is a complex
environment.

9.3.3 Layering by pressure

Layering by pressure depends on density and pressure in the atmosphere. Now, the
greatest concentration of atmospheric gases is in the troposphere and air thins out towards
space. This is because gases are made up of molecules that are not bonded together,
hence they can be compressed or may float freely where they are not confined. In the
atmosphere, the downward pull of gravity compresses and concentrates atmospheric
gases near the ground. Concentration is often measured as density; that is, the amount of
a substance in a space or more precisely, the mass per volume (for example, the number
of molecules of atmospheric gases per cubic meter).
Note:
The density of air near the ground is 0.001293g/cm3 and decreases upwards. At 7 Km up

it falls to 0.00066g/cm3. These lower densities at higher levels within the atmosphere are
related to another measure, known as pressure. Where more air molecules fill a given
space, they collide more often and exert more pressure on every surface. Pressure is the
ratio of force per area. Therefore, atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by
atmospheric gases per area.

80
Pressure is lower in the upper atmosphere than just above the ground, because the
atmosphere at the higher point is less compressed by gravity. The atmospheric pressure
exerted at ground level is on average 1.034 Kg per square Metre (M2). It can be measured
by a mercury barometer and a normal atmospheric pressure on the surface of mercury
supports a column of about 760 mm at the ground level. Atmospheric pressure is
normally expressed in units called millibars (mb) and he average atmospheric pressure at
the ground surface is about 1013.25 mb. This is the same as the measurement of 760 mm
on a barometer. Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place over the surface of the
earth because air rises in some locations and descends elsewhere. When air is heated it
becomes less dense and rises. As air rises, the force it exerts on the ground is reduced.
Where air descends a greater force is exerted at the surface. This compresses air into
greater density and increases pressure. These variations in atmospheric pressure are
important in bringing about movement of air (winds movements across the surface).

Question:- How are pressure belts of the world distributed?

Latitudes have different pressures across the world that is, along the equator pressure is
different with that around the polar regions we have different pressure belts across the
world

9.3.4 Layering by ions

The Ionosphere is a zone between 80-400km. It consists of layers of positively charged
ions formed by the action of solar radiation on gas atoms and molecules. This is
important because these reflects radio waves and hence makes long distance radio
communication possible.

81
9.4 Summary

We have low and high pressure belts over the surface of the world. What happens is that
air at the equator (low latitude) is warm, because equatorial regions are zones of intense
heating. This lowers the density and hence the pressure becomes low. As a result air
rises. At the poles heating is weakest, hence we have cold air which is of high density.
This results to high pressures. And due to this air drops towards the surface.

9.5 Key word

i) Troposphere:- This is the first layer of the atmosphere where most variations in
climate takes place. There is a fairly uniform decrease in temperature with
increase in altitude up to the tropopause where temperature remains constant with
height.

9.6 Questions
1) Describe how the atmosphere may be divided on the basis of vertical temperature
differences.
2) What is the importance of thermosphere to human survival?

9.7 Further reading

i) Riley, D. and Spolten, L. (1974). World weather and climate. Cambridge
University Press. London.
ii) Oliver, J.E. and Hidore, J.J. (1984). Climatology: An introduction. Bell & Howell
Co. Toronto.
iii) Mather, J.R. (1974). Climatology: Fundamentals and applications. McGraw - Hill
Co. Canada.

82
10.0 Solar energy in the atmosphere

10.1 Introduction
This section explains how solar energy determines the basic pressure belts of the world.
In particular, the section describes how energy in the atmosphere is transferred. The
section also considers the energy balance of the earth's atmosphere system and the forces
behind atmospheric and oceanic circulation.

10.2 Objectives
i) To explain how solar energy is transferred through the atmosphere.
ii) To describe latitudinal differences in global solar energy and how this relates to
atmospheric and oceanic circulations.
iii) To illustrate how atmospheric and oceanic circulation determines local weather
conditions as well as the entire pattern of global climates.

10.3 Energy in the atmosphere

What is energy, and how can it be transferred from one place to the other?

Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. It can exist in a variety of forms that
can be changed from one form to another. Energy can be transferred from place to place.
There are basically three ways in which this transfer can take place; conduction,
convection and radiation.

Conduction consists of energy transfer directly from molecule to molecule and represents
the flow of energy along a temperature gradient. Convection involves the transfer of
energy by means of mass matrons of the medium through which the heat is transferred.
Both conduction and convection depend upon the existence of a medium in which to
operate. This medium may be solid, liquid or gaseous. Radiation is the only means of
energy transfer through space without the aid of a material medium.

83
10.3 2 Solar radiation
The major source of energy transfer in the environment is the sun. Between the sun and
the earth, where a minimum of matter exists, radiation is the only means of energy
transfer.

Solar radiation is the principal source of energy for the natural processes that gives rise to
diversity and change on the earth. However, if the earth continuously received energy
from the sun without returning an equal amount to space, the oceans would boil and the
land would be scorched. Since the average temperature on the earth remains much the
same from year to year, the earth must be returning as much energy to space as it receives
from the sun.

Not all locations on earth have equal energy gains and losses. Each year tropical regions
receive a greater amount of energy than they radiate back into space. Polar regions on the
other hand, annually lose more energy to space than they receive from the sun. But, the
tropical regions are not progressively heating up, nor are the polar regions cooling off.
This mean that there must be a flow or flux of energy from areas of excess to areas of
deficiency. The atmosphere and Oceans circulate the energy that the earth receives,
transporting warm air and water from the tropic to the poles in exchange for cool air and
water that moves back toward the equator.

Solar energy is transferred through space as electromagnetic radiation. Such radiation

travels in waves and can be classified according to wavelength. That is, the distance
between similar points on successive waves, as shown in figure 10.0.

One wavelength

Figure 10.0 Radiation wavelength showing the distance from one wave peak to the next

84
Radiation wavelengths are measured in micrometres. One micrometer is equal to one
millionth of a metre.
1 = 1/1,000,000m
Visible light includes wavelength from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers. Our eyes sense the
various wavelengths of visible light as different colours. When visible light is bent or
refracted and then reflected by water droplets in the atmosphere we see the various
wavelengths as a rainbow.

10.3.3 Note:-

Electromagnetic spectrum identifies various types of electromagnetic radiation according

to wavelength. Electromagnetic radiation includes wavelengths both longer and shorter
than those of visible light. Ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, Gamma rays and cosmic rays
are all emitted at wavelengths shorter than those of visible light while infra-red radiation
and radio waves have longer wavelengths than visible radiation.

At the earth’s surface and in the lower atmosphere, temperatures normally range
between –40o and +40oC. Substances at such temperatures emit electromagnetic
radiation with wavelengths of 4 micrometers or more. The surface of the sun, on the
other hand has a temperature of more than 6,000oC. At this temperature most radiation
is emitted at wavelengths of less than 4 . Hence most solar radiation is short wavelength
radiation and all radiation emitted by terrestrial sources (that is, earth’s surface and
atmosphere) are long wavelength radiation.

10.3.4 Solar energy Input to the earth.

The sun radiates energy equally in all directions. The earth, which in relation to the sun is
like a grain of sand to a football 91.5 metres away intercepts only a tiny fraction of the
total radiation emitted by the sun. But this small fraction is an enormous quantity of
energy amounting to 2.6x1018 calories per minute. The solar energy intercepted by the
earth in one minute is about equal to the total electrical energy artificially generated on
earth in one year. Not all of this radiant energy reaches the earth’s surface because the

85
earth’s atmosphere modifies the solar radiation that strikes it. Since the earth is neither
heating nor cooling down, the amount of energy it receives from the sun and the amount
it radiates back into space must be in balance.

Question:- How does his happen?

If it is not reflected, solar energy arriving at the earth’s surface is absorbed or transformed
to other energy forms. The absorbed energy causes the surface temperature to rise, and in
turn the surface becomes an energy radiator. The form of radiation emitted is determined
by radiation laws that relate the wavelength of emission to the temperature of the
radiating body. The earth’s surface is relatively a cool body compared to the sun and thus
radiates longer wavelength energy that falls within the infrared portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, surface radiation together with other forms of earth -
atmosphere energy exchanges, means that the atmosphere is heated from below rather
than directly by the sun’s rays.

Question:- How is the atmosphere heated from below?

The infrared energy emitted by the earth does not pass directly back to space. What
happens is that solar energy is absorbed by the surface on which it falls and is re-emitted
as infrared energy. Water vapour and Carbon dioxide (CO2) effectively absorbs the re -
emitted infrared energy thus preventing direct outflow of most of its energy. In turn, the
interior of the atmosphere retain heat and become warmer than in the case of simple input
- output of energy. Molecules of water vapour and CO2 absorb terrestrial radiation and
then re-emit it. Some of the energy will pass to space but a longer proportion will radiate
downwards. This counter radiation increases the heat energy available in he lower
atmosphere and raises its temperature significantly. The increase of CO2 in the
atmosphere due to human activity in recent years leads to global warming with resultant
changes in global climate.

86
10.3.5 Latitudinal differences in Global energy
The energy balance of the earth atmosphere system represents an annual average for the
system as a whole. If we look at specific location on the earth, however, we discover that
energy exchanges are not in balance. Equatorial and tropical regions receive much more
solar energy than they return to space through reflection and infrared radiation. Polar
regions on the other hand lose more energy through reflection and infrared radiation than
they gain from solar radiation. These latitudinal imbalances in energy gains and losses are
the cause of atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Flows in the atmosphere and oceans
transport warm air, latent heat in water vapour and warm water into high latitudes. They
also transport colder air and water towards the equator.

A number of factors can alter (or modify) local energy balances. For example, cloudiness,
atmospheric pollution’s, surface albedo, irrigation, vegetation and so on. All these
influence the utilization of radiant energy. Results of human activities both unintentional
and planned, have modified local energy balances, giving rise to measurable change in
climate in both rural and urban areas.

10.4 Summary

Large urban areas produce their own distinctive climates by modifying local energy
balances. For example, in winter and at night, cities are much warmer than the
surrounding countryside. The burning of fossil fuels in homes, factories and automobiles
adds in the radiant heat input. Then, dust, smoke particles and pollutants in the air trap
outgoing long wave (infrared) radiation and return it to the surface. These effects
combines to produce the phenomenon of “urban Heat Island”. Other human activities
such as “Slash and burn” agricultural practices, deforestation and overgrazing alter the
surface albedo and thus affect local energy balances.

87
10.5 Key words
Solar radiation:- Is the energy transferred through space as electromagnetic radiation
from the sun. Such radiation travels in waves and can be classified according to
wavelength. It is the principal source of energy for the natural processes that gives rise to
diversity and change on the earth.

10.6 Questions
1) Describe the main cause of atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
2) What is the 'Urban heat Island'?
3) Explain why the higher you go above the earth's surface, the cooler it becomes.

10.7 Further reading

i) Chandler, J. (1972). Modern meteorology and climatology. Thomas Nelson.
London.
ii) Raven, P.H; Berg, L.R. and Johnson, G.B. (1993). Environment. Saunders college
publishers. U.S.A.
iii) Weisberg, J.S. (1976). Meteorology: The earth and its weather. Houghton Mifflin
Co. New York.

88
11.0 Atmospheric circulation

11.1 Introduction

This section describes the general circulation of the atmosphere and the oceanic
circulation that results from it. The section also explains the principal mechanisms by
which energy is transferred from equatorial and tropical regions having net solar energy
gains to high latitude regions having net energy losses to space. These flows of air
carrying both latent and sensible heat, along with the ocean water carrying sensible heat
maintain the earth’s thermal balance at all latitudes. The general circulation also delivers
to the continents much of the water that evaporates from the oceans. It determines local
weather and is the foundation for the entire pattern of global climates.

11.2 Objectives
i) To describe the forces causing atmospheric circulation.
ii) To explain the pressure patterns and winds over different regions of the earth.

11.3 Forces causing atmospheric circulation

There are three forces that act on a parcel of air moving horizontally in the atmosphere.
These are;

1. Pressure gradient force

2. Coriolis force
3. Friction.

89
11.3.1 The pressure gradient force

Pressure is force per unit area. If the pressure on one side of a parcel of air is greater than
the pressure on the opposite side, the parcel will be pushed toward the region of lower
pressure (Figure 11.0).

High pressure region Low pressure

region

Resultant motion

Figure 11.0 Motion of air due to pressure difference

The greater the difference in pressure, the greater the net push and the more rapid the
resulting atmospheric motion or wind. This “push” that is caused by the horizontal
difference in pressure is called the pressure gradient force.

On a weather map, atmospheric pressure patterns are represented by lines called isobars.
Isobars connects locations on the map that have equal atmospheric pressures.

11.3.2 The coriolis force

The other influence on a parcel of air moving over the earth's surface is the coriolis
effect. This is caused by the rotation of the earth. It causes the air travelling poleward
(towards the poles) to be deflected to the east as shown in figure 11.1. Because of this
effect, winds are deflected to the right of their expected path in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere (Figure 11.1). Deflection causes the poleward
revolving air to subside about 300 (North and South) from the equator.

90
 Figure 11.1 Colioris effect on global atmospheric circulation

This in turn creates a belt of increased pressure known as subtropical high - pressure belt
(Figure 11.2). Part of the subsiding air (that is, the sinking motion) moves poleward, but
much of it moves equatorward. Equatorward motion results in deflection to the west. This
sets up an easterly wind system (blowing from east to west). These winds are known as
the tropical easterlies. They are also referred to as trade winds. The eastward moving air
converges over the equator in the inter - tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) This
movement makes up a cell of atmospheric circulation dominating the tropical and
equatorial zones known as Hadley cell (Figure 11.2).

Figure 11.2 Pressure belts of the world

91
Now, air spreading poleward from the subtropical high-pressure belt is deflected to the
right by the coriolis force in the northern hemisphere. This causes air motion to move
from west to east and forms the westerly winds or westerlies, known as midlatitude
westerlies.

In the southern hemisphere deflection to the left as air moves south, also leads to westerly
winds in that hemisphere. This global atmospheric circulation is in the middle latitudes
between the tropics (subtropical high-pressure belt) and 60o North and South. The Zone
is a meeting point between converging tropical and polar air masses. These also form a
cell, known as Ferrel cell. The cell involves midlatitude circulation (Figure 11.2). The
third major section of the global atmospheric circulation affects latitudes poleward of 60 o
North and South. This is called the polar circulation and forms a cell known as polar cell.
The circulation here is weak because it lacks motivating forces such as heating of the
ground. The deep cooling of the atmosphere in this region (especially during winter),
leads to a general sinking of air around the poles. This forms a high pressure belt known
as the polar highs. These dense, cold air builds up and flows out from the polar regions at
the surface. The winds formed are referred to as the polar esterlies. Convergence of polar
esterlies and midlatitude westerlies causes the warmer (less dense) westerlies to ascend
over the cooler (dense) polar esterlies The meeting of polar and tropical air creates a zone
called polar front (Figure 11.2). It is responsible of rainfall in the midlatitude regions.

Note that:-
If it were not for the rotation of the earth, winds would simply follow the pressure
gradients. But the earth’s rotation complicates the motion of the atmosphere. Except over
the equator, air moving down the pressure gradient is deflected or turned, from straight
paths when viewed from the surface of the earth. This deflection is known as the coriolis
force. Even though no real force is operating, the apparent deflection resulting from the
earth’s rotation affects all objects such as air and ocean water, moving freely over the
earth’s surface.

92
The coriolis force acts at right angles to the direction of the motion. In the northern
hemisphere the apparent deflection is to the right and in the southern hemisphere to the
left. Air flowing toward the equator is turned to the west in both hemispheres, and air
moving toward the poles is turned to the east. In the free atmosphere (above the level
affected by surface friction at about 500 to 1000 M), the coriolis force is equal to the
pressure gradient force. This causes air to flow at right angles to the pressure gradient
force and parallel to isobars. Such air flow is referred to as Geostrophic wind (Figure
11.3). The circulation of upper level air, above the frictional effects of the earth’s surface,
approximates geostrophic flow.

Pressure force L
1000 mb

Geostrophic wind

Coriolis force 1004 mb

H

Figure 11.3 Geostrophic wind. A case of balanced motion

11.3.3 The Force of friction

Friction is force that opposes the motion of objects on the earth or in the atmosphere
itself. For a parcel of air to maintain its movement, the driving force must overcome
frictional resistance.

The effect of friction is at the maximum at the earth’s surface and decreases upward with
altitude. Near the ground where surface winds are slowed by friction with the land
surface, buildings and trees the coriolis force is reduced, but the pressure gradient force is
not affected by the slower air speed. Consequently, instead of flowing parallel to the
isobars, air near the surface responds to the pressure gradient force by flowing from
higher to lower pressure and at an angle across the isobars. Such wind flow is termed as
ageostrophic wind (Figure 11.4).

93
 Pressure force L Ageostrophic wind
1000mb

Friction

1004mb
H
Coriolis force

Figure 11.4 Ageostropic wind

A geostrophic wind flow causes surface air to spiral into centres of low pressure and to
spiral out of centres of high pressure. In the northern hemisphere the inward spiral is
clockwise. In the southern hemisphere, the reverse is true.

11.4 Summary

Assuming that the earth’s surface were a uniform body of water and that there is no
rotation and therefore no coriolis force, a low pressure belt would develop over the
equatorial region, where there is excessive radiation heating. High pressure centres would
develop over both polar regions where there is excessive radiation cooling. The air would
rise over the low latitudes and subside over the poles. The atmospheric circulation would
consist of a surface flow of air from the high pressure regions at the poles to complete the
circulation loop. There would be a return flow of air toward the poles in the upper
atmosphere. But, we need to note that actual patterns of pressure and wind at the earth's
surface are more complicated than the simple belts associated with the uniform surface
model (Figure 11.1). The presence of continents, mountain barriers and oceans
considerably influences the atmospheric circulation.

94
11.5 Key words
i) Coriolis force:- This is the apparent deflection resulting from the earth's rotation
that affects objects such as air and ocean water, moving freely over the earth's
surface.
ii) Pressure gradient force:- Is the net push caused by the horizontal difference in
pressure. It gives rise to atmospheric motion or wind that blows from high to low
pressure regions.

11.6 Exercises
1) Describe how coriolis force affects global atmospheric circulation.
2) Illustrate how pressure belts are distributed in the inter - tropical convergence zone
(ITCZ).
3) Describe atmospheric circulation of air in the various global convection cells.

11.7 Further reading

1) Lockwood, J.G. (1973). The physical geography of the tropics. John Wiley. New
York.
2) Strahler, R.J. (1974). Physical geography, 4th edition. Arnold. London.
3) Donn, W.L. (1975). Meteorology. McGraw - Hill co. Canada.
4) Neuwolt, S. (1977). Tropical climatology: An introduction to the climate of low
latitudes. John Wiley. New York.

95
12.0 Weather elements and their measurements

12.1 Introduction
This section discusses the major weather elements and how they are used to describe
different weather conditions. The weather elements considered in the section include;
Temperature, Precipitation and Wind. An explanation on how measurements are done
and the instruments used is also presented.

12.2 Objectives
i) To describe some of the most common weather elements.
ii) To illustrate how measurements of temperature, rainfall and wind are done.
iii) To describe how relative humidity is calculated.

12.3 Temperature
Temperature is not the same as heat, despite their interchangeable use in an everyday
context. Heat is a measure of the quantity of energy present in a body. Temperature on
the other hand provides a measure of the intensity or degree of hotness of that body. The
heat possessed by a substance depends not only on its temperature but also on its mass.
Raising the temperature of 25g of water from 20 oC to 25oC would require five times

more energy than raising 5g through the same 5oC. Both would measure 250C, but the
heat content of the larger mass would be much greater.

Temperature is therefore a condition that determines the flow of heat energy from one
substance to another, with the flow always being from high to low temperature. Such a
definition indicates that the study of the temperature characteristics of the earth's
atmosphere is in fact, a study of heat energy and the way in which it is distributed over
the earth’s surface.

96
Temperature is measured in three units, Fahrenheit, Celsius or Centigrade and Kelvin.
The conversion factors needed to pass from one another of the scales is shown below;

Scale Steam ice Absolute

Point point zero
Fahrenheit(f) 212 32 -459.69

Celsius (oC) 100 0 -273.15

Kelvin (K) 373.15 273.15 0.0

To convert from oC
0F = 9/5 oC + 32
K = oC –273.15

To convert from oF
O
C = 5/9 (oF-32)
K = 5/9 (oF –32) –273.15

To convert from Kelvin (K)

O
C = K + 273.15.

12.3.1 Measurement of temperature

Temperature is most commonly determined by measuring the amount of expansion and
contraction of different substances when subjected to heating or cooling. The standard
instrument is the thermometer. Thermometer is a sealed glass tube with a uniform bore
and a bulb or a reservoir at one end filled with mercury or with alcohol. A change in
temperature will results in a greater expansion or contraction of the alcohol or mercury
than the glass containers itself. Graduation on the glass tube provide a direct measure of
the temperature of the bulb and in turn of the environment of the bulb.

97
In a weather station, thermometers that measure the air temperature are kept in a
thermometer screen or a Stephenson screen. The screen has been designed to ensure that
as far as possible the following conditions are met;

1. Instruments within it are effectively shielded from all sources of heat, especially
radiation.
2. There is a gentle flow of air in and out of the screen and around the instrument.
3. Instruments are protected from precipitation.

The temperature instruments kept in the screen are;

a) Maximum thermometer; - for measuring the maximum temperature reached in 24
hours.
b) Minimum thermometer; - for measuring the minimum temperature reached in 24
hours.
c) Dry bulb thermometer for measuring the air temperature at any given time.
d) Wet bulb thermometer for measuring the temperature of saturated air at any given
time.

Note: - Dry bulb and Wet bulb temperatures are used for calculating the relative
humidity of the air.

12.3.2 Maximum thermometer

The maximum thermometer is an instrument which registers the highest temperature
reached in any given period. The instrument used in a meteorological out-station is a
mercury in glass thermometer which has a constriction in it's capillary. When properly
designed, this acts as a one way valve to movements of the mercury. The action is as
follows:- When the temperature rises, the mercury expands and forces it's way past the
constriction. On cooling, the mercury cannot readily contract through the constriction and
the thread breaks at that point. The thread of mercury left above the constriction also
contracts a little, but the contraction is designed to be so small as to be negligible. Thus

98
the upper end of the thread above the constriction indicates the maximum temperature
reached in a chosen period.

12.3.3 Minimum thermometer

The minimum thermometer is an alcohol in- glass one. There is a long black glass
indicator wholly immersed within the alcohol thread. When the thermometer is set, one
end of the indicator is in contact with the meniscus of the alcohol. Falling temperature
contracts the alcohol thread, and the meniscus moves towards the bulb, moving the
indicator with it. The surface tension of the meniscus causes it to act like a strong skin.
When the temperature rises again, the meniscus moves away from the indicator, leaving
the end which had been in contact with the meniscus registering the lowest temperature
reached.

12.4 Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. There are several measures of
humidity;
1. Relative humidity
2. Absolute humidity.
3. Specific humidity.
4. Dew point.
5. Mixing ratio.

Relative humidity can be calculated from the readings of dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures. Other instruments that measures humidity are:-
i) Aspirated psychrometers.
ii) Thermohygrographs.

12.5 Precipitation
Precipitation is defined as water in liquid or solid forms falling to the earth. The common
precipitation form is rain, drizzle, snow, sleet, and hail. Fog, dew and frost are
condensation forms but not precipitation. Rain is the most common precipitation form
and falls in liquid form. Rain that freezes as it falls from a warm mass of air through a

99
cold layer near the surface is termed as sleet. Under winter time conditions, rain may fall
through cold air and freeze upon striking cold surfaces to form glaze or an ice storm.

Drizzle is defined as numerous uniformly minute droplets of water which seem to float,
following the slightest movement of the air. Hail falls as hail stones, or snow pellets. All
forms of precipitation are measured by a rain gauge either ordinary or automatic.

12.6 Wind
Wind can be defined as the movement of air over the earth's surface. Although this
movement may have some vertical component, usually when we talk of wind we mean
only the horizontal components. Wind blows from high pressure area to low pressure
areas.

Surface wind is measured as a vector. That is, speed and direction. The surface wind
speed and direction are measured at an internationally agreed level of 10 metres (33ft)
above the ground. The direction of the surface wind or upper wind is always measured
clockwise from the true north giving the direction from which the wind is blowing.
Therefore, 900 or easterly wind is a wind blowing from the east. The direction can be
expressed either in degrees or as one point out of a number of points chosen to complete
the 360 degrees compass. The sixteen point compass is frequently used. This means that
the direction can be given as N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, ESE and so on.

The instrument used for measuring wind direction is the wind-vane. It consists of a long
arm with a rectangular fin which is either flat or of aerofoil cross-section at one end and a
counter-weight at the other. The vane is pivoted to rotate freely in a horizontal plane by
means of a spindle firmly attached to the arm passing through the center of sturdy thrust
bearing. Four fixed direction arms with the letters N, E, S and W are attached below the
vane to indicate the corresponding true directions.

100
If the vane lies across the direction of wind flow there is a resultant force acting on the
fin. The vane then moves until this resultant force is zero. That is when the whole wind
vane lies along the flow with the counter weight pointing in the direction from where the
wind is blowing.

There are five units which can be used for measuring wind speed. These are: KNOTS
(Kt), Mile per hour (MPH), Feet per second (Ft/sec), Metre per second. (M/sec) and
kilometers per hour (Km/h). For meteorological purposes only two units; the knot and
metre per second are in universal use all over the world. The knot is a nautical mile per
hour. A nautical (sea) mile per hour, is 6080ft long compared to a statute (land) mile
which is equal to 5280ft. The above five units of wind speed are connected to one another
by the following approximations.

1kt = 0.5m/s =1.2 mph = 1.9 km/h=1.7ft/s

Wind speed is measured by an instrument known as anemometer. The most commonly

used anemometer is the crop counter anemometer. It consists of three or four
hemispherical or conical cups mounted with open ends vertical on short arms. The arms
are fixed symmetrically to a central vertical spindle and are free to rotate in a horizontal
plane.

12.7 Key words

1) Temperature:- Is a condition that determines the flow of heat energy from one
substance to another, with the flow always being from high to low temperature.
2) Precipitation:- Water in liquid or solid forms falling to the earth. Rain is the most
common precipitation form and falls in liquid form.

12.8 Further reading

i) Mather, J.R. (1974). Climatology: Fundamentals and applications. McGraw - Hill
co. Canada.

101
ii) Oliver, J.E. and Hidore, J.J. (1984). Climatology: An introduction. Bell and
Howell co. Toronto.
iii) Barry, R.C. and Cherley, R.J. (1976). Atmosphere, weather and climate. Methuen.
London.

12.9 Practical Exercises

1. Visit a meteorological station and name all instruments in the station.
2. Illustrate how each one of the instruments is used to record the various weather
elements.
3. Describe the operations of maximum and minimum thermometers.

102