Introduction to AI

Intelligence
Intelligence is:
– The ability to reason
– The ability to understand
– The ability to create
– The ability to Learn from experience
– The ability to plan and execute complex tasks
The intelligent behavior may include
– Everyday tasks: recognize a friend, recognize who is calling, translate from one language to
another, interpret a photograph, talk, and cook a dinner
– Formal tasks: prove a logic theorem, geometry, calculus, play chess, checkers, or Go
– Expert tasks: engineering design, medical designers, financial analysis
Artificial Intelligence
AI is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans. In other
words, AI is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer
programs. The process may include
- Learning (Gaining of information and rules for using the information)
- Reasoning (Using the rules to reach approximate or definite conclusions)
- Self-Correction
According to Barr and Feigenbaum:
“Artificial Intelligence is the part of computer science concerned with designing intelligence
computer systems, that is, systems that exhibit the characteristics we associate with intelligence in
human behavior.”
According to Elaine Rich:
“AI is the study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment, people are better”
An AI system should have
- Capability to provide reason about something
- Capability of natural language processing
- Capability of learning past experience
- Capability of self-correction
Views of AI fall into four categories

Thinking humanly Thinking rationally

Acting humanly Acting rationally

- A) Acting humanly: The Turing Test approach

The Turing Test is a method for determining whether or not a computer is capable of thinking
like a human. The test is named after Alan Turing, an English mathematician who pioneered
artificial intelligence during the 1940s and 1950s, and who is credited with devising the
original version of the test. According to this kind of test, a computer is deemed to have
artificial intelligence if it can mimic human responses under specific conditions.
Consider the following setting. There are two
rooms, A and B. One of the rooms contains a
computer. The other contains a human. The
interrogator is outside and does not know
which one is a computer. He can ask questions
through a teletype and receives answers from
both A and B. The interrogator needs to
identify whether A or B are humans. To pass
the Turing test, the machine has to fool the
interrogator into believing that it is human.
To pass a Turing test, a computer must have following capabilities:
 Natural Language Processing: Must be able to communicate in English
successfully
 Knowledge representation: To store what it knows and hears.
 Automated reasoning: Answer the Questions based on the stored
information.
 Machine learning: Must be able to adapt in new circumstances.
- B ) Thinking humanly: The cognitive modeling approach
 Make the machines having mind like natural mind.
 Cognition: The action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experience and senses.
 How do humans think?
Requires scientific theories of internal brain activities (cognitive model). Once we
 have precise theory of mind, it is possible to express the theory as a computer
program.
 Two ways of doing this is:
Predicting and testing human behavior (cognitive science)
Identification from neurological data (Cognitive neuro science)
- Thinking rationally: The “laws of thought approach”
 Aristotle was one of the first who attempt to codify the right thinking that is
irrefutable reasoning process. He gave Syllogisms that always yielded correct
conclusion when correct premises are given.
 For example:
Ram is a man
Man is mortal
i.e. Ram is mortal
These laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of the
mind; their study initiated a field called logic. The logistic tradition in AI
hopes to create intelligent systems using logic programming.
- Acting rationally : The rational agent approach
 An agent is something that acts.
 Computer agent is expected to have following attributes:

- Autonomous control

- Perceiving their environment

- Persisting over a prolonged period of time

- Adapting to change

- And capable of taking on another’s goal

 Rational behavior: doing the right thing
 The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal achievement, given the
available information
 Rational Agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome or, when
there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome.
In this approach the emphasis is given to correct inferences.
AI and related fields
Different fields have contributed to AI in the form of ideas, viewpoints and techniques.
Philosophy:
Logic, reasoning, mind as a physical system, foundations of learning, language and
rationality.
Mathematics:
Formal representation and proof algorithms, computation, undesirability, intractability,
probability.
Psychology:
Adaptation, phenomena of perception and motor control.
Economics:
Formal theory of rational decisions, game theory.
Linguistics:
Knowledge representation, grammar
Neuro science:
Physical substrate for mental activities
Control theory:
Homeostatic systems, stability, optimal agent design
Brief History of AI
The term “Artificial Intelligence” was used for the first time in 1956 by an American scientist John McCarthy
who is referred to as the Father of AI. McCarthy also come up with a programming language called LISP (i.e.
List-Processing), which is still used to program computer in AI that allow the computer to learn.
Further, the major achievements can be listed as below:
1943 First electronic computer “Colossus” was developed.
1949 First commercial stored program computer was developed.
- Alan Turing proposes the Turing test as a measure of machine intelligence.
1950 - Claude Shannon published a detail analysis of chess playing as search.
- Isaac Asimov published his three laws of Robotics.
The first working AI programs were written to run on the Ferranti Mark machine of the
1951 University of Manchester; a checkers-playing program written by Christopher Stavechey
and a chess-playing program is written by Dietrich Prinz
 The first Dartmouth college summer AI conference is organized by John McCarthy,
1955
Marvin Minsky, Nathan Rochester of IBM and Claude Shannon.
- The name artificial intelligence is used for the 1st time as the topic of the second
Dartmouth Conference, organized by John McCarthy.
1956
- The first demonstration of the Logic Theorist (LT) written by Allen Newell, J.C. Shaw
and Merbart Simon pus is called the first AI program
1957 The general problem Solver (GPS) demonstrated by Newell, Shaw and Simon
1958 John McCarthy at MIT invented the Lisp Programming Language.
- John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky founded the MIT AI Lab.
1959
- First industrial robot company, animation was established.
1972 Prolog programming language was developed by Alain Colmerauer
First National Conference of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI)
1980
was held at Stratford.
Mid
Neural networks become widely used with the Back propagation algorithm.
1980’s
AI system exist in real environments with real sensory inputs (i.e. Intelligent
1994
Agents)
1997 First time AI system controlled a spacecraft named “Deep Space II”
2007 Checkers is solved by a team of researchers of the University of Alberta.
Programmers are still trying to develop a computer which can successfully pass the
Present
“Turing Test”.

Application of AI
Artificial intelligence has been used in a wide range of fields including medical diagnosis, stock
trading, robot control, law, remote sensing, scientific discovery and toys. Many thousands of AI
applications are deeply embedded in the infrastructure of every industry. In the late 90s and early 21st
century, AI technology became widely used as elements of larger systems, but the field is rarely credited
for these successes.
Game Playing
Machines can play master level chess. There is some AI in them, but they well against people
mainly through brute force method, looking at hundreds of thousands of positions.
Speech Recognition
It is possible to instruct some computers using speech. In 1990s, computer speech recognition
reached a practical level for limited purposes.
Understanding Natural Language
To perform many natural language processing tasks such as machine translation, summarization,
information extraction, word sense disambiguation need the AI in machine.
Computer Vision
Computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial system that extract information
from images. The image data can take many forms such as videos sequences views from multiple
cameras and data from a medical scanner. Application range from simple tasks such as industrial
machine, vision system which count bottles speeding by on a production line to research into
artificial intelligence and computers or robots that can comprehended the world around them.
Expert System
Expert system needs the AI to perform its task. One of the first expert system was MYCIN in
1974 which diagnosis bacterial infections of the blood and suggests treatments. It did better that
makes medical students practicing doctors provided to limitations were observed.
Finance
Financial institutions have long used artificial neural network systems to detect charges or claims
outside of the norm, flagging these for human investigation. Use of AI in banking can be traced
back to 1987 when Security Pacific National Bank in USA set-up a Fraud Prevention Task force
to counter the unauthorized use of debit cards.
Hospitals and medicine
Artificial neural networks are used as clinical decision support systems for medical diagnosis,
such as in Concept Processing technology in EMR software.
Other tasks in medicine that can potentially be performed by artificial intelligence include:
 Computer-aided interpretation of medical images. Such systems help scan digital images,
e.g. from computed tomography, for typical appearances and to highlight conspicuous
sections, such as possible diseases. A typical application is the detection of a tumor.
 Heart sound analysis
 Companion robots for the care of the elderly
Heavy industry
Robots have become common in many industries. They are often given jobs that are considered
dangerous to humans. Robots have proven effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may
lead to mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in concentration and other jobs which humans may
 find degrading. Japan is the leader in using and producing robots in the world. In 1999, 1,700,000
robots were in use worldwide.
Online and telephone customer service
Artificial intelligence is implemented in automated online assistants that can be seen as avatars on
web pages. It can avail for enterprises to reduce their operation and training cost. A major
underlying technology to such systems is natural language processing.
Toys and games
The 1990s saw some of the first attempts to mass-produce domestically aimed types of basic
Artificial Intelligence for education, or leisure. This prospered greatly with the Digital
Revolution, and helped introduce people, especially children, to a life of dealing with various
types of Artificial Intelligence. AI has also been applied to video games, for example video game
bots, which are designed to stand in as opponents where humans aren't available or desired
Music
The evolution of music has always been affected by technology. With AI, scientists are trying to
make the computer emulate the activities of the skillful musician. Composition, performance,
music theory, sound processing are some of the major areas on which research in Music and
Artificial Intelligence are focusing.
Aviation
The Air Operations Division (AOD) uses AI for the rule based expert systems. The AOD has use
for artificial intelligence for replacement operators for fighting and training simulators, mission
management aids, support systems for tactical decision making, and post processing of the
simulator data into symbolic summaries.

Knowledge and Learning

Knowledge is the information about a domain that can be used to solve problems in that domain. To solve
many problems requires much knowledge, and this knowledge must be represented in the computer. As
part of designing a program to solve problems, we must define how the knowledge will be represented.
A representation of some piece of knowledge is the internal representation of the knowledge. A
representation scheme specifies the form of the knowledge. A knowledge base is the representation of all
of the knowledge that is stored by an agent.
A good representation should be
 Rich enough to express the knowledge needed to solve the problem.
 Willing for efficient computation
  Able to be acquired from people, data and past experiences.
Knowledge is the body of facts and principles. Knowledge can be language, concepts, procedures, rules,
ideas, abstractions, places, customs, and so on. (Study of knowledge is called Epistemology)
Types of knowledge
The types of knowledge include procedural knowledge, declarative knowledge and heuristic
knowledge.
- Meta Knowledge
It is knowledge about knowledge and how to gain them.
- Procedural knowledge
Procedural knowledge is related to the performance of some task. For example, sequence of
steps to solve a problem is procedural knowledge.
- Declarative knowledge
Declarative knowledge is passive knowledge in the form of statements of facts about the
world. For example, mark statement of a student is declarative knowledge.
- Heuristic knowledge
Heuristic knowledge is used to make judgments and also to simplify solution of problems. It
is acquired through experience. An expert uses his knowledge that he has gathered due to his
experience and learning.
- Structural Knowledge
Describes what relationship exists between objects.
Importance of knowledge:
 To exhibit intelligence.
 To build intelligent systems.
 To solve number of problems
 To find pattern that were not previously known.
Learning:
Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values. It causes
changes,generalizations,
Machine learning, a branch of AI, is a scientific discipline concerned with the design and development of
algorithms that allow computers to evolve behaviors based on empirical data such as from sensor data or
database.
Importance of learning
  To train computers to do things that are impossible to program in advance(e.g. Handwriting
recognition)
 To train robot to act autonomously and intelligently and other forms of technology to function
unobtrusively in the world.
 To train neural network.

Intelligent agents and its type and performance measures

An Intelligent Agent is an autonomous entity which observes through sensors and acts upon an
environment using actuators and directs its activities towards achieving the goal. Hence, an agent
gets percepts one at a time, and maps this percept sequence to actions.
Agent Terminologies
Performance Measure: determines how successful the agent is.
Behavior: activities the agent performs to achieve the goal
Percepts: formation of concepts based on the inputs.
Percept Sequence: set of all the perceptions till date
Agent Function: mapping of perception
Properties of Agent
– Autonomous
– Interacts with other agents plus the environment
– Reactive to the environment
– Pro-active (goal- directed)
Types of Agent

- Simple Reflex Agent

 They choose actions
only based on the
 current percept or situation.
 This is useful when a quick automated system is required. Human have very similar
reaction to fire.
(Condition- Action Rule/IF-THEN Rule …. IF hands on fire, THEN pull away)

- Model Based Agents (Reflex Agent with Internal State)

 They choose action
only based on their
model and maintain
their internal state
where model means
the information about
perception function
and Internal States are
the representation of unobserved aspects of current state depending on percept history.

- Goal Based Agents

 They choose their actions
in order to achieve
goals. Goal-based
approach is more
flexible than reflex
agent since the
knowledge/information
is modeled in such a way that they are easy for modifications.
- Utility Based Agents
 They choose actions
based on a utility for
each state.
 Utility function maps
each state after each
action to achieve the
 goal. This is useful when we either have many actions for same goal or we have many
goals for same actions.
PEAS
To design a rational agent we must specify its task environment. Standing for performance, environment,
actuators and sensors, PEAS define task environments about formulating the performance of intelligent
agents.

Q. Point out the task of designing an automated taxi driver according to PEAS description.
 Performance measure: Safe, fast, legal, comfortable trip, maximize profits
 Environment: Roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers
 Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

 Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS, odometer, engine sensors and keyboard

Q. Point out the task of designing a Medical diagnosis system according to PEAS description
• Performance measure: Healthy patient, minimize costs, lawsuits
• Environment: Patient, hospital, staff
• Actuators: Screen display (questions, tests, diagnoses, treatments, referrals)
• Sensors: Keyboard (entry of symptoms, findings, patient's answers)

Q. Machines can be made intelligent artificially but ultimately persons make the machines. So
who is more intelligent - the artificial machine or the person? Discuss
Ans: Human has done considerable work in designing a machine but the machine may not need to do
very much to operate well. An example is thermostat. It is difficult to design a thermo stat so that it
turns on and off at exactly the right temperature but the thermostat itself does not have to do more
computations.
All the logic behind making the machine specifies what needs to be mechanized and how to be
machinated but not in vice versa. The AI reasoning in human involves all the possibilities to
determine how to make a complete machine. The natural intelligence of human made the AI which
may not cope on real time. Hence, the above points are supportive on the favor of the humans.
What can AI systems do and don’t do
Today’s successful AI systems operate in well-defined domains and employ narrow, specialized
knowledge. Common sense knowledge is needed to function in complex, open-ended worlds. Such a
system also needs to understand unconstrained natural language. However these capabilities are not yet
fully present in today’s intelligent systems.
 What can AI systems do What can AI systems NOT do yet?
Today’s AI systems have been able to achieve • Understand natural language robustly (e.g., read
limited success in some of these tasks. and understand articles in a newspaper)
• In Computer vision, the systems are capable of • Surf the web
face recognition • Interpret an arbitrary visual scene
• In Robotics, we have been able to make • Learn a natural language
vehicles that are mostly autonomous. • Construct plans in dynamic real-time domains
• In Natural language processing, we have • Exhibit true autonomy and intelligence
systems that are capable of simple machine
translation.
• Today’s Expert systems can carry out medical
diagnosis in a narrow domain
• Speech understanding systems are capable of
recognizing several thousand words continuous
speech