BOOK V

INTRODUCTION
1. Those who have filled books of unusually large size,
Emperor, in setting forth their intellectual ideas and doctrines,
have thus made a very great and remarkable addition to the
authority of their writings. I could wish that circumstances made
this as permissible in the case of our subject, so that the
authority of the present treatise might be increased by
amplifications; but this is not so easy as it may be thought.
Writing on architecture is not like history or poetry. History is
captivating to the reader from its very nature; for it holds out the
hope of various novelties. Poetry, with its measures and metrical
feet, its refinement in the arrangement of words, and the
delivery in verse of the sentiments expressed by the several
characters to one another, delights the feelings of the reader, and
leads him smoothly on to the very end of the work.
2. But this cannot be the case with architectural treatises,
because those terms which originate in the peculiar needs of the
art, give rise to obscurity of ideas from the unusual nature of the
language. Hence, while the things themselves are not well
known, and their names not in common use, if besides this the
principles are described in a very diffuse fashion without any
attempt at conciseness and explanation in a few pellucid
sentences, such fullness and amplitude of treatment will be only
a hindrance, and will give the reader nothing but indefinite
notions. Therefore, when I mention obscure terms, and the
symmetrical proportions of members of buildings, I shall give
brief explanations, so that they may be committed to memory;
for thus expressed, the mind will be enabled to understand them
the more easily.
3. Furthermore, since I have observed that our citizens are
distracted with public affairs and private business, I have
thought it best to write briefly, so that my readers, whose
intervals of leisure are small, may be able to comprehend in a
short time.
Then again, Pythagoras and those who came after him in his
school thought it proper to employ the principles of the cube in
composing books on their doctrines, and, having determined that
the cube consisted of 216 lines, held that there should be no
[6]

more than three cubes in any one treatise.

4. A cube is a body with sides all of equal breadth and their
surfaces perfectly square. When thrown down, it stands firm and
steady so long as it is untouched, no matter on which of its sides
it has fallen, like the dice which players throw on the board. The
Pythagoreans appear to have drawn their analogy from the cube,
because the number of lines mentioned will be fixed firmly and
steadily in the memory when they have once settled down, like a
cube, upon a man's understanding. The Greek comic poets, also,
divided their plays into parts by introducing a choral song, and
by this partition on the principle of the cubes, they relieve the
actor's speeches by such intermissions.
 5. Since these rules, founded on the analogy of nature, were
followed by our predecessors, and since I observe that I have to
write on unusual subjects which many persons will find obscure,
I have thought it best to write in short books, so that they may
the more readily strike the understanding of the reader: for they
will thus be easy to comprehend. I have also arranged them so
that those in search of knowledge on a subject may not have to
gather it from different places, but may find it in one complete
treatment, with the various classes set forth each in a book by
itself. Hence, Caesar, in the third and fourth books I gave the
rules for temples; in this book I shall treat of the laying out of
public places. I shall speak first of the proper arrangement of the
forum, for in it the course of both public and private affairs is
directed by the magistrates.

CHAPTER I
THE FORUM AND BASILICA

1. The Greeks lay out their forums in the form of a square

surrounded by very spacious double colonnades, adorn them
with columns set rather closely together, and with entablatures
of stone or marble, and construct walks above in the upper story.
But in the cities of Italy the same method cannot be followed,
for the reason that it is a custom handed down from our
ancestors that gladiatorial shows should be given in the forum.
 From Gsell
FORUM AT TIMGAD
A, Forum. B, Basilica. C, Curia. C', Official Building. D, Small Temple. E, Latrina. F,
Atrium.

2. Therefore let the intercolumniations round the show place

be pretty wide; round about in the colonnades put the bankers'
offices; and have balconies on the upper floor properly arranged
so as to be convenient, and to bring in some public revenue.
The size of a forum should be proportionate to the number of
inhabitants, so that it may not be too small a space to be useful,
nor look like a desert waste for lack of population. To determine
its breadth, divide its length into three parts and assign two of
them to the breadth. Its shape will then be oblong, and its
ground plan conveniently suited to the conditions of shows.
 3. The columns of the upper tier should be one fourth smaller
than those of the lower, because, for the purpose of bearing the
load, what is below ought to be stronger than what is above, and
also, because we ought to imitate nature as seen in the case of
things growing; for example, in round smooth-stemmed trees,
like the fir, cypress, and pine, every one of which is rather thick
just above the roots and then, as it goes on increasing in height,
tapers off naturally and symmetrically in growing up to the top.
Hence, if nature requires this in things growing, it is the right
arrangement that what is above should be less in height and
thickness than what is below.

4. Basilicas should be constructed on a site adjoining the

forum and in the warmest possible quarter, so that in winter
business men may gather in them without being troubled by the
weather. In breadth they should be not less than one third nor
more than one half of their length, unless the site is naturally
such as to prevent this and to oblige an alteration in these
proportions. If the length of the site is greater than necessary,
Chalcidian porches may be constructed at the ends, as in the
Julia Aquiliana.
5. It is thought that the columns of basilicas ought to be as
high as the side-aisles are broad; an aisle should be limited to
one third of the breadth which the open space in the middle is to
have. Let the columns of the upper tier be smaller than those of
the lower, as written above. The screen, to be placed between
the upper and the lower tiers of columns, ought to be, it is
thought, one fourth lower than the columns of the upper tier, so
that people walking in the upper story of the basilica may not be
seen by the business men. The architraves, friezes, and cornices
should be adjusted to the proportions of the columns, as we have
stated in the third book.

From Mau
FORUM AT POMPEII
A, Forum. B, Basilica. C, Temple of Apollo. D, D', Market Buildings. E, Latrina. F, City
Treasury. G, Memorial Arch. H, Temple of Jupiter. I, Arch of Tiberius. K, Macellum
(provision market). L, Sanctuary of the City Lares. M, Temple of Vespasian. N, Building of
Eumachia. O, Comitium. P, Office of the Duumvirs. Q, The City Council. R, Office of the
Aediles.
 From Durm
PLAN OF THE BASILICA AT POMPEII

6. But basilicas of the greatest dignity and beauty may also be

constructed in the style of that one which I erected, and the
building of which I superintended at Fano. Its proportions and
symmetrical relations were established as follows. In the middle,
the main roof between the columns is 120 feet long and sixty
feet wide. Its aisle round the space beneath the main roof and
between the walls and the columns is twenty feet broad. The
columns, of unbroken height, measuring with their capitals fifty
feet, and being each five feet thick, have behind them pilasters,
twenty feet high, two and one half feet broad, and one and one
half feet thick, which support the beams on which is carried the
upper flooring of the aisles. Above them are other pilasters,
eighteen feet high, two feet broad, and a foot thick, which carry
the beams supporting the principal raftering and the roof of the
aisles, which is brought down lower than the main roof.

7. The spaces remaining between the beams supported by the

pilasters and the columns, are left for windows between the
intercolumniations. The columns are: on the breadth of the main
roof at each end, four, including the corner columns at right and
left; on the long side which is next to the forum, eight, including
the same corner columns; on the other side, six, including the
corner columns. This is because the two middle columns on that
side are omitted, in order not to obstruct the view of the pronaos
of the temple of Augustus (which is built at the middle of the
side wall of the basilica, facing the middle of the forum and the
temple of Jupiter) and also the tribunal which is in the former
temple, shaped as a hemicycle whose curvature is less than a
semicircle.
8. The open side of this hemicycle is forty-six feet along the
front, and its curvature inwards is fifteen feet, so that those who
are standing before the magistrates may not be in the way of the
business men in the basilica. Round about, above the columns,
are placed the architraves, consisting of three two-foot timbers
fastened together. These return from the columns which stand
third on the inner side to the antae which project from the
pronaos, and which touch the edges of the hemicycle at right
and left.

VITRUVIUS' BASILICA AT FANO

 VITRUVIUS' BASILICA AT FANO

9. Above the architraves and regularly dispersed on supports

directly over the capitals, piers are placed, three feet high and
four feet broad each way. Above them is placed the projecting
cornice round about, made of two two-foot timbers. The tie-
beams and struts, being placed above them, and directly over the
shafts of the columns and the antae and walls of the pronaos,
hold up one gable roof along the entire basilica, and another
from the middle of it, over the pronaos of the temple.
10. Thus the gable tops run in two directions, like the letter T,
and give a beautiful effect to the outside and inside of the main
roof. Further, by the omission of an ornamental entablature and
of a line of screens and a second tier of columns, troublesome
labour is saved and the total cost greatly diminished. On the
other hand, the carrying of the columns themselves in unbroken
height directly up to the beams that support the main roof, seems
to add an air of sumptuousness and dignity to the work.

CHAPTER II
THE TREASURY, PRISON, AND SENATE HOUSE

1. The treasury, prison, and senate house ought to adjoin the

forum, but in such a way that their dimensions may be
proportionate to those of the forum. Particularly, the senate
house should be constructed with special regard to the
importance of the town or city. If the building is square, let its
height be fixed at one and one half times its breadth; but if it is
to be oblong, add together its length and breadth and, having got
the total, let half of it be devoted to the height up to the coffered
ceiling.
2. Further, the inside walls should be girdled, at a point
halfway up their height, with coronae made of woodwork or of
stucco. Without these, the voice of men engaged in discussion
there will be carried up to the height above, and so be
unintelligible to their listeners. But when the walls are girdled
with coronae, the voice from below, being detained before
rising and becoming lost in the air, will be intelligible to the ear.
 CHAPTER III
THE THEATRE: ITS SITE, FOUNDATIONS AND ACOUSTICS

1. After the forum has been arranged, next, for the purpose of
seeing plays or festivals of the immortal gods, a site as healthy
as possible should be selected for the theatre, in accordance with
what has been written in the first book, on the principles of
healthfulness in the sites of cities. For when plays are given, the
spectators, with their wives and children, sit through them spell-
bound, and their bodies, motionless from enjoyment, have the
pores open, into which blowing winds find their way. If these
winds come from marshy districts or from other unwholesome
quarters, they will introduce noxious exhalations into the
system. Hence, such faults will be avoided if the site of the
theatre is somewhat carefully selected.
2. We must also beware that it has not a southern exposure.
When the sun shines full upon the rounded part of it, the air,
being shut up in the curved enclosure and unable to circulate,
stays there and becomes heated; and getting glowing hot it burns
up, dries out, and impairs the fluids of the human body. For
these reasons, sites which are unwholesome in such respects are
to be avoided, and healthy sites selected.
3. The foundation walls will be an easier matter if they are on
a hillside; but if they have to be laid on a plain or in a marshy
place, solidity must be assured and substructures built in
accordance with what has been written in the third book, on the
foundations of temples. Above the foundation walls, the
ascending rows of seats, from the substructures up, should be
built of stone and marble materials.
4. The curved cross-aisles should be constructed in
proportionate relation, it is thought, to the height of the theatre,
but not higher than the footway of the passage is broad. If they
are loftier, they will throw back the voice and drive it away from
the upper portion, thus preventing the case-endings of words
from reaching with distinct meaning the ears of those who are in
the uppermost seats above the cross-aisles. In short, it should be
so contrived that a line drawn from the lowest to the highest seat
will touch the top edges and angles of all the seats. Thus the
voice will meet with no obstruction.
5. The different entrances ought to be numerous and spacious,
the upper not connected with the lower, but built in a continuous
straight line from all parts of the house, without turnings, so that
the people may not be crowded together when let out from
shows, but may have separate exits from all parts without
obstructions.
Particular pains must also be taken that the site be not a "deaf"
one, but one through which the voice can range with the greatest
clearness. This can be brought about if a site is selected where
there is no obstruction due to echo.
6. Voice is a flowing breath of air, perceptible to the hearing
by contact. It moves in an endless number of circular rounds,
like the innumerably increasing circular waves which appear
when a stone is thrown into smooth water, and which keep on
spreading indefinitely from the centre unless interrupted by
narrow limits, or by some obstruction which prevents such
waves from reaching their end in due formation. When they are
interrupted by obstructions, the first waves, flowing back, break
up the formation of those which follow.
7. In the same manner the voice executes its movements in
concentric circles; but while in the case of water the circles
move horizontally on a plane surface, the voice not only
proceeds horizontally, but also ascends vertically by regular
stages. Therefore, as in the case of the waves formed in the
water, so it is in the case of the voice: the first wave, when there
is no obstruction to interrupt it, does not break up the second or
the following waves, but they all reach the ears of the lowest
and highest spectators without an echo.
8. Hence the ancient architects, following in the footsteps of
nature, perfected the ascending rows of seats in theatres from
their investigations of the ascending voice, and, by means of the
canonical theory of the mathematicians and that of the
musicians, endeavoured to make every voice uttered on the
stage come with greater clearness and sweetness to the ears of
the audience. For just as musical instruments are brought to
perfection of clearness in the sound of their strings by means of
bronze plates or horn ἡχεια, so the ancients devised methods of
increasing the power of the voice in theatres through the
application of harmonics.
 CHAPTER IV
HARMONICS

1. Harmonics is an obscure and difficult branch of musical

science, especially for those who do not know Greek. If we
desire to treat of it, we must use Greek words, because some of
them have no Latin equivalents. Hence, I will explain it as
clearly as I can from the writings of Aristoxenus, append his
scheme, and define the boundaries of the notes, so that with
somewhat careful attention anybody may be able to understand
it pretty easily.
2. The voice, in its changes of position when shifting pitch,
becomes sometimes high, sometimes low, and its movements
are of two kinds, in one of which its progress is continuous, in
the other by intervals. The continuous voice does not become
stationary at the "boundaries" or at any definite place, and so the
extremities of its progress are not apparent, but the fact that
there are differences of pitch is apparent, as in our ordinary
speech in sol, lux, flos, vox; for in these cases we cannot tell at
what pitch the voice begins, nor at what pitch it leaves off, but
the fact that it becomes low from high and high from low is
apparent to the ear. In its progress by intervals the opposite is
the case. For here, when the pitch shifts, the voice, by change of
position, stations itself on one pitch, then on another, and, as it
frequently repeats this alternating process, it appears to the
senses to become stationary, as happens in singing when we
produce a variation of the mode by changing the pitch of the
voice. And so, since it moves by intervals, the points at which it
begins and where it leaves off are obviously apparent in the
boundaries of the notes, but the intermediate points escape
notice and are obscure, owing to the intervals.
3. There are three classes of modes: first, that which the
Greeks term the enharmonic; second, the chromatic; third, the
diatonic. The enharmonic mode is an artistic conception, and
therefore execution in it has a specially severe dignity and
distinction. The chromatic, with its delicate subtlety and with
the "crowding" of its notes, gives a sweeter kind of pleasure. In
the diatonic, the distance between the intervals is easier to
understand, because it is natural. These three classes differ in
their arrangement of the tetrachord. In the enharmonic, the
tetrachord consists of two tones and two "dieses." A diesis is a
quarter tone; hence in a semitone there are included two dieses.
In the chromatic there are two semitones arranged in succession,
and the third interval is a tone and a half. In the diatonic, there
are two consecutive tones, and the third interval of a semitone
completes the tetrachord. Hence, in the three classes, the
tetrachords are equally composed of two tones and a semitone,
but when they are regarded separately according to the terms of
each class, they differ in the arrangement of their intervals.
4. Now then, these intervals of tones and semitones of the
tetrachord are a division introduced by nature in the case of the
voice, and she has defined their limits by measures according to
the magnitude of the intervals, and determined their
characteristics in certain different ways. These natural laws are
followed by the skilled workmen who fashion musical
instruments, in bringing them to the perfection of their proper
concords.

5. In each class there are eighteen notes, termed in Greek

φθὁλλοι, of which eight in all the three classes are constant and
fixed, while the other ten, not being tuned to the same pitch, are
variable. The fixed notes are those which, being placed between
the moveable, make up the unity of the tetrachord, and remain
unaltered in their boundaries according to the different classes.
Their names are proslambanomenos, hypate hypaton, hypate
meson, mese, nete synhemmenon, paramese, nete
diezeugmenon, nete hyperbolaeon. The moveable notes are
those which, being arranged in the tetrachord between the
immoveable, change from place to place according to the
different classes. They are called parhypate hypaton, lichanos
hypaton, parhypate meson, lichanos meson, trite synhemmenon,
paranete synhemmenon, trite diezeugmenon, paranete
diezeugmenon, trite hyperbolaeon, paranete hyperbolaeon.
6. These notes, from being moveable, take on different
qualities; for they may stand at different intervals and increasing
distances. Thus, parhypate, which in the enharmonic is at the
interval of half a semitone from hypate, has a semitone interval
when transferred to the chromatic. What is called lichanos in the
enharmonic is at the interval of a semitone from hypate; but
when shifted to the chromatic, it goes two semitones away; and
in the diatonic it is at an interval of three semitones from hypate.
Hence the ten notes produce three different kinds of modes on
account of their changes of position in the classes.
7. There are five tetrachords: first, the lowest, termed in Greek
ὑπατον; second, the middle, called μἑσον; third, the conjunct,
termed συνημμἑνον; fourth, the disjunct, named διεξενγμἑνον;
the fifth, which is the highest, is termed in Greek ὑπερβὁλαιον.
The concords, termed in Greek συμφωνἱαι, of which human
modulation will naturally admit, are six in number: the fourth,
the fifth, the octave, the octave and fourth, the octave and fifth,
and the double octave.
8. Their names are therefore due to numerical value; for when
the voice becomes stationary on some one note, and then,
shifting its pitch, changes its position and passes to the limit of
the fourth note from that one, we use the term "fourth"; when it
passes to the fifth, the term is "fifth."
[7]

9. For there can be no consonances either in the case of the

notes of stringed instruments or of the singing voice, between
two intervals or between three or six or seven; but, as written
above, it is only the harmonies of the fourth, the fifth, and so on
up to the double octave, that have boundaries naturally
corresponding to those of the voice: and these concords are
produced by the union of the notes.

CHAPTER V
SOUNDING VESSELS IN THE THEATRE

1. In accordance with the foregoing investigations on

mathematical principles, let bronze vessels be made,
proportionate to the size of the theatre, and let them be so
fashioned that, when touched, they may produce with one
another the notes of the fourth, the fifth, and so on up to the
double octave. Then, having constructed niches in between the
seats of the theatre, let the vessels be arranged in them, in
accordance with musical laws, in such a way that they nowhere
touch the wall, but have a clear space all round them and room
over their tops. They should be set upside down, and be
supported on the side facing the stage by wedges not less than
half a foot high. Opposite each niche, apertures should be left in
the surface of the seat next below, two feet long and half a foot
deep.
2. The arrangement of these vessels, with reference to the
situations in which they should be placed, may be described as
follows. If the theatre be of no great size, mark out a horizontal
range halfway up, and in it construct thirteen arched niches with
twelve equal spaces between them, so that of the above
mentioned "echea" those which give the note nete hyperbolaeon
may be placed first on each side, in the niches which are at the
extreme ends; next to the ends and a fourth below in pitch, the
note nete diezeugmenon; third, paramese, a fourth below;
fourth, nete synhemmenon; fifth, mese, a fourth below; sixth,
hypate meson, a fourth below; and in the middle and another
fourth below, one vessel giving the note hypate hypaton.
3. On this principle of arrangement, the voice, uttered from the
stage as from a centre, and spreading and striking against the
cavities of the different vessels, as it comes in contact with
them, will be increased in clearness of sound, and will wake an
harmonious note in unison with itself.
But if the theatre be rather large, let its height be divided into
four parts, so that three horizontal ranges of niches may be
marked out and constructed: one for the enharmonic, another for
the chromatic, and the third for the diatonic system. Beginning
with the bottom range, let the arrangement be as described
above in the case of a smaller theatre, but on the enharmonic
system.
 4. In the middle range, place first at the extreme ends the
vessels which give the note of the chromatic hyperbolaeon; next
to them, those which give the chromatic diezeugmenon, a fourth
below; third, the chromatic synhemmenon; fourth, the chromatic
meson, a fourth below; fifth, the chromatic hypaton, a fourth
below; sixth, the paramese, for this is both the concord of the
fifth to the chromatic hyperbolaeon, and the concord of the
[8]

chromatic synhemmenon.
5. No vessel is to be placed in the middle, for the reason that
there is no other note in the chromatic system that forms a
natural concord of sound.
In the highest division and range of niches, place at the
extreme ends vessels fashioned so as to give the note of the
diatonic hyperbolaeon; next, the diatonic diezeugmenon, a
fourth below; third, the diatonic synhemmenon; fourth, the
diatonic meson, a fourth below; fifth, the diatonic hypaton, a
fourth below; sixth, the proslambanomenos, a fourth below; in
the middle, the note mese, for this is both the octave to
proslambanomenos, and the concord of the fifth to the diatonic
hypaton.
6. Whoever wishes to carry out these principles with ease, has
only to consult the scheme at the end of this book, drawn up in
accordance with the laws of music. It was left by Aristoxenus,
who with great ability and labour classified and arranged in it
the different modes. In accordance with it, and by giving heed to
these theories, one can easily bring a theatre to perfection, from
the point of view of the nature of the voice, so as to give
pleasure to the audience.
 7. Somebody will perhaps say that many theatres are built
every year in Rome, and that in them no attention at all is paid
to these principles; but he will be in error, from the fact that all
our public theatres made of wood contain a great deal of
boarding, which must be resonant. This may be observed from
the behaviour of those who sing to the lyre, who, when they
wish to sing in a higher key, turn towards the folding doors on
the stage, and thus by their aid are reinforced with a sound in
harmony with the voice. But when theatres are built of solid
materials like masonry, stone, or marble, which cannot be
resonant, then the principles of the "echea" must be applied.
8. If, however, it is asked in what theatre these vessels have
been employed, we cannot point to any in Rome itself, but only
to those in the districts of Italy and in a good many Greek states.
We have also the evidence of Lucius Mummius, who, after
destroying the theatre in Corinth, brought its bronze vessels to
Rome, and made a dedicatory offering at the temple of Luna
with the money obtained from the sale of them. Besides, many
skilful architects, in constructing theatres in small towns, have,
for lack of means, taken large jars made of clay, but similarly
resonant, and have produced very advantageous results by
arranging them on the principles described.

CHAPTER VI
PLAN OF THE THEATRE

1. The plan of the theatre itself is to be constructed as follows.

Having fixed upon the principal centre, draw a line of
circumference equivalent to what is to be the perimeter at the
bottom, and in it inscribe four equilateral triangles, at equal
distances apart and touching the boundary line of the circle, as
the astrologers do in a figure of the twelve signs of the zodiac,
when they are making computations from the musical harmony
of the stars. Taking that one of these triangles whose side is
nearest to the scaena, let the front of the scaena be determined
by the line where that side cuts off a segment of the circle (A-
B), and draw, through the centre, a parallel line (C-D) set off
from that position, to separate the platform of the stage from the
space of the orchestra.
2. The platform has to be made deeper than that of the Greeks,
because all our artists perform on the stage, while the orchestra
contains the places reserved for the seats of senators. The height
of this platform must be not more than five feet, in order that
those who sit in the orchestra may be able to see the
performances of all the actors. The sections (cunei) for
spectators in the theatre should be so divided, that the angles of
the triangles which run about the circumference of the circle
may give the direction for the flights of steps between the
sections, as far as up to the first curved cross-aisle. Above this,
the upper sections are to be laid out, midway between (the lower
sections), with alternating passage-ways.
3. The angles at the bottom, which give the directions for the
flights of steps, will be seven in number (C, E, F, G, H, I, D);
the other five angles will determine the arrangement of the
scene: thus, the angle in the middle ought to have the "royal
door" (K) opposite to it; the angles to the right and left (L, M)
will designate the position of the doors for guest chambers; and
the two outermost angles (A, B) will point to the passages in the
wings. The steps for the spectators' places, where the seats are
arranged, should be not less than a foot and a palm in height, nor
more than a foot and six fingers; their depth should be fixed at
not more than two and a half feet, nor less than two feet.

PLAN

SECTION
THE ROMAN THEATRE ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS
 4. The roof of the colonnade to be built at the top of the rows
of seats, should lie level with the top of the "scaena," for the
reason that the voice will then rise with equal power until it
reaches the highest rows of seats and the roof. If the roof is not
so high, in proportion as it is lower, it will check the voice at the
point which the sound first reaches.
5. Take one sixth of the diameter of the orchestra between the
lowest steps, and let the lower seats at the ends on both sides be
cut away to a height of that dimension so as to leave entrances
(O, P). At the point where this cutting away occurs, fix the
soffits of the passages. Thus their vaulting will be sufficiently
high.
6. The length of the "scaena" ought to be double the diameter
of the orchestra. The height of the podium, starting from the
level of the stage, is, including the corona and cymatium, one
twelfth of the diameter of the orchestra. Above the podium, the
columns, including their capitals and bases, should have a height
of one quarter of the same diameter, and the architraves and
ornaments of the columns should be one fifth of their height.
The parapet above, including its cyma and corona, is one half
the height of the parapet below. Let the columns above this
parapet be one fourth less in height than the columns below, and
the architraves and ornaments of these columns one fifth of their
height. If the "scaena" is to have three stories, let the uppermost
parapet be half the height of the intermediate one, the columns
at the top one fourth less high than the intermediate, and the
architraves and coronae of these columns one fifth of their
height as before.
 7. It is not possible, however, that in all theatres these rules of
symmetry should answer all conditions and purposes, but the
architect ought to consider to what extent he must follow the
principle of symmetry, and to what extent it may be modified to
suit the nature of the site or the size of the work. There are, of
course, some things which, for utility's sake, must be made of
the same size in a small theatre, and a large one: such as the
steps, curved cross-aisles, their parapets, the passages,
stairways, stages, tribunals, and any other things which occur
that make it necessary to give up symmetry so as not to interfere
with utility. Again, if in the course of the work any of the
material fall short, such as marble, timber, or anything else that
is provided, it will not be amiss to make a slight reduction or
addition, provided that it is done without going too far, but with
intelligence. This will be possible, if the architect is a man of
practical experience and, besides, not destitute of cleverness and
skill.

From Durm
THE THEATRE AT ASPENDUS

8. The "scaena" itself displays the following scheme. In the

centre are double doors decorated like those of a royal palace.
At the right and left are the doors of the guest chambers. Beyond
are spaces provided for decoration—places that the Greeks call
περιἁκτοι, because in these places are triangular pieces of
machinery (Δ, Δ) which revolve, each having three decorated
faces. When the play is to be changed, or when gods enter to the
accompaniment of sudden claps of thunder, these may be
revolved and present a face differently decorated. Beyond these
places are the projecting wings which afford entrances to the
stage, one from the forum, the other from abroad.
9. There are three kinds of scenes, one called the tragic,
second, the comic, third, the satyric. Their decorations are
different and unlike each other in scheme. Tragic scenes are
delineated with columns, pediments, statues, and other objects
suited to kings; comic scenes exhibit private dwellings, with
balconies and views representing rows of windows, after the
manner of ordinary dwellings; satyric scenes are decorated with
trees, caverns, mountains, and other rustic objects delineated in
landscape style.

CHAPTER VII
GREEK THEATRES

1. In the theatres of the Greeks, these same rules of

construction are not to be followed in all respects. First, in the
circle at the bottom where the Roman has four triangles, the
Greek has three squares with their angles touching the line of
circumference. The square whose side is nearest to the "scaena,"
and cuts off a segment of the circle, determines by this line the
limits of the "proscaenium" (A, B). Parallel to this line and
tangent to the outer circumference of the segment, a line is
drawn which fixes the front of the "scaena" (C-D). Through the
centre of the orchestra and parallel to the direction of the
"proscaenium," a line is laid off, and centres are marked where
it cuts the circumference to the right and left (E, F) at the ends
of the half-circle. Then, with the compasses fixed at the right, an
arc is described from the horizontal distance at the left to the left
hand side of the "proscaenium" (F, G); again with the centre at
the left end, an arc is described from the horizontal distance at
the right to the right hand side of the "proscaenium" (E, H).

2. As a result of this plan with three centres, the Greeks have a

roomier orchestra, and a "scaena" set further back, as well as a
stage of less depth. They call this the λογεἱον, for the reason that
there the tragic and comic actors perform on the stage, while
other artists give their performances in the entire orchestra;
hence, from this fact they are given in Greek the distinct names
"Scenic" and "Thymelic." The height of this "logeum" ought to
be not less than ten feet nor more than twelve. Let the ascending
flights of steps between the wedges of seats, as far up as the first
curved cross-aisle, be laid out on lines directly opposite to the
angles of the squares. Above the cross-aisle, let other flights be
laid out in the middle between the first; and at the top, as often
as there is a new cross-aisle, the number of flights of steps is
always increased to the same extent.
 CHAPTER VIII
ACOUSTICS OF THE SITE OF A THEATRE

1. All this having been settled with the greatest pains and skill,
we must see to it, with still greater care, that a site has been
selected where the voice has a gentle fall, and is not driven back
with a recoil so as to convey an indistinct meaning to the ear.
There are some places which from their very nature interfere
with the course of the voice, as for instance the dissonant, which
are termed in Greek κατηχουντεϛ; the circumsonant, which with
them are named περιηχουντες; again the resonant, which are
termed ἁντηχουντες; and the consonant, which they call
συνηχουντες. The dissonant are those places in which the first
sound uttered that is carried up high, strikes against solid bodies
above, and, being driven back, checks as it sinks to the bottom
the rise of the succeeding sound.
2. The circumsonant are those in which the voice spreads all
round, and then is forced into the middle, where it dissolves, the
case-endings are not heard, and it dies away there in sounds of
indistinct meaning. The resonant are those in which it comes
into contact with some solid substance and recoils, thus
producing an echo, and making the terminations of cases sound
double. The consonant are those in which it is supported from
below, increases as it goes up, and reaches the ears in words
which are distinct and clear in tone. Hence, if there has been
careful attention in the selection of the site, the effect of the
voice will, through this precaution, be perfectly suited to the
purposes of a theatre.
The drawings of the plans may be distinguished from each
other by this difference, that theatres designed from squares are
meant to be used by Greeks, while Roman theatres are designed
from equilateral triangles. Whoever is willing to follow these
directions will be able to construct perfectly correct theatres.
 CHAPTER IX
COLONNADES AND WALKS

1. Colonnades must be constructed behind the scaena, so that

when sudden showers interrupt plays, the people may have
somewhere to retire from the theatre, and so that there may be
room for the preparation of all the outfit of the stage. Such
places, for instance, are the colonnades of Pompey, and also, in
Athens, the colonnades of Eumenes and the fane of Father
Bacchus; also, as you leave the theatre, the music hall which
Themistocles surrounded with stone columns, and roofed with
the yards and masts of ships captured from the Persians. It was
burned during the war with Mithridates, and afterwards restored
by King Ariobarzanes. At Smyrna there is the Stratoniceum, at
Tralles, a colonnade on each side of the scaena above the race
course, and in other cities which have had careful architects
there are colonnades and walks about the theatres.
2. The approved way of building them requires that they
should be double, and have Doric columns on the outside, with
the architraves and their ornaments finished according to the law
of modular proportion. The approved depth for them requires
that the depth, from the lower part of the outermost columns to
the columns in the middle, and from the middle columns to the
wall enclosing the walk under the colonnade, should be equal to
the height of the outer columns. Let the middle columns be one
fifth higher than the outer columns, and designed in the Ionic or
Corinthian style.
3. The columns will not be subject to the same rules of
symmetry and proportion which I prescribed in the case of
sanctuaries; for the dignity which ought to be their quality in
temples of the gods is one thing, but their elegance in
colonnades and other public works is quite another. Hence, if
the columns are to be of the Doric order, let their height,
including the capital, be measured off into fifteen parts. Of these
parts, let one be fixed upon to form the module, and in
accordance with this module the whole work is to be developed.
Let the thickness of the columns at the bottom be two modules;
an intercolumniation, five and a half modules; the height of a
column, excluding the capital, fourteen modules; the capital, one
module in height and two and one sixth modules in breadth. Let
the modular proportions of the rest of the work be carried out as
written in the fourth book in the case of temples.
4. But if the columns are to be Ionic, let the shaft, excluding
base and capital, be divided into eight and one half parts, and let
one of these be assigned to the thickness of a column. Let the
base, including the plinth, be fixed at half the thickness, and let
the proportions of the capital be as shown in the third book. If
the column is to be Corinthian, let its shaft and base be
proportioned as in the Ionic, but its capital, as has been written
in the fourth book. In the stylobates, let the increase made there
by means of the "scamilli impares" be taken from the
description written above in the third book. Let the architraves,
coronae, and all the rest be developed, in proportion to the
columns, from what has been written in the foregoing books.
 5. The space in the middle, between the colonnades and open
to the sky, ought to be embellished with green things; for
walking in the open air is very healthy, particularly for the eyes,
since the refined and rarefied air that comes from green things,
finding its way in because of the physical exercise, gives a
clean-cut image, and, by clearing away the gross humours from
the eyes, leaves the sight keen and the image distinct. Besides,
as the body gets warm with exercise in walking, this air, by
sucking out the humours from the frame, diminishes their
superabundance, and disperses and thus reduces that superfluity
which is more than the body can bear.
6. That this is so may be seen from the fact that misty vapours
never arise from springs of water which are under cover, nor
even from watery marshes which are underground; but in
uncovered places which are open to the sky, when the rising sun
begins to act upon the world with its heat, it brings out the
vapour from damp and watery spots, and rolls it in masses
upwards. Therefore, if it appears that in places open to the sky
the more noxious humours are sucked out of the body by the air,
as they obviously are from the earth in the form of mists, I think
there is no doubt that cities should be provided with the
roomiest and most ornamented walks, laid out under the free
and open sky.
7. That they may be always dry and not muddy, the following
is to be done. Let them be dug down and cleared out to the
lowest possible depth. At the right and left construct covered
drains, and in their walls, which are directed towards the walks,
lay earthen pipes with their lower ends inclined into the drains.
Having finished these, fill up the place with charcoal, and then
strew sand over the walks and level them off. Hence, on account
of the porous nature of the charcoal and the insertion of the
pipes into the drains, quantities of water will be conducted
away, and the walks will thus be rendered perfectly dry and
without moisture.

THE TEPIDARIUM OF THE STABIA BATHS AT POMPEII

8. Furthermore, our ancestors in establishing these works

provided cities with storehouses for an indispensable material.
The fact is that in sieges everything else is easier to procure than
is wood. Salt can easily be brought in beforehand; corn can be
got together quickly by the State or by individuals, and if it
gives out, the defence may be maintained on cabbage, meat, or
beans; water can be had by digging wells, or when there are
sudden falls of rain, by collecting it from the tiles. But a stock of
wood, which is absolutely necessary for cooking food, is a
difficult and troublesome thing to provide; for it is slow to
gather and a good deal is consumed.

APODYTERIUM FOR WOMEN IN THE STABIAN BATHS AT POMPEII

9. On such occasions, therefore, these walks are thrown open,

and a definite allowance granted to each inhabitant according to
tribes. Thus these uncovered walks insure two excellent things:
first, health in time of peace; secondly, safety in time of war.
Hence, walks that are developed on these principles, and built
not only behind the "scaena" of theatres, but also at the temples
of all the gods, will be capable of being of great use to cities.

As it appears that we have given an adequate account of them,

next will follow descriptions of the arrangements of baths.

CHAPTER X
BATHS

1. In the first place, the warmest possible situation must be

selected; that is, one which faces away from the north and
northeast. The rooms for the hot and tepid baths should be
lighted from the southwest, or, if the nature of the situation
prevents this, at all events from the south, because the set time
for bathing is principally from midday to evening. We must also
see to it that the hot bath rooms in the women's and men's
departments adjoin each other, and are situated in the same
quarter; for thus it will be possible that the same furnace should
serve both of them and their fittings. Three bronze cauldrons are
to be set over the furnace, one for hot, another for tepid, and the
third for cold water, placed in such positions that the amount of
water which flows out of the hot water cauldron may be
replaced from that for tepid water, and in the same way the
cauldron for tepid water may be supplied from that for cold. The
arrangement must allow the semi-cylinders for the bath basins to
be heated from the same furnace.
 THE STABIAN BATHS AT POMPEII
S, S. Shops. B. Private Baths. A-T. Men's Bath. A'-T'. Women's Baths. E, E'. Entrances. A,
A'. Apodyteria. F. Frigidarium. T, T'. Tepidarium. C, C. Caldarium. K, K, K. Kettles in
furnace room. P. Piscina.

2. The hanging floors of the hot bath rooms are to be

constructed as follows. First the surface of the ground should be
laid with tiles a foot and a half square, sloping towards the
furnace in such a way that, if a ball is thrown in, it cannot stop
inside but must return of itself to the furnace room; thus the heat
of the fire will more readily spread under the hanging flooring.
Upon them, pillars made of eight-inch bricks are built, and set at
such a distance apart that two-foot tiles may be used to cover
them. These pillars should be two feet in height, laid with clay
mixed with hair, and covered on top with the two-foot tiles
which support the floor.
3. The vaulted ceilings will be more serviceable if built of
masonry; but if they are of framework, they should have tile
work on the under side, to be constructed as follows. Let iron
bars or arcs be made, and hang them to the framework by means
of iron hooks set as close together as possible; and let these bars
or arcs be placed at such distances apart that each pair of them
may support and carry an unflanged tile. Thus the entire
vaulting will be completely supported on iron. These vaults
should have the joints on their upper side daubed with clay
mixed with hair, and their under side, facing the floor, should
first be plastered with pounded tile mixed with lime, and then
covered with polished stucco in relief or smooth. Vaults in hot
bath rooms will be more serviceable if they are doubled; for
then the moisture from the heat will not be able to spoil the
timber in the framework, but will merely circulate between the
two vaults.
4. The size of the baths must depend upon the number of the
population. The rooms should be thus proportioned: let their
breadth be one third of their length, excluding the niches for the
washbowl and the bath basin. The washbowl ought without fail
to be placed under a window, so that the shadows of those who
stand round it may not obstruct the light. Niches for washbowls
must be made so roomy that when the first comers have taken
their places, the others who are waiting round may have proper
standing room. The bath basin should be not less than six feet
broad from the wall to the edge, the lower step and the
"cushion" taking up two feet of this space.
5. The Laconicum and other sweating baths must adjoin the
tepid room, and their height to the bottom of the curved dome
should be equal to their width. Let an aperture be left in the
middle of the dome with a bronze disc hanging from it by
chains. By raising and lowering it, the temperature of the
sweating bath can be regulated. The chamber itself ought, as it
seems, to be circular, so that the force of the fire and heat may
spread evenly from the centre all round the circumference.

CHAPTER XI
THE PALAESTRA

1. Next, although the building of palaestrae is not usual in

Italy, I think it best to set forth the traditional way, and to show
how they are constructed among the Greeks. The square or
oblong peristyle in a palaestra should be so formed that the
circuit of it makes a walk of two stadia, a distance which the
Greeks call the δἱανλος. Let three of its colonnades be single,
but let the fourth, which is on the south side, be double, so that
when there is bad weather accompanied by wind, the drops of
rain may not be able to reach the interior.
2. In the three colonnades construct roomy recesses (A) with
seats in them, where philosophers, rhetoricians, and others who
delight in learning may sit and converse. In the double
colonnade let the rooms be arranged thus: the young men's hall
(B) in the middle; this is a very spacious recess (exedra) with
seats in it, and it should be one third longer than it is broad. At
the right, the bag room (C); then next, the dust room (D);
beyond the dust room, at the corner of the colonnade, the cold
washing room (E), which the Greeks call λουτρὁν. At the left of
the young men's hall is the anointing room (F); then, next to the
anointing room, the cold bath room (G), and beyond that a
passage into the furnace room (H) at the corner of the
colonnade. Next, but inside and on a line with the cold bath
room, put the vaulted sweating bath (I), its length twice its
breadth, and having at the ends on one side a Laconicum (K),
proportioned in the same manner as above described, and
opposite the Laconicum the warm washing room (L). Inside a
palaestra, the peristyle ought to be laid out as described above.
3. But on the outside, let three colonnades be arranged, one as
you leave the peristyle and two at the right and left, with
running-tracks in them. That one of them which faces the north
should be a double colonnade of very ample breadth, while the
other should be single, and so constructed that on the sides next
the walls and the side along the columns it may have edges,
serving as paths, of not less than ten feet, with the space
between them sunken, so that steps are necessary in going down
from the edges a foot and a half to the plane, which plane should
be not less than twelve feet wide. Thus people walking round on
the edges will not be interfered with by the anointed who are
exercising.
 4. This kind of colonnade is called among the Greeks ξυστὁς,
because athletes during the winter season exercise in covered
running tracks. Next to this "xystus" and to the double
colonnade should be laid out the uncovered walks which the
Greeks term παραδρομἱδες and our people "xysta," into which,
in fair weather during the winter, the athletes come out from the
"xystus" for exercise. The "xysta" ought to be so constructed
that there may be plantations between the two colonnades, or
groves of plane trees, with walks laid out in them among the
trees and resting places there, made of "opus signinum." Behind
the "xystus" a stadium, so designed that great numbers of people
may have plenty of room to look on at the contests between the
athletes.
I have now described all that seemed necessary for the proper
arrangement of things within the city walls.

CHAPTER XII
HARBOURS, BREAKWATERS, AND SHIPYARDS

1. The subject of the usefulness of harbours is one which I

must not omit, but must explain by what means ships are
sheltered in them from storms. If their situation has natural
advantages, with projecting capes or promontories which curve
or return inwards by their natural conformation, such harbours
are obviously of the greatest service. Round them, of course,
colonnades or shipyards must be built, or passages from the
colonnades to the business quarters, and towers must be set up
on both sides, from which chains can be drawn across by
machinery.
2. But if we have a situation without natural advantages, and
unfit to shelter ships from storms, it is obvious that we must
proceed as follows. If there is no river in the neighbourhood, but
if there can be a roadstead on one side, then, let the advances be
made from the other side by means of walls or embankments,
and let the enclosing harbour be thus formed. Walls which are to
be under water should be constructed as follows. Take the
powder which comes from the country extending from Cumae
to the promontory of Minerva, and mix it in the mortar trough in
the proportion of two to one.
3. Then, in the place previously determined, a cofferdam, with
its sides formed of oaken stakes with ties between them, is to be
driven down into the water and firmly propped there; then, the
lower surface inside, under the water, must be levelled off and
dredged, working from beams laid across; and finally, concrete
from the mortar trough—the stuff having been mixed as
prescribed above—must be heaped up until the empty space
which was within the cofferdam is filled up by the wall. This,
however, is possessed as a gift of nature by such places as have
been described above.
But if by reason of currents or the assaults of the open sea the
props cannot hold the cofferdam together, then, let a platform of
the greatest possible strength be constructed, beginning on the
ground itself or on a substructure; and let the platform be
constructed with a level surface for less than half its extent,
while the rest, which is close to the beach, slopes down and out.
4. Then, on the water's edge and at the sides of the platform,
let marginal walls be constructed, about one and one half feet
thick and brought up to a level with the surface above
mentioned; next, let the sloping part be filled in with sand and
levelled off with the marginal wall and the surface of the
platform. Then, upon this level surface construct a block as large
as is required, and when it is finished, leave it for not less than
two months to dry. Then, cut away the marginal wall which
supports the sand. Thus, the sand will be undermined by the
waves, and this will cause the block to fall into the sea. By this
method, repeated as often as necessary, an advance into the
water can be made.
 5. But in places where this powder is not found, the following
method must be employed. A cofferdam with double sides,
composed of charred stakes fastened together with ties, should
be constructed in the appointed place, and clay in wicker baskets
made of swamp rushes should be packed in among the props.
After this has been well packed down and filled in as closely as
possible, set up your water-screws, wheels, and drums, and let
the space now bounded by the enclosure be emptied and dried.
Then, dig out the bottom within the enclosure. If it proves to be
of earth, it must be cleared out and dried till you come to solid
bottom and for a space wider than the wall which is to be built
upon it, and then filled in with masonry consisting of rubble,
lime, and sand.
6. But if the place proves to be soft, the bottom must be staked
with piles made of charred alder or olive wood, and then filled
in with charcoal as has been prescribed in the case of the
foundations of theatres and the city wall. Finally, build the wall
of dimension stone, with the bond stones as long as possible, so
that particularly the stones in the middle may be held together
by the joints. Then, fill the inside of the wall with broken stone
or masonry. It will thus be possible for even a tower to be built
upon it.

7. When all this is finished, the general rule for shipyards will
be to build them facing the north. Southern exposures from their
heat produce rot, the wood worm, shipworms, and all sorts of
other destructive creatures, and strengthen and keep them alive.
And these buildings must by no means be constructed of wood,
for fear of fire. As for their size, no definite limit need be set,
but they must be built to suit the largest type of ship, so that if
even larger ships are hauled up, they may find plenty of room
there.

I have described in this book the construction and completion

of all that I could remember as necessary for general use in the
public places of cities. In the following book I shall consider
private houses, their conveniences, and symmetrical
proportions.

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