Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Review of current regulations, available technologies, and future trends in

the green shipping industry
M. Tadros a, b, M. Ventura a, C. Guedes Soares a, *
a
Centre for Marine Technology and Ocean Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
b
Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21544, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Prof. A.I. Incecik This paper presents a comprehensive review of the current regulations and the various technologies as well as the
decision support methods for each technology the maritime industry considers to ensure the fleet’s sustainability.
Keywords: It covers the period between 2010 and 2022, emphasizing the last four years. It shows the impact of each
IMO technology on the reduction of ship resistance and the energy required on board, affecting the amount of fuel
Green shipping
consumption and avoiding the transportation of harmful species around the world to achieve a smooth transition
Energy efficiency
towards green shipping by improving the fleet’s energy efficiency and achieving the goals of the 2050 plan. The
Decarbonization
International regulations paper covers five main topics: hull design, propulsion systems, new clean fuels and treatment systems, power
Bibliometric analysis systems and ship operation; and each topic has different technologies included. This study’s findings contribute
to mapping the scientific knowledge of each technology in the maritime field, identifying relevant topic areas,
visualising the links between the topics, and recognising research gaps and opportunities. This review helps to
present holistic approaches in future research supporting the cooperation between maritime industry stake­
holders to provide more realistic solutions toward sustainability.

1. Introduction This large number of existing ships forced the IMO, which is mainly
concerned with maritime safety, to adopt, through the Marine Envi­
One of the aspects of climate change is global warming which is ronment Protection Committee (MEPC), a wide range of measures to
associated with the rise of the Earth’s temperatures. It occurs when control the shipping industry’s pollution in support of the global action
carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants absorb sunlight and solar towards climate change mitigation, even though shipping is the least
radiation in the atmosphere for a long term, trap the heat and make the environmentally damaging mode of transport compared to the other
Earth get hotter (NASA, 2018). In 2018, the Intergovernmental Panel on modes of transportation, as shown in Fig. 1 (IMO, 2016b, 2019b).
Climate Change (IPCC) reported an increase in temperature of 1.5 ◦ C From this point, the "green shipping" or "sustainable shipping"
(IPCC, 2005). Therefore, emission reduction in all modes of transport is concept was applied to the shipping industry to transport goods using
necessary to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG). Fig. 1 shows the GHG the lowest possible energy or, in other words, the seagoing ship that
emissions from different sources of power till 2017, while Fig. 2 presents contributes to improving the current environmental condition. The
the change level in GHG for each sector. Both figures show that further presented stringent regulations and policies inspired researchers
action is required to cut emissions, particularly in road transport, the worldwide to think about new ideas and improve the existing ones.
largest contributor to transport emissions, as well as the other sectors by Reaching the required level of green shipping is a challenging way that
2050. has significant upgrades in the different technologies proposed every
Regarding the shipping industry, which is the focus of this review year; each one has its impact on the industry to reduce GHG (Bouman
paper, and according to the International Maritime Organization (IMO), et al., 2017), where there are many research projects have been funded
90% of world trade is carried by sea to support the import and export of to investigate the impact of ideas on the decarbonization of the maritime
goods and thus sustains the modern world. It has been reported that the sector (Mallouppas and Yfantis, 2021). Several research areas have been
total number of ships in the world fleet increased in 2019 by 35% considered for the concept of green shipping (EMEC, 2010), while this
compared to 2015 and by 51.5% compared to 2010 (Equasis, 2019). paper focuses on the main topics that directly affect ship performance,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.G. Soares).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.114670
Received 2 November 2022; Received in revised form 18 April 2023; Accepted 23 April 2023
Available online 11 May 2023
0029-8018/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. Combining the comprehensive literature review, and a presentation of the development trend are
review with the concept of bibliometric analysis (Romano and Yang, presented in section 9 followed by a conclusion presented in section 10.
2021) extends the previous research works and aims to contribute in
detail by providing. 2. Role of MEPC in the maritime industry

• a broad overview of what has been done in the last years, from 2010 MEPC is the IMO’s technical body that is concerned with marine
till 2022 and in particular in the last four years, where there are big pollution and addresses environmental issues and other related matters.
achievements in these last years from the different stakeholders to Since the last decade, its primary focus has been to propose important
reduce the impact of shipping on the environment. This study con­ guidelines and to apply stringent regulations through indices that are
tributes by describing the new technologies, techniques, decision proposed, applied and revised every session to significantly reduce GHG
support methods (i.e. research operation) and software, that have from ships and thus increase the fleet’s energy efficiency in terms of
been suggested and are under improvement, already developed and design and operational points of view; it is presented in the annual/half
used to achieve the required decarbonization level and green ship­ annual sessions MEPC (IMO, 2019c). The GHG includes CO2, methane
ping concept and the percentage of emissions reduction for each (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and is expressed in CO2e. These regula­
technique, tions are made with the adoption of amendments to the International
• a bibliometric analysis, showing the interest of the researchers to­ Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) (IMO,
wards improving the ship performance and the number of papers 2019a).
published in each technique and their citation patterns, According to the most recent IMO GHG study (IMO - MEPC, 2020),
• a review of the papers to extract the main findings related to an increase of 9.6% in GHG was reported in 2018 compared with 2012.
decarbonization and green shipping and to identify the emerging Therefore, a clear pathway is proposed, combining energy-saving tech­
trends and future research needs. nologies (Winkel et al., 2015), ship speed reduction (Elkafas and
Shouman, 2021), and low-carbon fuel (El-Gohary et al., 2015) to reduce
This raises the following questions. the carbon intensity by at least 40% by 2030 and the total annual GHG
by at least 50% by 2050 compared to 2008. At the IMO MEPC 76, a
• What progress has occurred in each topic toward green shipping, short-term measure has been adopted that enters into force at the
decarbonization, and sustainability, especially in recent years? beginning of 2023, combining the Energy Efficiency Existing Ships Index
• How is each technique’s performance calculated and what is the (EEXI) and the Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII). The rating of CII from A
effect on green shipping, decarbonization and sustainability and to E as a ship rating mechanism has been proposed in MEPC 75, and the
their relations? strengthening of the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP),
especially in the late rank (D and E). This means that the first annual
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 pre­ reporting will be at the end of 2023, and the first rating given will be in
sents the role of MEPC in the maritime industry to control environ­ 2024. Reviewing the effectiveness of EEXI and CII will be required to
mental harm. Five main topics have been presented in detail from develop further amendments. After the IMO MEPC 76, Psaraftis (2021)
sections 3 to 7, each with its technologies, covering the development of commented on the decision made at the meeting briefly as there is no
ship design, alternative fuel and operational conditions. A bibliometric clear measurement that can be used in general to evaluate the energy
analysis of the full set of papers considered in this paper is provided in efficiency of the ships. There are two ways, Annual Efficiency Ratio
section 8. Finally, a discussion and the main findings from the performed (AER) and Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI).

Fig. 1. Greenhouse gas emissions from different power sources in the EU (EEA, 2021).

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

During the transition period till 2030, CII is necessary. There are also
some unclear points related to collecting data to compute the EEOI,
which will be very sensitive information to ship owners. It is also
incompatible with the IMO Data Collection System (DCS). The Engine
Power Limitation (EPL) technique can reduce EEXI, while it is unclear if
it will be effective compared to decreasing the sailing speed. So,
combining several metrics is essential to address the design and opera­
tional efficiency and thus provide a plan for system management during
this energy transition period. This requires great cooperation between
regulators and other stakeholders to cut GHG emissions from the mari­
time industry. However, it is important to balance several factors to
reach the common goal of transitioning towards zero-emission smoothly
(Lloyd’s Register, 2021). These factors include society, compliance,
competitiveness, and technology. In terms of society, the transition must
Fig. 3. NOx emissions limitations among the three tiers (DAIHATSU, 2021).
be carefully handled not to affect the most vulnerable groups of citizens.
In terms of compliance, it is important to achieve a real emission
reduction as well as the international agendas not conflict with each methods of NOx emissions will be presented in section 5. Regarding the
other. Otherwise, a carbon tax price will be bought by the shipowners SOx and PM emissions, regulation 14 of MARPOL Annex VI presents the
covering all emissions during ship trips with US$100 per tonne on main requirements to control the level of sulphur in the fuel as shown in
bunker fuels as the initial cost (ECEEE, 2022) for those ships that sail in Fig. 4, which was reduced from 3.5% to 0.5% globally at the beginning
the European Union (EU). However, half of this cost is reduced to half of 2020.
for international voyages that start or end at EU ports. In terms of
competitiveness, the standard sources of zero-carbon energy must be
commercialized and viable to encourage and ensure widespread adop­
tion. In terms of technologies, short-term measures with low risk are
welcomed as a rapid transition solution.
In addition to the GHG emissions reductions, annex VI in MARPOL
sets limits on nitrogen oxide (NOx) and sulphur oxide (SOx) and par­
ticulate matter (PM) emissions (IMO, 2019a). Regarding the NOx
emissions, Fig. 3 shows the limits of NOx emissions produced from diesel
engines which are reduced by 80% in Tier 3 compared to the first tier
under regulation 13 of MARPOL Annex VI. They are calculated as the
total weighted emission of NO2 and determined using the relevant test
cycles and measurement methods as specified in the NOx Technical Code
(IMO, 2017). Each engine must comply with the limitations of the NOx
technical code and be verified by an Engine International Air Pollution
Prevention (EIAPP) Certificate. More details about the reduction Fig. 4. Amount of sulphur in marine fuels (DAIHATSU, 2021).

Fig. 2. Change in GHG emission levels from transport in the EU from 1990 till 2018 (EEA, 2021).

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

The concept of emission control areas (ECAs) has entered into force
since 2006. Some sea areas have stringent controls of both NOx and SOx
emissions to minimize these airborne emissions from ships, as defined by
Annex VI. The list of the sea areas is updated each year, and the North
and Baltic seas are the recent ones included, as shown in Table 1. The
level of NOx emissions in these areas must not exceed the limits of Tier 3
as proposed by IMO, while the percentage of sulphur in the fuel does not
exceed 0.1%.
From that point and to evaluate the level of emissions from ships, the
international regulators have proposed several energy-efficiency mea­
sures to improve the ships’ energy efficiency and drive toward ship
decarbonization. The main target of these measures, which are contin­
ually evaluated over the years (Bergholtz, 2013; Figari et al., 2012;
Winkel et al., 2015), is to present a relation between the level of exhaust
emissions from the main and auxiliary power systems compared to the
Fig. 5. Phases for reduction factors of EEDI (Puisa, 2015).
cargo hold volume and travelled distance.
The Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) is an index formulated for
recognized approach to assessing the level of GHG emissions from the
new ships at the design stage to cut down the amount of emissions from
ships in their real operating condition along the route. Tran (2017)
these ships. DNV (2018a) has developed a tool to compute the EEDI for
developed an open tool to support the computation of the EEOI for
the whole fleet. The EEDI is expressed in grams of CO2 per tonne-mile or
different types of ships based on the fuel type, the amount of cargo
in other words, the ratio of environmental cost to the benefit for society.
carried, the distance of the voyage and the sailing speed. For an accurate
Each type of ship has its limits proposed. However, the values of these
estimate of EEOI, real data is important to be provided by the fleet to
limits will be reduced by 30% by 2025 compared to the zero phases in
take the right action (Perera et al., 2015). Some studies presented the
2013 (Puisa, 2015), as shown in Fig. 5; therefore, different technologies
effect of external forces on the ship and engine performance, such as
are required to significantly reduce the EEDI limits (El-Gohary, 2013;
biofouling, which can reduce the propeller performance by 30% (Owen
Palomares, 2011; Papanikolaou et al., 2011).
et al., 2018).
The Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) is another
The Energy Efficiency Existing Ship index (EEXI) will enter into force
operational measure that establishes a cost-effective mechanism to
on the 1st of January 2023 and applies to all vessels above 400 gross
improve the ship’s energy efficiency (IMO, 2016a). It is based on four
tonnage (GT) falling under MARPOL Annex VI. The EEXI is a one-time
steps; planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation and
certification targeting design parameters. The calculation guidelines
improvement. Firstly, it is important to define the current status of en­
refer to the corresponding EEDI guideline for new buildings. Most of the
ergy consumption and how it can be reduced. Secondly, implementing
guidelines have been finalized at MEPC 76, while some are still not,
the methods is the responsibility of the involved stakeholders, then
according to (DNV, 2019).
monitoring the effectiveness of the implemented SEEMP. Finally, it is
From 2023, the Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) requirements will
necessary to evaluate the previous stage’s results to check the effec­
take effect for all cargo, RoPax and cruise vessels above 5,000 GT and
tiveness of the applied SEEMP to improve the suggested plan. It is
trading internationally. The CII addresses the actual emissions in oper­
applied to new and existing ships to manage ship and fleet efficiency
ation by measuring how efficiently a ship transports goods or passengers
performance over time, based on the EEOI as a monitoring tool. This
and is given in grams of CO2 emitted per cargo-carrying capacity and
operational measure can optimize and improve voyage planning,
nautical mile. Then, the ship is given an annual rating ranging from A to
introduce the timing of ship hull cleaning, and suggest installing new
E, whereby the rating thresholds will become increasingly stringent
types of equipment onboard (Tikka, 2011).
towards 2030. If the ship fails to comply with the CII limitations, she will
The Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI) is considered a
be asked to revise before returning to service (Qi et al., 2021). Therefore,
monitoring tool to serve the decision in SEEMP (IMO, 2009). It is used to
according to Wang et al. (2021e), it is essential to define the potential
monitor and identify the operation and personnel performance as well as
versions of CII based on more elaborate models and real data, to ensure
the quality control procedures. It aims to provide a transparent and
the effectiveness of each version and the ability to improve a new CII.
The Environmental Ship Index (ESI) was developed by World Ports
Table 1 Climate Initiative (WPCI) to make up for the deficiency of the previous
Amendments adopted to the MARPOL Annex VI: Air pollution in ECAs (IMO - indicators, such as EEDI, which deals only with partial problems. This
MEPC, 2016).
index aims to identify seagoing ships with better performance in emis­
Emission Type of Amendments Entry into More sion reduction by presenting a unique measure of the entire power
Control emissions adopted to the force of the stringent system from both sides: energy efficiency and environmental impact
Areas MARPOL Annex amendments measures in
effect from
without any specific restrictions (Ančić et al., 2018; WPSP, 2019). This
index evaluates the main three types of exhaust emissions simulta­
Baltic Sea SOx 19 May 2006
neously; CO2, NOx and SOx which are implemented in one equation plus
– –
NOx 7 Jul 2017 1 Jan 2019 1 Jan 2021
(MEPC.286 (71)) some additional points related to the power supply from shore. Mocer­
North Sea SOx 22 Jul 2005 22 Nov 2006 22 Nov 2007 ino and Rizzuto (2020) estimated the ESI index for several cruise ships,
(MEPC.132 (53)) where the results show future suitability for ports and suppliers.
NOx 7 Jul 2017 1 Jan 2019 1 Jan 2021
While there is a big interest from the regulators to reduce the GHG
(MEPC.286 (71))
North SOx and 26 Mar 2010 1 Aug 2011 1 Aug 2012
from ships as it is related directly to the ship hull and engines, covering
America PM (MEPC.190 (60)) the ballast water management systems (BWMS) is an important topic to
NOx 26 Mar 2010 1 Aug 2011 1 Jan 2016 be considered when the green shipping is discussed. The Ballast Water
(MEPC.190 (60)) Management (BWM) Convention is a treaty adopted in 2004 by the IMO
United SOx and 15 Jul 2011 1 Jan 2013 1 Jan 2014
to prevent the spread of potentially harmful aquatic organisms and
States PM (MEPC.202 (62))
Caribbean NOx 15 Jul 2011 1 Jan 2013 1 Jan 2016 pathogens in ships’ ballast water. From 8 September 2017, ships must
Sea (MEPC.202 (62)) manage their ballast water so that aquatic organisms and pathogens are

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

removed or rendered harmless before it is released into a new location. the preliminary stage of ship design to provide surfaces with high effi­
Ships have to carry BWM plan, ballast water record book and Interna­ ciency for better visualization and to be used in finite-element methods.
tional BWM Certificate. There are two ballast water management stan­ A multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) has been applied to
dards (D-1 and D-2). The D-1 standard requires ships to exchange their optimize a fishing vessel by considering the ship’s resistance, seakeep­
ballast water in open seas, away from coastal areas, while the D-2 ing, and stability (Gammon, 2011). The results have been compared to
standard specifies the maximum amount of viable organisms allowed to an existing hull, where the ship’s performance has been improved.
be discharged, including specified indicator microbes harmful to human During computational fluid dynamics (CFD) computation, response
health and all ships must conform to at least the D-1 standard; and all surface methodology (RSM) is considered to optimize the hull form
new ships, to the D-2 standard. More details can be found in (MEPC.279 while reducing the wave drag (Kim et al., 2011). The same concept was
(70), 2016). applied later by (Liu et al., 2018) based on a surrogate model to optimize
the KCS hull form at full speed. At the same time, Feng et al. (2018) used
3. Hull design support vector regression (SVR)-based surrogate models to improve the
resistance and wake field of an offshore aquaculture vessel hull form.
This section presents the first main aspect towards the concept of a This technique has the benefit of reducing the computational cost
green and sustainable ship. Several papers have been presented and associated with the CFD runs. Diez and Peri (2012) optimized the hull
discussed related to three main categories in this section. The first one is form by addressing the epistemic uncertainty of the location of the
the design and optimization of hull form to reduce ship resistance. The centre of gravity. Based on the hydrodynamic performance, Han et al.
second one is the types of coating used to ensure a clean hull over a long (2012) and Krivoshapko (2022) developed an optimization model that
period, and the third one is the different air lubrication technologies that can be able to generate new types of hull forms. This model was used to
are integrated into the ship hull with the required modifications. More reduce the resistance of a large container ship to operate at high speed.
details about each category are presented in the following subsections. The hull form of a ship trawler has been improved during trawling
conditions to achieve the best performance of the ship (Zhao et al.,
2021a). The concept of Multi-fidelity Co-Kriging surrogate model has
3.1. Hull optimization been presented by Liu et al. (2022b) showing the ability to achieve high
accurate results in terms of efficiency than the previous methods and the
The hull is a ship’s watertight enclosure to satisfy a set of different final optimization results can be guaranteed.
types of requirements and to provide sufficient protection for the ma­ In (Mahmood and Huang, 2012), the geometry of the bulbous bow
chinery, cargo, and passenger accommodations. The hull form is rep­ has been optimized by analysing the fluid flow using the CFD model to
resented by a series of curves which are the intersections of the hull with reduce the resistance. In (Matulja and Dejhalla, 2013), the hull form,
three sets of mutually orthogonal planes. Optimizing the hull shape including the bulbous bow, has been optimized by minimizing the wave
becomes an essential process to reduce the hull resistance and thus the resistance, while Li et al. (2014) optimized the bow and stern shape,
power required (Yang and Huang, 2016); it is a main effective step to achieving a 5% reduction in resistance and improving the wake field.
minimize the EEDI towards green shipping. The Scopus database iden­ Furthermore, the optimization procedures have been performed to find
tifies 473 papers that have been published in the defined period the optimal bow shape in different cases; the laden and ballast condition
distributed, as shown in Fig. 6. of a tanker ship (Legović and Dejhalla, 2015), a container ship in
Hull optimization requires the use of an operation research tech­ different operating conditions (Lu et al., 2016) and waves (Feng et al.,
nique that operates over methods that quantify the hull resistance, either 2021), the added resistance in case of KVLCC2 tanker (Bolbot and
based on potential flow codes or Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), Papanikolaou, 2016), a fishing vessel coupling CFD and design of
which has become more popular recently (Gil Rosa et al., 2021; Islam experiment (DoE) (Hong et al., 2017b) and strength assessment of the
and Guedes Soares, 2019a, 2019b; Labanti et al., 2016). corner bracket connection (Silva-Campillo et al., 2022). By applying a
Using a single objective optimization model, Kim and Yang (2010) combination of several machine learning methods (Mittendorf et al.,
used two approaches, radial basis function interpolation and the 2022), the selection of a suitable hull operating from a dataset in
sectional area curve of the hull, to optimize the initial hull of the KRISO weather conditions can be more accurate and faster (Islam et al., 2022)
container ship (KCS) and evaluated by the defined fitness function. than using only CFD techniques.
Based on this model, the total drag has been reduced compared to the The optimization model is extended to simulate different types of
reference hull. He et al. (2011) extended the previous work by applying propellers of a liquified natural gas (LNG) ship, as in (Kim et al., 2014),
a multidisciplinary design optimization and considering manoeuvring, where the authors confirmed a reduction in fuel consumption by 13% for
seakeeping and resistance to achieve an optimum design. A genetic al­ twin-screw compared to single-screw. Furthermore, the wake field of a
gorithm (GA) has been used by Le and Kim (2011) to generate a single twin skeg container ship has been improved by optimizing the hull
non-uniform B-spline (NUB) surface. This technique can be used during form-based CFD model, and the resistance has been reduced by around
9% (Chen et al., 2016). In addition, Čerka et al. (2017) compared
different skeg geometries and studied the turbulence of water in front of
the propeller, which gives a good idea for selecting the optimum skeg.
Liu et al. (2022c) studied the interaction between ship resistance and
wake field, showing that the hull lines have a dominant effect to reduce
pressure resistance and improve the wake field. The same concept has
been presented in (Nazemian and Ghadimi, 2021; Wu et al., 2022).
Scamardella and Piscopo (2014) presented an improvement in ship
seakeeping parameters for a passenger ship compared to the reference
hull while keeping constant the main dimensions of the hull and ship
displacement. At the same time, the Gaussian distribution coupled with
an optimizer shows its effectiveness in reducing ship resistance (Choi
and Yoon, 2016). By considering the EEOI, Hou (2017) presented a hull
form optimization design method based on uncertainty to find the
optimal hull form during operation. The method is applied to different
Fig. 6. Distribution of hull optimization papers over the years. cases and shows its effectiveness for a hull design. Zha et al. (2021)

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

adapted the optimization tool to improve the vertical motion perfor­

mance in irregular head waves. Also, optimization methods are applied
to enhance the deformed mesh quality of the numerical model during
CFD computation (Jeong and Jeong, 2020).
In summary, CFD models have been used to improve ship perfor­
mance with high accuracy. It depends on the specific part of the ship hull
that needs to be optimized according to the study’s objective. The
objective can be technical parameters such as ship resistance, manoeu­
vring, seakeeping and stability or related to the hull form’s mesh pa­
rameters. Based on several trials, the model results are exported and
presented into a surrogate model, which is then coupled to an optimi­
zation model to compute the optimal design. Fig. 7 shows a schematic
diagram of the CFD models and their interaction with the optimization
procedures.
By analyzing the papers since 2019, the developed numerical models Fig. 8. Distribution of ship coating papers over the years.
are focusing on including ship operation during the design stage by
studying the ship’s performance in different weather conditions to reach owner to renew the coating protection to avoid corrosion, where the
the optimum hull form that can ensure higher energy efficiency in safe laser treatment can be used effectively to avoid any hull damage (Zim­
conditions. belmann et al., 2022).
De Baere et al. (2013) provided an economic study comparing
3.2. Ship coatings different solutions to reduce corrosion. The authors suggested that the
use of durable TSCF25 coating and lifetime-lasting aluminium anodes
The marine coatings are a barrier between the water and the hull to are improving the concept of the actual basic tank. Heyer et al. (2013)
protect it from damage. The development of marine coatings is subjected provided an overview of the coating process and the corrosion problem
to the standards issued by the International Paint and Printing Ink inside the ship; they mentioned that the epoxy coatings as new materials
Council (IPPIC) to improve the performance and development of anti- would replace the coal tar epoxy coatings. Cao et al. (2020) approved
fouling and anti-corrosion coatings used on the hull and inside the that the grafting of Magainin II on the surface increases the surface’s
tanks. It has been found that around 193 papers have been published, antibacterial performance. Kim et al. (2021b) used Tannin-FeIII
and the distribution of the papers is presented in Fig. 8. (TA-FeIII) coating obtained from biomass as an alternative to typical
The accumulation of biofouling increases the ship’s resistance and, phlorotannin, and they confirmed that it is eco-friendly, safe and
thus, the power required and fuel consumption to achieve a certain ship cost-effective. Also, Bi et al. (2021) suggested the use of alginate
speed (Campos et al., 2021; García et al., 2020). Also, it leads to rusting hydrogel coating derived from biomass to protect the oil tanks. This type
the hull and exposing the hull to damage. Therefore, cleaning the hull of coating has good environmental stability and acts toward a green oil
and high solvent coatings are essential for the ship’s life to save power spill control strategy. Zoolfakar et al. (2022) discussed the effect natural
and fuel and avoid increased resistance due to hull deformation, even if superhydrophobic materials mixed with paint based on different pa­
it is clean (ITTC, 2008; Yusuf et al., 2022). rameters, such as the thickness of paint and underwater depth, to
DNV (2017) provided full guidelines to protect the ship from determine the suitable raw material to be further used commercially.
corrosion as well as the type of painting for each hull material. Providing In summary, the published papers concluded that selecting the
an effective inspection during the period in the dry dock is important to coating materials is essential to ensure the cleanness and durability of
control the quality of the painting and save time for the ship inside the the ship hull. Also, the recent studies since 2019 focusing on the use of
dry dock (Swain and Lund, 2016). It requires to have a piece of clear green raw materials in the production of coatings, such as biomass, will
information about the vessel and its trip to improve the quality of the have a significant positive effect on the environment as well as cost-
coatings according to each operating area. Robots have become an effectiveness.
effective solution for cleaning hulls and removing the marine growth
from both hulls and tanks (Restivo and Brune, 2016). The strains of the 3.3. Air lubrication technologies
hull structure and the fracture strains of the aged coatings are simulated
by Ringsberg (2017) using the finite element method to consult the Air Lubrication is a technology developed to reduce resistance,

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of optimization procedures coupled to CFD models.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

especially frictional resistance, which accounts for more than 60% of ACS demonstrates lower vertical accelerations in waves compared to the
total resistance (ITTC, 2017) between the ship’s hull and seawater using similar solid hull.
air bubbles. According to the selected international database, 68 papers
have been published from 2010 to 2022. Fig. 9 shows the distribution of 3.3.3. Winged air inject pipe (WAIP)
the papers published concerning air lubrication technologies. A great WAIP is another technique that uses air lubrication by generating
interest in this topic has been noticed since 2018 due to the stringent ultra-fine microbubble generation, which can reduce power by up to
regulations applied to present a way to improve air lubrication systems 15%. Microbubble generation requires a very small amount of power,
and achieve significant energy savings. and the system is composed of a series of small air chambers fitted with a
There are some technologies tested on full scale and are currently foil (Zhang et al., 2018). In (Yanuar et al., 2020; Yanuar. et al., 2020),
available in the market as follows. the authors used CFD computation to find the optimal values of pipe
diameter, chord length and the angle of attack of the hydrofoil. It has
3.3.1. Air lubrication system (ALS) been found that the ship’s performance can be increased by 10% by
ALS provides a constant air bubble flow using blowers installed on­ finding the optimal values of the parameters.
board to lubricate the flat bottom area of the hull, thus reducing resis­ In summary, air lubrication technologies show a significant reduc­
tance up to 6% (Giernalczyk and Kaminski, 2021), while minimal tion in resistance, thus affecting the power and reducing the consumed
changes in ship structure are required. ALS is an Innovative Energy Ef­ fuel. Experimental results began to be collected based on the existing
ficiency Technology recognized by IMO under category B-1 according to models and ships, while the CFD models have been widely used in the
the MEPC.1/Circ.815 (MEPC.1/Circ.815 17, 2013) as it has an effect on last four years due to the improvement of computer performance to
lowering the EEDI value. Several companies entered into the production predict an accurate performance of air lubrication systems. Based on the
of the ALS after the first launch by Silverstream company, such as Mit­ two types of data, experimental and numerical, the machine learning
subishi Company and Samsung Heavy Industries. This system requires techniques effectively find the correlation between the system parame­
comprehensive analyses and measurements to evaluate the performance ters for further optimization procedures.
of the complexity of the system. Therefore, CFD simulation is used to
simulate the performance of the ship equipped with ALS (Sindagi et al., 4. Propulsion systems
2020), while an artificial neural network (ANN) can be considered to
analyze the experimental data and find a correlation to optimize the This section presents the second main aspect towards the concept of a
system parts (Sindagi et al., 2021) as well as the ship hull (Cucinotta green and sustainable ship. In this section, several papers related to
et al., 2017). It has been concluded that the performance of ALS depends propulsion systems have been presented and discussed in the following
on the ship’s speed. It shows effectiveness in drag reduction at slow subsections. This includes the development of engine technologies to
speeds than at higher speeds due to the increased sharing of the minimize fuel consumption and ensure the combustion process using
wave-making resistance. alternative fuels. Also, the design and selection of marine propellers are
discussed to decide on a suitable propeller for a given ship. The selection
3.3.2. Air cavity ships (ACS) of an efficient steering gear is presented to minimize power consumption
ACS or Air Chamber Energy Savings (ACES) is the second choice of and ensures smooth maneuvering. Finally, the use of different wind
air lubrication technique that uses a large compartment in the hull energy technologies is discussed as a clean type of marine systems.
bottom to fill with air and isolate the hull bottom from water, thus
reducing frictional resistance. This technique can maximize the cavity
length and, at the same time, minimize the air supply (Slyozkin et al., 4.1. Engine technologies
2014). ACS can achieve a drag reduction of up to 26%, especially at the
highest flow speed and based on the created cavity area. By comparing Whether four-stroke or two-stroke, the marine engine is an essential
the base hull with other modified hulls (Cucinotta et al., 2017), the component of the ship as it is the main source of power and, at the same
height and position of the compartment affect the trim that must be time, the primary source of pollution due to the burning of different
avoided for air stability (Hao, 2019) as well as the sinkage of the hull as types of fuel, so the energy can be converted to a mechanical force.
important parameters to be considered in addition to the resistance and Therefore, the importance of developing the different parts inside the
power to ensure the safety and the performance of the ship, especially in engine is the main concern of the researchers to improve the engine
transition mode once the air supply is shutting down (Fang et al., 2021). performance and thus reduce exhaust emissions. 2,170 papers have been
In (Butterworth et al., 2015), the authors ensured a 16% drag reduction, published in the defined range of years, as shown in Fig. 10, which in­
while the vertical motion responses of the hull are important to be dicates an increment in the last four years (2019–2022).
noticed as they are affected by the air cavity. In (Matveev, 2022), the Marine diesel engines have shown a great revolution these years
towards decarbonization and reduction of fuel consumption to fit the

Fig. 9. Distribution of air lubrication technologies papers over the years. Fig. 10. Distribution of engine technologies papers over the years.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

market needs. The simulation software developed varying from 0D with EGR leads the engine to comply with the limitations of Tier 3
models to 3D models, is good support for the studies to support design without any additional after-treatment system (Wang et al., 2021d; Zu
changes. Several simulation software has shown a great interest in the et al., 2019), as it directly affects the combustion process, thus
market, namely, Aspentech (2019), supporting 0D models, Ricardo improving fuel economy. However, it is essential to optimize the rate of
Wave Software (2019), Gamma Technologies LLC (2017) and AVL EGR to achieve the best engine performance (Stoumpos and Theotoka­
(2017), supporting 1D and 3D simulation, as well as Ansys (2018), tos, 2020) and, in particular, with the turbocharger operations (Lu et al.,
OpenFoam (2018) and SoftInWay Inc. (2018) supporting 3D simulation, 2022). The EGR shows the most economical solution, either with or
where the last one is mainly focusing on the modelling and simulation of without the installation of after-treatment systems (Zhao et al., 2021c).
turbomachinery. This software is mentioned as they are most common in Variable valve timing is another technique that can be used to ach­
the market in engine simulation. The software assists in the rapid ieve the optimal intake air inside the cylinder for different engine loads
development of engine performance as well as the reduction of exhaust and therefore provide a high controller of engine performance (Ma et al.,
emissions by optimizing the different parts of the engine. 2021a; Wei et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2017).
The concept of a dual-fuel engine became widely used. Several en­ Fuel injection is important and directly affects the combustion pro­
gines have been upgraded to support the use of alternative fuel as the cess, engine performance, and exhaust emissions formation. The com­
main fuel and the injection of a small quantity of diesel oil to begin the bustion process is computed using the Wiebe function (Altosole et al.,
ignition (Benvenuto et al., 2017; Marques et al., 2019; Park et al., 2017). 2017b; Ghojel, 2010), where higher accuracy can be achieved while
While this concept is not new, as developed by Karim (1980), the en­ using the double or multi-Wiebe function, especially in the modern
gines nowadays support this concept due to the lower exhaust emissions, engine (Sun et al., 2017; Tadros et al., 2016, 2020a, e). The injection
which comply easily with tier 2 and can reach Tier 3 due to the avail­ timing plays an important role in the combustion behaviour, where the
ability of several new fuels (Liu et al., 2022a; Wu et al., 2023; Zhang earlier injection timing allows the increment of the in-cylinder pressure
et al., 2022). and temperature and thus increases the engine power; however, the NOx
The turbocharger’s performance has been improved by increasing emissions are significantly increased. Therefore, most of the start of
the pressure ratio and the amount of compressed air, which leads to an injection in modern engines is retarded to reduce the NOx emissions or
increase in the engine performance of about three times more than the with the addition of water (Sun et al., 2022b), while the engine power is
naturally aspirated engine. Therefore, reducing the power-to-size ratio achieved based on lean-burn combustion (Raeie et al., 2014; Tadros
of the engine, reducing the amount of fuel consumption, cost reduction et al., 2019; Tavakoli et al., 2021). The pre-injection timing or post in­
and ensuring flexible engine operations are easily achieved (Latarche, jection timing also affects engine performance, where the NOx emissions
2020). Four basic turbocharging arrangements have been proposed and and knock levels are reduced (Cong et al., 2022; Lamas et al., 2019,
studied, while the most commonly used in the large engine is the con­ 2020; Wang et al., 2020).
stant pressure method ensuring a higher degree of efficiency (Tadros The higher injection pressure requires the use of 3D models instead
et al., 2015). With the existing charger air cooler, the air’s temperature of 1D models as it directly affects the liquid length, liquid volume, and
is reduced, and the air’s density is increased, thus improving engine spray cone angles, which are not considered during the 1D models. It has
performance and reducing exhaust emissions (Senčić et al., 2022; Tadros been found that the injection pressure in a marine diesel engine remains
et al., 2020b). Two-stage turbocharging is a common concept presented less than 100 MPa, which requires an optimization procedure to achieve
in marine applications, allowing more air to be compressed with lower the optimal injector parameters that achieve the best engine perfor­
compression energy and higher efficiency for both compressor and mance (Wang et al., 2022a; Xia et al., 2020; Yan et al., 2017).
turbine due to the lower specific loads. It can be used to increase the Downsizing the engine becomes a significant solution to reduce fuel
exhaust temperature by controlling the wastegate and thus increase the consumption by reducing the engine friction while achieving the same
performance of SCR (Verschaeren and Verhelst, 2018). brake power (Jafarzadeh and Schjølberg, 2018) and as one of the main
With the existence of the two-stage air cooler and the Miller cycle interests of Wärtsilä (Mercante, 2019). The engine must be well
(Cui et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2021c), the amount of air is controlled designed and controlled as well as a good selection of the turbocharger
inside the cylinders, and the level of NOx emissions is reduced by 25%. to avoid turbo-lag problems.
Also, the Miller cycle greatly affects engine performance with the single In summary, the development of the different software-based 1D and
stage of the turbocharger, as shown in (Tadros et al., 2019; Wei et al., 3D available in the market help predict and improve the performance of
2019, 2022). The turbocharger cut-out and sequential turbocharging different engine types. This improvement is achieved due to the concern
system provide a great engine performance for higher and lower loads, of every detail in the engine to achieve optimal combustion behaviour
which has a direct effect on NOx emissions and keeps the engine under and thus increase the power and reduce the fuel consumption and
the limits of Tier 2 while reducing the fuel consumption by 3–5% than exhaust emissions with emphasis on the papers published in the last four
using the conventional turbocharging system (Sun et al., 2017; Zhu years. These codes are not limited to diesel fuel, but they are extended to
et al., 2020b). simulate the engine performance using alternative fuel while consid­
It is essential to study the back pressure along the system (Güdden ering any kind of modifications, such as the injection system, to support
et al., 2021) to ensure the best performance along the engine load dia­ the simulation. In addition, coupling these codes with optimization
gram, especially with high back pressure (Ma et al., 2022b) to be able to procedures and machine learning (Castresana et al., 2022; Ma et al.,
recover according to the thermodynamic properties of the engine in 2022a) will allow the machine to select the optimum results with higher
energy and exergy analysis (Ma et al., 2023). Sapra et al. (2017) found accuracy. Fig. 11 shows the schematic diagram of the engine optimi­
that the air-excess ratio, exhaust receiver and exhaust valve temperature zation model to optimize the engine performance for every operating
are the main parameters against the formation of high back pressure. point.
ABB (2019) takes the lead in developing several types of turbochargers
covering a wide range of engine power, where the efficiency has been 4.2. Propeller selection
improved by 36% compared to 1970, while titanium has been used for
higher loads instead of aluminium. The hybrid turbocharger (HTC), Marine propellers are an essential component of the propulsion
where the electric generator is coupled to the turbocharger shaft, can be system used to propel the ship based on the power generated by the main
used to improve both engine and SCR performance (Nielsen et al., 2020). engine based on the radiating blades with a given pitch to form a helical
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is another solution to reduce NOx spiral and exerts linear thrust. It must be carefully selected to benefit
emissions through different proposed configurations, such as low, high, from the maximum power provided while avoiding cavitation. With the
and hybrid pressure loops. Combining the techniques mentioned before optimum propeller selected, lower engine power is used, and this

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of an engine optimization model to improve engine performance (Tadros et al., 2020c).

reduces fuel consumption and related emissions. Based on the Scopus issues. The propeller can be a fixed pitch propeller (FPP), controllable
database, 776 papers have been published from 2010 to 2022. Fig. 12 pitch propeller (CPP) or contra-rotating propeller (CRP) (Martelli et al.,
shows that there has been interest in the simulation of the marine pro­ 2014; Tadros et al., 2022c, 2022d) and at different inclination angles
peller performance supported by experimental data over the years. (Tadros et al., 2022b). This type of code is considered an extension of
By analyzing the published papers, the considered propeller can be previous research work that uses the operation research technique
selected from the standard series or unconventional propeller. The (Hillier and Lieberman, 1980) to easily find the most suitable propeller
standard series, especially the Wageningen B-series (Oosterveld and Van for a given ship (Gaafary et al., 2011; Gaggero et al., 2017a; Lee et al.,
Oossanen, 1975), are widely used due to the availability of the propeller 2010; Mirjalili et al., 2015; Tadros et al., 2020d). The optimization
performance presented by polynomial equations and supported by procedures are also applied to modify the propeller blade in 3D mode to
experimental results, which facilitate the validation procedure of the increase the propeller efficiency (Lee et al., 2010).
models used. There are three main configurations, open-wheel propel­ Using 3D models, CFD is applied to present a more realistic simula­
ler, ducted propeller and surface piercing. B-series and Gawn series tion. OpenProp (Epps and Kimball, 2013), PropCad (Hydrocomp, 2021),
(Carlton, 2012) are the two main series used in the open-wheel pro­ Marin (2020), Heliciel (2019), and JBLADE (Silvestre et al., 2013) are
peller. The B-series are slightly more efficient than the Gawn series, the most commonly used software to generate 3d geometry of any kind
while the later ones are most suitable for towing and high-speed oper­ of propeller. The exported geometry from each software can be used by
ation. Due to the profile of the blades, the Gawn series are less prone to the software itself or implemented into another one. CFD can be used to
cavitation. Regarding ducted propellers, the Kaplan propeller (Oos­ simulate the propeller performance and cavitation at full scale (Aktas
terveld, 1970) in the propeller duct is the most common. The type of et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2021a) and estimate the propeller performance
nozzle, such as 19A, 33 and 37, can be changed according to the needs influenced by the roughness (Owen et al., 2018; Sezen et al., 2021a,
and the type of operation. 2021b), which has a significant effect on propeller performance in terms
The surface-piercing propeller is almost exclusively used for very fast of torque, efficiency and cavitation. The variation of wake fraction along
craft. It is typically transom mounted with the upper half of the propeller the propeller disk is also computed in calm water (Taskar et al., 2016),
out of the water. All of these series are implemented in a hydrodynamic manoeuvring (Broglia et al., 2013; Dubbioso et al., 2021), and in the
and propulsion system simulation tool (HydroComp, 2018), where the presence of waves (Polyzos and Tzabiras, 2020; Yum et al., 2017).
propeller can be easily selected using a surrogate model by maximizing The effect of propeller performance in the nozzle is simulated
propeller efficiency. This commercial software is coupled to an opti­ (Gaggero et al., 2017b; Lungu, 2021; Stark et al., 2021a), showing that
mizer in a third party and used by (Tadros et al., 2021a, 2021d) to select this kind of propeller can increase the propeller efficiency and reduce
the propeller performance at the engine operating point with minimum the fuel consumption by 3–5%, while optimization procedures are
fuel consumption and verify propeller cavitation, strength and noise required to reduce the cavitation and noise level. The propeller simu­
lation is not limited to computing the hydrodynamic performance but is
extended to studying the effect of the composite material on the struc­
tural responses using the finite element method (FEM) (Han et al., 2022;
Hong et al., 2014, 2017a). Using Tubercle Assisted Propulsors (TAP) can
be beneficial to be further used in different applications showing a
reduction in cavitation and improvement in propeller efficiency (Stark
and Shi, 2021; Stark et al., 2021b).
In summary, the propeller is a main component of the propulsion
system and must be well selected according to the given ship. Different
types of propellers have been proposed according to the type of appli­
cation, but no single solution is suitable for all applications. The ducted
propeller shows higher efficiency than the conventional one. In addition
to the propeller efficiency, it is also important to select the propeller at
the engine operating point with minimum fuel consumption to ensure a
reduction in fuel consumption. With the existence of high-performance
computers, the numerical software coupled with optimization
Fig. 12. Distribution of marine propeller papers over the years.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

procedures and machine learning plays an essential role in selecting

optimal propellers in a suitable time, showing cost-effectiveness
compared to the experimental tests (Marques et al., 2018). Since
2019, the research path has focused on the simulation from an opera­
tional point of view, mainly in waves, to predict an accurate field in calm
water and sea states.

4.3. Efficient steering gears

The steering gear in the ship is an important device for the ship to
maintain and change the course of the ship by moving the rudder to steer
the vessel. Two systems are available in the market and are commonly
used to develop hydraulic pressure through hydraulic pumps. The hy­
draulic pumps are powered by electric motors or in a mechanical way.
Although there are 94 papers published on this subject, as shown in
Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Distribution of wind propulsion technologies papers over the years.
The electro-hydraulic system is more efficient than the mechanical
one by providing more accuracy and faster response. year 2015 compared to the other years, This phenomenon is based on
Yi et al. (2010) developed a numerical model to optimize the per­ the interaction between the research field and industry. Wind energy
formance of the steering gear to meet practical needs. The hydraulic oil was a dream before 2015, which now exists in the market. There has
viscosity is studied in (Koralewsk, 2011), describing the losses and en­ been a big interest from researchers in this field from 2010 till 2014, but
ergy efficiency of the pumps to select the proper design. Tang and Xie no action was taken from the industry as it is in the discovery period to
(2013) applied optimization procedures to the ensure the implementation of this technique in the industry. With the
proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller to accurately compute new regulations that began to appear and the regulators’ forcing to in­
the actuator’s set-point tracking, disturbance attenuation, robust sta­ crease ship energy efficiency, the interest in this technique began to
bility and energy consumption. Numerical models have been developed increase again and reached its high level in the last five years.
(Ting-Yun et al., 2019; Weifeng et al., 2017) to study the system’s per­ The first technique is the Sail and Kite Propulsion System. The giant
formance, presenting the system’s behaviour to be further used in crew kite has been developed by former Airbus engineers and reaches up to
training and undergraduate teaching. Cicek (2021) studied the system’s 930 m2 and can be increased to 1,600 m2 (Leloup et al., 2016) to install,
reliability on board by developing a numerical model based on a hier­ operate, and help tow large ships by harnessing the wind’s power
archical structure. Tang et al. (2022) designed a learning-based model (Brandon, 2022). This kind of system is expected to reduce the level of
predictive controller to control the position of an electro-hydraulic emissions by 20%. Leloup et al. (2016) predicted the performance of the
cylinder system to reduce the uncertainty of the system based on kite analytically by optimizing the kite trajectory azimuth, elevation and
real-time data. While using an efficient and controllable system, fuel orientation in both static and dynamic cases. They also present a
consumption can be reduced by 4% along the route (Biofriendly’s benchmark study for using a 320 m2 kite in a 230 m tanker, and they
Planet, 2019). expected a 10% saving in fuel consumption at Beaufort 5 and up to 50%
In summary, the design and selection of an electro-hydraulic system at Beaufort 7.
with a suitable controller help reduce the required power for system Roncin et al. (2020) provided a good database of boat motion and
operation and thus reduce the amount of fuel consumption. load generated by the kite based on experimental tests performed to
observe the influence of the kite on the boat. This paper is considered a
preliminary study for presenting further benchmarking studies using
4.4. Wind propulsion technologies
numerical modelling. Bigi et al. (2020) presented a dynamic simulation
of a ship towed by a kite. They studied the effect of the length of the
Wind energy is another alternative used to complement the propul­
tether on the kite’s performance as well as the performance of the kite on
sion system as a free, clean energy source available worldwide. Two
the ship in the existing waves. Petković et al. (2021) compared the re­
systems are available in the market and present great effectiveness in
sults of several published studies, which show that fuel saving can reach
providing power to the ship, thus reducing the level of exhaust emis­
up to 100% in some cases.
sions; Sail and Kite Propulsion System and Rotor Sails. According to
The second technique is the rotor sails, also known as Flettner rotors,
Scopus, the total net published papers are 107 papers along the defined
which have been used since 100 years ago. It was not widely used due to
period, as shown in Fig. 14. It can be seen that there is an incident in the
the lower cost of diesel fuel that is commonly considered to power ships
(Anemoi, 2021). Anemoi (2021) provided eight standard system sizes to
be installed on board based on the vessel size, available deck space, and
operating profile. De Marco et al. (2016) presented a systematic study to
define the main important parameters that affect the system perfor­
mance. A tanker is selected as a case study, and the authors found that
the system can provide thrust with 30% of the total ship resistance.
Copuroglu and Pesman (2018) studied the performance of rotor sails
on roll motion and the existence of beam waves using CFD simulation.
They noticed that the Flettner Rotors’ lifting power decreased with the
heeling angle increase. Bordogna et al. (2020) studied the interaction
between two rotors and found that the overall aerodynamic perfor­
mance is improved in some cases. Kume et al. (2022) compared the
computational and experimental results of several Flettner rotors on a
ship deck, showing a good agreement between both techniques and
concluded that the model scale CFD calculations can be used to predict
Fig. 13. Distribution of efficient steering gear papers along the years.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

the performance of a full scale.

A techno-economic study presented by Talluri et al. (2018) showed
that the installation of rotors onboard could reduce fuel consumption
and the corresponding emissions by 20%. A parametric study performed
by (Lu and Ringsberg, 2020) compared the performance of Flettner ro­
tors with wing sail and the DynaRig. They found that the Flettner rotors
achieve the best fuel consumption, while it is important to select the
Flettner rotor based on the ship type, speed, route and weather condi­
tions to achieve the maximum performance. The payback period has
been computed for different types of ships, and it varies between 6 and
13 years (Ammar and Seddiek, 2021; Seddiek and Ammar, 2021), and a
significant reduction in fuel consumption and exhaust emissions is
achieved.
Zhang et al. (2021b) computed the ship performance and found that
using both techniques can reduce fuel consumption and, thus, exhaust
emissions.
In summary, the use of wind energy is a clean source of power that Fig. 15. Distribution of alternative marine fuel papers over the years.
assists in providing more free power to the ship and thus, fuel con­
sumption is reduced compared to the traditional propulsion systems. period, as shown in (Wu and Lin, 2021b). In 2012, El-Gohary (2012)
The reduction in fuel consumption is significant and will have an eco­ suggested the use of LNG due to its effectiveness compared to heavy fuel
nomic effect over the long term. However, while these systems exist in oil (HFO) and showed that it could achieve a cost saving of 3% along the
the market, more investigations are still required to achieve optimal trip considered in the study. One of the main problems faced by using
performance. It is concluded that no single solution can be applied to all LNG in marine engines is methane slip (Brynolf et al., 2014a), which
ships, but each case must be studied separately according to the ship leads to an increase in total hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emis­
type, speed, route and weather conditions (Thies and Ringsberg, 2023). sions. Based on a 1D engine simulation, the engine performance has
been simulated in gas and diesel modes (Stoumpos et al., 2018). It has
5. New clean fuels and treatment systems been found that the engine complies with the limitations of IMO tier 3
when operating in gas mode using LNG. However, it is essential to
This section presents the third main aspect towards the concept of a provide more control to the engine to optimize the intake valves and
green and sustainable ship. In this section, several papers related to turbo boost and thus improve overall performance. The engine is not the
propulsion systems have been presented and discussed in the following only part improved in the propulsion system; the waste heat recovery
subsections. In this section, several papers have been presented and system (WHRS) is also improved by recovering more thermal power
discussed related to the alternative fuel considered in the market now from the exhaust gas (Altosole et al., 2019a). Hansson et al. (2019)
and in the near future as well as the different types of after-treatment ranked several alternative fuels based on the stakeholders’ opinions, and
systems. LNG was ranked the highest. Regarding the storage tanks, Wang et al.
(2021a) performed a dynamic simulation to investigate the performance
5.1. Use of alternative fuels of the fuel tank in marine conditions to ensure the safety of the system.
They showed that heat transfer between the vapour and tank wall
Alternative fuels become essential for green shipping and decar­ dominates the pressurization process, while the holding period and the
bonization vision to cut the carbon produced from shipping, instead of sloshing process, which can cause the shut-down of gas engines, are
just using the fossil fuel, which may be treated with any after-treatment dominated by the vapour condensation at the liquid-vapour interface.
systems. This technique has a long-term effect on carbon reduction, as This leads to present a risk evaluation of the system as in (Alzayedi et al.,
mentioned by DNV (2020) in addition to applying carbon taxes. The new 2022).
engines are built and upgraded to support fuel conversion and can be Biofuels are derived from biologically renewable resources such as
easily adapted to operate with any kind of fuel according to the market plant-based sugars, oils and terpenes and animal fat waste. They are
needs and the availability of the fuel worldwide. The main purpose of produced at a lower cost with low quality. Until now, there are no clear
engine adaptation is to ensure the quality of injected fuels according to standards applied to the marine sector contrary to the other sectors of
the standards to support the sustainability of engines (Tadros et al., transportation that recognize biofuel in many countries around the
2021b). Different types of fuel are proposed to operate marine engines. world, including the EU, the United States, Brazil and Asia (The Statis­
Some of them, such as biofuel and LNG, will be considered for a short tics Portal, 2017). However, Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) is the most
period, while e-fuel, methanol and ammonia will be the source of future common type considered as a marine biofuel. Most biofuels are blended
fuels. More details will be provided in the next paragraphs concerning with diesel oil to ensure better combustion and higher engine power
the progress of each type of fuel for marine application. The number of than pure biofuel. The blended fuel is referred to as Bxx, where xx is the
published papers on each type of fuel is presented in Fig. 15. Some pa­ percentage number of biofuel in the total blended fuel. The main benefit
pers are common to multiple fuels. It has been shown that a large of biofuel is that it can achieve zero SOx emissions in the case of B100.
number of papers published are related to biofuel, followed by hydrogen Many papers have been published to study the behaviour of marine
and LNG. The number of papers related to ammonia and methanol as a engines fuelled by several types of blended marine biofuel (Yang et al.,
fuel has significantly increased in the last year (2021) compared to the 2022). The behaviour of the combustion process and exhaust emissions
other years. have been reported by Mohd Noor et al. (2018); (Tadros et al., 2022a),
The use of LNG as a marine fuel attracts the interests of several ensuring a reduction in brake power and an increase in specific fuel
stakeholders. It is odourless, colourless, non-toxic and non-corrosive and consumption compared with using diesel oil. The CO2 emissions are
is stored in liquid form. However, hazards include flammability after reduced, while NOx emissions are increased in several cases. Up to a
vaporization into a gaseous state. It will not solve the overall challenges given bio-oil blend, Chuahy et al. (2022), the engine can operate without
of maritime fuel and emissions. However, it contributes to reducing the any major adverse combustion effects.
level of emissions, especially in areas with heavy ship traffic (Æsøy and Based on a multi-criteria analysis performed in (Aspen and Sparre­
Stenersen, 2013; Balcombe et al., 2021), and it is cost-effective for a long vik, 2020; Hansson et al., 2019), considering several stakeholders’

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

feedback, biofuels are ranked at the end of the list due to the lack of replace the typical one produced from methane. Chiong et al. (2021)
policy initiatives promoting the introduction of renewable marine fuels. provided a detailed review of the use of ammonia in engines, mainly in
Also, the electricity-powered ship is considered the most effective option cars. The mentioned studies predicted modern engine performance with
compared to the alternative fuel, including biofuel, while performing a several techniques as well as the parameters of the combustion process
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) (Perčić et al., 2020). However, the large and exhaust emissions while using ammonia as a fuel. They found that
ferries can be operated by either an electrical propulsion system or the main current concern is the unburned ammonia and the higher NOx
biofuel based on the techno-economic study presented in (Korberg et al., emissions produced, which are still under investigation and can require
2021). The applicability of using advanced biofuels in the marine the installation of selective catalytic reduction (SCR). Using LCA, the
application can be improved while producing advanced biofuels that are GHG can decrease by 27% when ammonia is used (Bicer and Dincer,
composed of different types of blends such as Fischer-Tropsch diesel 2018). However, Law et al. (2021) compared the lifecycle energy and
(FT-Diesel), pyrolysis oil, lignocellulosic ethanol (LC Ethanol), cost of different fuels and found that ammonia and hydrogen are the
bio-methanol, dimethyl-ether (made of bio-methanol) and bio-LNG worst and may require after-treatment systems as well to clean up the
(Balcombe et al., 2019). From that point and by analyzing the other NOx emissions as well as not cost effective (Ejder and Arslanoğlu, 2022).
cases, it is important to perform a detailed study ensuring the suitability In summary, different clean fuels will be available in the market,
of using biofuel in marine ships according to the operation route of each particularly green fuel, to be used as an alternative to the existing diesel
ship, where the engine will be controlled in terms of turbocharger oil to reduce the level of GHG from ships. There is no single solution
operation and injection system (Visan et al., 2022). available as it depends on the ship routes, and many ships can be
Methanol is another alternative to fossil fuels. It is a sulphur-free operated with more than one fuel based on the installed prime mover.
fuel. As mentioned earlier, it is the expected type of future fuel, espe­ There is a great effort from several stakeholders to optimize and improve
cially the bio version of methanol, to ensure sustainability in marine the performance of engines to operate in different fuel modes as well as
applications (Brynolf et al., 2014a). In 2016, Deniz and Zincir (2016) allow the appropriate fuel quantities to be used onboard. The systems
ensured that hydrogen is an alternative to the LNG and more suitable to are studied to achieve the best performance and ensure safety and
be used onboard rather than methanol and ethanol based on durability as well as a suitable economic point of view as the costs are
multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). The same conclusion has been very sensitive to the fuel prices (Karvounis et al., 2022).
presented by Ren and Liang (2017). However, in 2019, Ammar (2019)
showed the benefit of using methanol in a dual-fuel engine combined 5.2. After-treatment systems
with a slow steaming technique to significantly reduce exhaust emis­
sions by up to 90% and comply with IMO emissions regulations. How­ Several types of after-treatment systems have been proposed to be
ever, it is essential to be concerned about the safety of storage of used in maritime applications. These types of equipment can be used to
methanol onboard due to the lower flash point (Ni et al., 2020) and treat the exhaust gas from the ship engines to reduce emissions and can
presenting life cycle assessment compared to other types of fuels (Huang be reused in other fields. In this subject, 520 papers have been published
et al., 2022). in total, made up of 166 for carbon capture and storage (CCS), 154
As methanol is an eco-friendly fuel, it is suggested to be considered a papers for SCR and 200 papers for scrubber, as shown in Fig. 16. More
fuel to operate marine fuel cells (Xing et al., 2021), while the interna­ details of each system are presented in the following paragraphs.
tional maritime regulations surrounding fuel cells as power systems are Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is considered one of the main
still not available. It was also used in waste heat recovery systems as techniques used for the short term to reduce the level of CO2 emissions
proposed by (Ng et al., 2020), which can provide up to 9% in fuel produced by ships by capturing the CO2 emissions and then stored deep
savings. underground. It shows great interest from big companies to improve the
Like LNG, hydrogen has been proposed as a fuel to power ships and system to be applicable for ships (Wärtsilä, 2021). This system can be
to cut the carbon footprint to improve the fleet’s energy efficiency. It has cost-effective with appropriate carbon taxation (Irena et al., 2021). A
been used to power several types of fuel cells (Bassam et al., 2017; system block diagram of the overall CCS chain is presented in Fig. 17.
Horvath et al., 2018; Welaya et al., 2011). Seddiek et al. (2015) stated There are several techniques for capturing process, as shown in Fig. 18.
the availability of using hydrogen in the marine engine while it is In general, the post-combustion process is the most common one to
essential to tune the engine to avoid knocking as well as provide suffi­ capture the CO2 from the exhaust gas flow before entering the atmo­
cient higher rates of water for cooling than in diesel oil to avoid high sphere, transporting it to a storage location and isolating it from the
temperatures. The hydrogen engine has lower thermal efficiency, mean atmosphere (IPCC, 2005). Increasing CO2 production reduces the sys­
effective pressure and fuel consumption compared to the diesel engine. tem’s overall efficiency, requiring more energy to perform the processes.
Also, they mentioned the importance of computing the volume of tanks Usually, the overall system’s efficiency varies between 85 and 95%, and
onboard, which requires more space to comply with the trip distance.
Based on MCDA, hydrogen got the highest point in terms of safety,
bunker capability, durability, and adaptability to existing ships, which
can be used as an alternative fuel to LNG (Deniz and Zincir, 2016; Kim
and Hwang, 2022; Ren and Liang, 2017). Using LCA, the GHG can
decrease by 40% when hydrogen is used (Bicer and Dincer, 2018). Wang
et al. (2021f) reviewed the materials used for hydrogen storage onboard
to ensure system safety and found that the variable density multilayer
insulation with a vapour-cooled shield has the best performance.
Ammonia was previously used in marine applications either in
WHRS (Feng et al., 2020) or selective catalytic reduction (SCR) (Brynolf
et al., 2014b). Recently, it was considered a fuel able to operate the
engine and provide a significant reduction in the level of emissions,
especially the ammonia produced from renewable energy due to its
carbon-free chemical composition when it becomes available and in
suitable price to compete for the existing fuels (Lindstad et al., 2020). It
is expected that the green ammonia, produced from nitrogen from air
and hydrogen made by wind or solar-powered water electrolysis, will Fig. 16. Distribution of after-treatment systems papers over the years.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

the transportation of CO2 shows its effectiveness in the economic term

compared to the pipelines, especially for long distances (Decarre et al.,
2010; Gao et al., 2011).
The storage of CO2 emissions is performed based on the technologies
developed by the oil and gas industry in deep, either onshore or offshore
Fig. 17. System block diagram of ship-based CCS chain (Seo et al., 2016).
and shows its feasibility from an economic point of view. The injection
process of CO2 into the sub-seabed geological formations can be per­
it has been shown that the retrofitting process of existing plants will formed using flexible riser pipes installed on ships, providing more
reduce the overall efficiency of the power plant and the high cost flexibility in operation, especially in rough weather (Nakazawa et al.,
associated with retrofitting and vice versa in the case of the new plant. 2013). The material of the pipes, which is a common high chrome steel
Two ways are developed to transport the CO2 by converting it into liquid alloy, must be checked to support safe operations and avoid corrosion
(Seo et al., 2015) or solid (Zhou and Wang, 2014b). internally and externally, (Cho et al., 2014).
Regarding the liquefaction process, four different processes are The storage places can be checked and selected using several acoustic
suggested (Seo et al., 2015); the Linde Hampson system, the Linde techniques installed in an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV)
dual-pressure system, the precooled Linde Hampson system, and the (Watanabe et al., 2011). However, storing this high level of concentra­
closed system. By applying life cycle cost (LCC), the closed system has tion of CO2 can alter the local chemical environment and cause the death
the lowest LCC compared to the other three suggested systems. Seo et al. of several ocean organisms, which will affect the ecosystem. Therefore,
(2016) performed a LCC comparison for a range of pressure liquefaction performing a CO2 major accident hazard (MAH) risk management and
from 6 to 65 bar and found that 15 bar of pressure is the optimal pressure presenting clear guidelines will control the side effect of CCS (Holt et al.,
among the suggested pressures. In addition, the ambient conditions have 2012). It is confirmed that till these days that the implementation of CCS
been studied to find the optimal temperature, and the open-loop shows on ships still have technical uncertainties and financial risks (Buirma
the lowest energy consumption below 20 ◦ C cooling temperature. et al., 2022).
Regarding the solidification process, the use of CFD is considered to Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is another type of after-treatment
analyze and observe the chemical reaction in carbon solidification system that is used to convert NOx emissions, which are composed of
processes (Zhou and Wang, 2014b), which follows the experimental nitric oxide (NO) and NO2, into diatomic nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O)
tests and the parametric analysis of a CCS (Zhou and Wang, 2014a). The with the aid of catalyst (Zhao et al., 2021b). This DeNOx process helps
authors compared the two systems and concluded that the running cost reduce the harmful effects of NOx emissions on human health, whether
is lower in the liquefaction method, while the chemical processes for direct or indirect (EPA, 2021), and complies with the engine’s limita­
carbon Solidification (CPCS) method has a higher profit from selling the tions of Tier 3.
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) as an end product. Urea, the common reductant used based on toxicological and safety
Transportation can be performed by using pipelines, ships or a reasons, is added to the exhaust gas flow and reacts to a catalyst (Sung
combination of them. In some cases, pipelines can be more economical et al., 2020). The use of a catalyst is not mandatory, but it is more
than using shipping (the case of Korea), based on the location and the effective in the DeNOx process (Andersson and Winnes, 2011), where
available facilities (Jung et al., 2013). In other cases, the use of ships in

Fig. 18. Schematic representation of capture systems (IPCC, 2005).

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

the NOx emissions can be reduced by 95% (Jayaram et al., 2011). contrast, based on factors of profitability: net present value (NPV),
Ammonia is also used as an alternative to urea. At the same time, it is payback period (PBP) and Return on Investment (ROI), scrubber
important to select the material of the catalyst to achieve an effective installation shows its effectiveness under any scenario in fuel prices
reduction along with a range of exhaust temperatures (Xiao et al., 2012). (Panasiuk and Turkina, 2015); however, lowering the cost the
Nonthermal plasma (NTP) and adsorption can be an alternative to low-sulphur fuel oil (LSFO) in the future will lose the scrubber its
installing an SCR and be effective in lower temperatures (Kuwahara attractiveness as suggested by Zhu et al. (2020a). The same conclusion
et al., 2014). Adding an oxidation catalyst upstream of the SCR can has been proposed by Bui et al. (2021) based on the economic criteria,
comply with the limits of Tier 3 with some limitations in operational where the scrubber will take place after the LSFO and methanol. In
temperature and level of sulphur in fuel (Magnusson et al., 2016). addition, the combination between a dual-fuel engine and scrubber will
Chen and Lv (2015) simulated the performance of an integrated be the best choice based on the stochastic model applied to the new
SCR-muffler using CFD software. They found that NOx reduction effi­ extended ECAs (Mediterranean Sea) (Abadie and Goicoechea, 2019).
ciency and pressure loss were improved compared to the original SCR After the spread of Coronavirus Disease (2019)(COVID-19), liner
due to the effect of silencing elements. Lee (2018) studied in detail the companies tried to find suitable sulphur reduction technologies; there­
behaviour of NH3 concentration, interaction with wall film, and tra­ fore, Zhao et al. (2021d) suggested the installation of scrubbers on
jectory of droplets using CFD methods which show a good agreement medium-capacity fuel-switching ships while considering LNG dual-fuel
with experimental tests. Lee (2016) performed experimental tests and engine retrofits for large-capacity fuel-switching ships. The same
used an optimization tool to find urea-SCR’s optimal NOx conversion conclusion has been found by (Wu and Lin, 2021a) supported the use of
condition with a vanadium-based catalyst based on different ratios of LNG in younger and larger ships, while the LSFO can be used in the old
NH3/NOx and different temperatures. The optimal NOx conversion rate ship as it is more cost-effective than the LNG in the first 2.5 years only.
varies between 250 ◦ C–450 ◦ C for higher ratios of NH3/NOx. Also, the It is important to present a numerical model based on CFD (Choi and
metal catalyst’s sheet thickness is proportional to the conversion rate, Lim, 2020; Lamas et al., 2016) and chemical (Chin et al., 2022; Flagiello
which requires to be optimized to find a suitable size (Ryu et al., 2017). et al., 2018) models and verify by experimental data to evaluate the
The performance of SCR was studied based on different configura­ scrubber’s performance and optimize it, for instance, the behaviour of
tions of the nozzle and mixer, and reactor (Jang et al., 2021; Kim and the flow and the nozzle configurations (Guo et al., 2020). This leads to
Lee, 2019), and the NOx conversion rate was found to be more than 80%. evaluating the whole system avoiding the back-pressure problem and
The installation of SCR shows benefits over the use of LNG as a fuel in the increase in fuel consumption by installing forced-draft fans (Bekdaş
terms of operation and cost-effectiveness (Ammar and Seddiek, 2017). et al., 2022; Georgopoulou et al., 2016) and ensuring the health, safety
The use of RSM generated by 1D simulation software is presented by and environemental conditions (Başhan et al., 2022; Jee, 2022). The
(Liang et al., 2019) to reduce the volume of SCR, achieving almost the design of a scrubber with a built-in silencer has been proposed and
same performance with the benefit of lowering the cost and having more optimized to reduce the back-pressure problem and level of noise (Ryu
spaces available on board. A coupled engine and SCR simulation are and Park, 2021). A proposed cooling technique is suggested by (Wilailak
extended to simulate the whole system’s behaviour to study the trade-off et al., 2021) to reduce the inlet temperature of the exhaust gas and thus
between high thermal efficiency and low emissions which required a reduce the pump power by up to 50%. Considering the behaviour of the
certain optimization procedure to find the optimal area of operation ship and scrubber during sailing is significant to avoid the over­
(Zhu et al., 2022), as well as during transition mode and in the existing estimation of the value of the scrubber and thus a substantial loss (Gu
waves, where the load is instantaneously changed (Foteinos et al., and Wallace, 2017), so the authors declare that the scrubber will be
2020). The model is well-validated based on experimental data. more attractive for companies that have higher ECA port call density on
To comply with the 2020 sulphur cap, Exhaust Gas Cleaning Systems their trade lines. The same concept is supported by (Abadie et al., 2017).
(EGCS), known as scrubbers, are frequently used in ships to remove SOx In summary, the after-treatment systems play an important role in
from exhaust emissions. Two systems exist in the market; open loop and reducing the different types of emissions with higher efficiencies with
closed loop. Among several stages, seawater or fresh water sprays are values up to 95%. The recent works focus on the simulation of the
mixed with a caustic chemical to clean the exhaust gas stream from performance of SCR and scrubber only, as the CCS becomes adapted to
sulphur dioxide. In the case of open-loop systems, which are the most be installed on the ships recently. However, these types of after-
popular, the resulting wash water is discharged back into the sea. While treatment systems are currently closely correlated with the economic
in the case of closed-loop systems, chemicals are added to the wash parts and the ship’s stability. Therefore, it is essential to present a
water to boost its alkalinity and then recirculated through the system techno-economic study of each case based on the navigation route to
and partially purged. The closed-loop system can be used in prohibited ensure compliance with the IMO regulations and achieve maximum
areas and ports where the open-loop cannot be used. Therefore, hybrid profit compared to alternative fuels.
scrubbers present more flexibility in ship operation (DNV, 2018b). The
choice of scrubber system depends on the availability of spaces onboard, 6. Power systems
the area of operation, size of the engines, generators and boiler. A
seawater scrubber is not limited to removing 90%–95% of the SO2 In this section, several papers have been presented and discussed
content from the exhaust gas, which corresponds to less than 0.1% of related to the generation of power from the waste hear recovery systems
sulphur in fuel (Fridell and Salo, 2016), while it is extended to remove and the effect of the DC power distribution system on the overall
up to 20% of NOx and hydrocarbons and 80% of the PM (Nikopoulou performance.
et al., 2013). The installation and operation of a scrubber while using
heavy fuel oil as the main engine fuel can reduce the level of SOx 6.1. Waste heat recovery system
emissions with lower energy consumption than switching to low-sulphur
fuel (Ma et al., 2012). A WHRS becomes essential to being installed onboard to generate
Based on the economic study presented by (Nikopoulou et al., 2013), more power for other purposes and improve the whole system’s energy
the authors found that scrubber installation in old ships will not be efficiency by at least 2% (Suárez de la Fuente et al., 2017). The different
profitable compared to using marine gas oil. However, based on devel­ types of WHRS in marine applications have been presented in detail by
oped multicriteria decision-making, LNG is found to be the best solution Singh and Pedersen (2016). They include the Rankine cycle, Kalina
for SOx emissions reduction over the use of low-sulphur fuel and the cycle, exhaust gas turbine, and thermoelectric generation systems. On
installation of scrubbers according to technological, economic, envi­ this topic, almost 325 papers have been published. According to Fig. 19,
ronmental and social-political aspects (Ren and Lützen, 2015). In the rate of publications increased over the years to almost double in

14
M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

2019 compared to 2010. et al., 2020). The dual loop of ORC attached to a marine engine and
The chosen WHRS must be efficient in utilizing the waste heat, operated by R1233zd(E) is found to be the optimal working fluid instead
supply sufficient power demand in steady-state and transition mode in of benzene due to its flammability (Civgin and Deniz, 2021).
both high loads and slow steaming, be reliable and safe in operations Optimization procedures can be applied to the WHRS to achieve the
and can be easily integrated with any power system installed onboard. system’s maximum efficiency. Hou et al. (2017) used MOGA to find the
However, it is important to consider the effects of the WHR steam plant optimum system parameters of a proposed combined cycle coupling
degradation on the whole system throughout the ship’s life (Altosole supercritical CO2 recompression and regenerative cycle to improve the
et al., 2017a, 2019b; Tadros et al., 2021c). part-load ship performance. Zhu et al. (2018) used a multi-objective
By analyzing the published papers after 2016, it has been found that optimization model to present a techno-economic study to select the
the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is widely presented and simulated with working fluid. They found that R141b is the most satisfactory, with the
several configurations as one of the main solutions toward decarbon­ maximum net power output compared to R113 and R600a, while Konur
ization. This is because the organic fluid is more adaptable to different et al. (2022) concluded that the R1233zd(E) has great prospects for
operating conditions, and its flammability is easily mitigated using marine ORC systems.
modern safety systems (Mondejar et al., 2018). Ji et al. (2018) used the Taguchi method to optimize the system.
Sung and Kim (2016) proposed a dual-loop ORC system designed for They found that the height of the module is the most important design
dual-fuel (DF) engines. One of the ORC loops recovers the waste heat parameter. By installing a triple ORC in an LNG ship (Han et al., 2019), a
from the exhaust gas, while the other is from the jacket cooling water higher net output power with lower cost and efficient energy recovery is
and LNG cold. The maximum work output provided by the system is achieved by comparing 15 working fluids in a multiobjective optimi­
5.17% of the engine output. The same concept is supported by (Uusitalo zation environment.
et al., 2019), where the combination between SRC and ORC can produce Ouyang et al. (2021) applied MCRM after performing a multi­
around 5,000 MW/y when attached to an 80 MW diesel engine. objective optimization method to find the optimal working fluid based
Sciubba et al. (2016) added an ORC to an existing SRC, and the on thermodynamic, economic and environmental properties, and
electrical power generated has been improved by up to 8% based on the Cyclopentane was selected to operate between 200 and 300 ◦ C.
size of the engine. The authors confirmed that the size of the cycle is In summary, the current research shows that the ORC will be more
suitable to be installed onboard while it is required to perform an eco­ effective, eco-friendly and cost-effective in the next few years compared
nomic study to evaluate the feasibility of system. A techno-economic to the other WHRS. Furthermore, the operation research techniques are
study is presented by Yang (2016) while using different working fluids integrated into the numerical models to evaluate the system perfor­
in a transcritical Rankine cycle attached to a large engine for compari­ mance according to the studied cases, in particular during the last four
son. The R236fa is the optimal fluid by evaluating the levelized energy years, showing the trade-off between the technical and economic
cost. However, R1234yf performs the highest economic performance aspects.
when the transcritical Rankine cycle is attached to a medium-speed
diesel engine (Yang and Yeh, 2017). Oyekale and Okewale (concluded
that the supercritical ORC is better exergetic environmental sustain­ 6.2. DC power distribution system
ability than a subcritical one.
Meroni et al. (2018) presented a multistage axial turbine design for The ship microgrids are defined as local electrical networks oper­
an ORC. The authors proved that n-butane and R245fa are the best ating in islanding operation mode at sea and grid-connected mode at
working fluids showing a trade-off between cycle and turbine design. ports. This includes the generation, storage and critical loads. There are
Mat Nawi et al. (2019) showed that the mass flow rate and temperature different aspects to be reviewed in the electrical distribution system,
difference influence the computed results. Microalgae Synechococcus such as fuel cells, batteries and power take-off (PTO) (Ančić et al., 2018).
PCC 7002 offers the highest efficiency of the system attached to a However, in this section, the direct current (DC) power distribution
high-speed engine. Combining EGR and ORC (Lion et al., 2019), 5% of system will be the main concern in this paper as a retrofit technique to
financial energy saving was achieved compared to the system without the alternating current (AC) distribution system to improve the effi­
ORC. Mohammed et al. (2020) proved that the supercritical ORC could ciency of the electrical ship system. In this part, 80 papers have been
replace three generators, and thus, a weight reduction is achieved, and published, as presented in Fig. 20.
the fuel consumption is reduced by 2.1 tonne/day. Applying a combi­ Jayasinghe et al. (2017) compared AC and DC distribution systems
nation between ORC, SRC and absorption refrigeration cycle (ARC) to onboard. The AC system is the typical distribution system used onboard
benefit from the exhaust gas and jacket cooling water to produce elec­ based on the availability of the types of equipment. The AC distribution
tricity improved the engine thermal efficiency by 10.5%, compared to system is advantageous as it does not require any electronic protection
5.3% and 7.3% for using SRC and the dual loop ORC respectively (Liu during faults due to zero voltage arc extinguishment. Also, it can operate
at different voltages; however, the efficiency is lowered due to reactive

Fig. 19. Distribution of WHRS papers over the years. Fig. 20. Distribution of DC distribution system papers over the years.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

power transfer. Furthermore, due to the complexity of operation in

modern electric equipment and the higher loads in operations, AC power
systems are difficult to be controlled to operate at a fixed frequency.
Therefore, DC systems have become an alternative to the current AC
systems due to the current limitations.
According to Kanellos et al. (2015), DC systems have less weight and
size than AC systems, can increase system efficiency by up to 20% due to
the use of variable speed and thus optimize efficiency and reduce fuel
consumption by up to 15% (Hänninen et al., 2012; Hansen et al., 2012).
By comparing the performance of an AC power system attached to an
energy storage system with a DC power system in terms of fuel con­
sumption for offshore support vessels (OSV), it has been found that the
DC power system consumes less fuel than the AC system, while it
required the controller to control the performance of maritime DC
microgrids (Edrington et al., 2022). Fig. 21. Distribution of slow-steaming papers over the years.
Therefore, replacing the current equipment with a new one that
operates based on variable speed drive (VSD) (Green Ship of the Future,
2011; Nzualo et al., 2021) to increase energy efficiency by 8%; other­
2020), can operate at lower power than the existing one and improve the
wise, electrification will be an effective solution for green shipping.
power of the current flow. Furthermore, this kind of operation leads to
Applying a carbon tax will force the shipmaster to reduce the speed and
less maintenance due to the simplicity of the connection and discon­
thus CO2 emissions by 6% (Devanney, 2011). Cheaitou and Cariou
nection between the electrical components, which increases the recon­
(2012) declared that sustaining this kind of technique is impossible for a
figuration capability of the whole system and reduces the fault currents
long time as it will increase the number of ships in the same line.
(Christopher et al., 2010). Christopher et al. (2011) used active
Therefore, achieving the optimal speed at which the profit is maximized
impedance estimation (AIE) to provide information on fault severity and
is essential while considering the cost of fuel.
location to be reconfigured by the power system. Zhuang et al. (2019)
In terms of the payback period, slow steaming speed can delay the
suggested replacing the bus-tie fast fuse with a solid-state circuit breaker
payback time of such investments due to the lower number of voyages
in DC systems to ensure navigation safety by avoiding the impact of
per year (Zis et al., 2016). Armstrong (2013) and Will and Greitsch
short-circuit faults on the normal side bus bars. Also, coupling solid-state
(2014) ensured that adapting or retrofitting the performance of ship
technologies and energy storage systems provided flexibility in energy
parts in a slow steaming mode, such as a controllable pitch propeller
management onboard, thus achieving lower consumption and zero
(CPP), will achieve a higher reduction in fuel consumption. The ship
emissions (Ismail et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2021c). Based on its design, this
routing code is one of the simulation codes used to optimize the ship
solid-state technology can provide soft-starting of an unenergized sec­
performance (Prpić-Oršić et al., 2016; Ventura and Guedes Soares, 2015;
tion of a shipboard power distribution network (Ulissi et al., 2021),
Vettor and Guedes Soares, 2016b; Vettor et al., 2016, 2018), where the
which eliminates the installation of any additional components specif­
slow steaming technique can be considered while achieving the lowest
ically for this task.
fuel consumption. However, optimizing the ship speed and the type of
In summary, the DC systems in ships will begin to replace the current
fuel (Perčić et al., 2022) based on the ship size is essential to achieve the
AC systems due to their advantages such as higher efficiencies, lower
maximum profit from the trade (Wu, 2020); for instance, the highest
power, better energy management and safer.
optimal speed of a container ship varies between 5,500 and 13,000
twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) (Goicoechea and Abadie, 2021). The
7. Ship operation
optimal speed can be predicted based on a neural network model by
analyzing the real operation of hundreds of ships (Le et al., 2020).
In this section, several papers have been presented and discussed
Developing an engine model aims to reproduce the engine’s behav­
related to ship operations. This includes the slow steaming ship speed,
iour at both normal and slow steaming speeds (Guan et al., 2014) and
the management of ballast water systems and the ship weather routing
mainly focuses on turbochargers and blowers’ performance in a
system.
two-stroke engine. Optimum engine management is essential, and the
use of turbocharger isolation or variable geometry turbine leads to
7.1. Slow steaming ship speed reduced fuel consumption.
In addition to the previous papers, studying the behaviour of the ship
Slow steaming speed, sailing at reduced speed, is one of the opera­ hull in waves during slow steaming is important to ensure the ship’s
tional techniques followed by most shipping lines to significantly reduce safety in weather conditions (Tezdogan et al., 2015; Yin et al., 2019). In
the level of consumption and, thus, the CO2 emissions. It can be easily addition, the authors presented a reduction in effective power by up to
detected when selecting a propeller for a given vessel. In some cases, 52% when the ship sails in slow steaming compared to the design speed
reducing the speed by 1 knot can reduce fuel consumption by almost and can be able to reduce the CO2 emissions by 22 kilo-tonne per year
25% (Tadros et al., 2021d). Therefore, most statistics show that the most (Gospić et al., 2022). In (Ammar, 2018), reducing ship speed by 40%
frequent engine load along the route varies between 50 and 65% (Green leads to a significant reduction in CO2 emissions by almost 80% and
Ship of the Future, 2020). In addition to the propulsion system perfor­ complies with the first two phases of EEDI. The suggestion of retrofitting
mance, slow steaming reduces the probability of collision with large the pumps with variable speed pumps is more flexible and effective in
whale species (Moore et al., 2018). On this subject, 174 papers have providing a 60% reduction in electrical power during slow steaming
been published and distributed over the years, as shown in Fig. 21. conditions, reducing fuel consumption by 80% (Ammar, 2018).
Since ten years ago, some studies have been performed showing that In summary, this technique is widely used to increase the ship’s
the slow steaming technique can significantly reduce the level of CO2 energy efficiency by reducing the amount of fuel consumption and
emissions, which is nearby the level of emissions proposed three years exhaust emissions from the overall marine systems, which leads the ship
ago (Cariou, 2011). However, the author declared that the increase in to comply with the lower limits of EEDI.
freight rate and fuel cost is the only possible solution to maintain this
strategy. In addition to the slow steaming, reducing the waiting time in
port is important (Johnson and Styhre, 2015; Kontovas and Psaraftis,

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

7.2. Ballast water management system

7.2.1. Existing ballast system

Most of the existing ships require ballast tanks to balance the ship’s
weight and cargo and sail in stable conditions with lower fuel con­
sumption. However, although it ensures the ship’s safety, the ballast
water is very harmful to the marine environment due to the invasive
species discharged into the new environment (Briski et al., 2015), as
shown in Fig. 22. Therefore, stringent regulations have been issued by
MEPC.279 (70) (2016) to reduce and control the discharge of invasive
species. The ship must comply with Regulation D-1 (exchange standard)
and Regulation D-2 (performance standard). This includes detailed in­
formation about the installed system and tanks, the material used and
the treatment process, and the operation and maintenance procedures.
More than 300 papers have been published, as shown in Fig. 23; most Fig. 23. Distribution of BWMS papers over the years.
presented the effect of ballast systems on the environment and the
treatment systems required, while few papers are concerned about ship compared to the other systems. At the same time, it is concluded that
resistance and fuel consumption. combining different systems to achieve the IMO regulations in sailing
Regarding the first aspect, comparative studies between the different and ports is an effective solution.
systems are presented in detail by Lakshmi et al. (2021). Primary Due to the complexity of the systems and lack of data, the use of
treatment, mechanical treatment and chemical treatment are the main MCDA is considered an effective technique to evaluate different system
types of treatments used by the ships. Most of the treatments are very performances, as presented in (Karahalios, 2017; Kuroshi and Ölçer,
effective, and the performance of the systems shows effectiveness in a 2017). Therefore, the system can be evaluated using MCDA in terms of
reasonable time. At the same time, it is important to consider the sys­ performance, consumption, efficiency and size, which gives a better
tem’s operational cost. It has been found that the combination between decision in selecting BWMS for different types of ships. In terms of
mechanical treatment and filtration is the most effective treatment for retrofit towards green shipping, several retrofit projects have been
many species of organisms and physicochemical parameters present in performed (Green Ship of the Future, 2020) to reduce the power con­
the ballast tank. sumption of several types of ships and thus reduce fuel consumption.
Jee and Lee (2017) presented a comparative study on retrofitting the The components of the ballast system have been replaced by a new one
ballast water system of a bulk carrier. Three main systems are proposed with lower consumption by 82% than the existing one and ensure the
in the market: (1) Electrolysis type, (2) Ultraviolet (UV) type and (3) same discharge performance in different conditions.
Ozone type. Each one of them has its own benefit in treatment. For Guo et al. (2021) extended the previous works by applying an opti­
example, electrolysis and UV types are used to remove the large or­ mization management model to predict the vessel traffic scheduling and,
ganisms before discharge or to enter the ballast tanks. In contrast, the thus, deballasting problems to improve the fleet’s overall performance.
Ozone type is a chemical treatment that can be used to treat the ballast Regarding the second aspect, the ballast system shows an impact on
water from various species. From an economic point of view, the UV the overall ship performance and, in particular, the fuel consumption.
type shows its lowest cost from both capital and operating costs

Fig. 22. Number of known harmful species around the world (Clear Seas, 2021).

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

While there are many aspects to be considered, Armstrong (2013) 7.3. Ship weather routing
optimized the ship speed and fuel consumption for both ship conditions,
ballast and laden, to positively affect net voyage revenue and a signifi­ The development of ship weather routing is one of the important
cant reduction in GHG. Using CFD, Shivachev et al. (2017) computed the fields nowadays that use the real-time weather data to find the optimal
ship performance for several operational speeds and trim conditions and route for a ship’s voyage. It deals directly with the ship operation along
the optimum trim can be achieved based on the minimum computed the ship route to ensure the safety of the ship and achieve the minimum
resistance. Using historical data, Gkerekos and Lazakis (2020) were able fuel consumption (Vettor and Guedes Soares, 2016b). It helps to reduce
to identify the optimal ship route and the ship sailing speeds corre­ the fuel consumption and voyage timing by around 8% (Khan et al.,
sponding to several operating profiles, i.e. ballast and fully loaded. The 2022). Over 260 papers have been published and distributed over the
same concept has been applied using machine learning technique years, as shown in Fig. 25. The figure shows great interest from the re­
(Öztürk and Başar, 2022). searchers in this topic as the number of papers published has signifi­
cantly increased. The main benefit of this topic is that it combines
7.2.2. Ballast free ships (No ballast) several research topics and requires more information from the ship it­
To avoid all these complicated processes for ballast water manage­ self and the surrounding environment to achieve the study’s goal to­
ment and reduce the expensive sterilization equipment, the ballast-free wards green shipping (Armstrong, 2013) (see Fig. 26).
ship is considered one of the most promising solutions toward green The research operation has been widely used in this field due to the
shipping. Furthermore, this system creates a constant flow running complexity and the large amount of data that the developed model deals
along the ship length from the bow to the stern under the waterline, thus with. Different methods have been used such as genetic algorithm (Pan
reducing the potential hauling of contaminated water across the ocean. et al., 2021), swarm optimization (Du et al., 2022) and Ant colony
Since 2010, 11 papers have been published, as shown in Fig. 24. (Zhang et al., 2021a). Hinnenthal and Clauss (2010) and Prpić-Oršić
The hydrodynamic performance of the hull and the propulsive co­ et al. (2016)used Pareto front to find the optimal solution of the ship
efficients are studied in (Kotinis and Parsons, 2010) using the CFD route according to the estimated time of ship arrival, fuel consumption,
technique, which shows a reduction in resistance and, thus, the power ship safety and comfort (Zaccone et al., 2018b). With the combination of
required. Wang and Xie (2013) concluded that the V shape hull with a weather routing data and machine learning, the ship speed and fuel
ballast-free system is more stable than the conventional shape hull. For consumption can be optimized and predicted (Moreira et al., 2021; Sasa
existing ships, Petacco et al. (2021) presented a methodology to sys­ et al., 2021; Tadros et al., 2022f). Using analytical geometry and com­
tematically modify the hull, taking into account the intact stability puter graphics features, the ship weather routing algorithm can be easily
criteria while requiring cargo segregations to ensure stability and developed (Gershanik, 2011). The model can be used to study the speed
maximize the percentage of cargo on board. loss and sea-keeping characteristics of a given vessel along two ports
On the other hand, Lu et al. (2021) suggested that replacing the (Panigrahi et al., 2012) and their effects on fuel consumption and
existing ballast tanks with drinking water will be an effective solution exhaust emissions (Prpić-Oršić et al., 2015), which will reflect the ship
for small ships and, therefore, not subject to the BWM Convention. performance in terms of indices developed by IMO (Perera and Mo,
In summary, the BWMS directly affects (1) the marine environment 2016). The model has been developed to provide several power condi­
due to the invasive species discharged into the new environment and (2) tions and ship heading controls (Shao et al., 2012) and to avoid navi­
the amount of fuel consumption based on ship resistance and according gation in heavy seas conditions (Prpić-Oršić et al., 2014) and avoid the
to the wetted surface area. storm, in particular, in the north Atlantic (Vettor and Guedes Soares,
Regarding the first point, several researchers studied the different 2016a). The routes of the ship can be analysed over a big period of time
systems used to treat the water before leaving the ship to ensure a stable to assess the relative intensity of traffic, the seasonal changes and the
environment and, at the same time, reduce the power used during the trend over the years (Vettor and Guedes Soares, 2015). The model will
withdrawal and discharge of water. be beneficial when the measurement of onboard data has been used to
Regarding the second point, the researchers studied the effect of validate the numerical model, which will provide more accuracy (Sasa
ballast on the ship resistance for different speeds based on different et al., 2015). Dong et al. (2016) added to the ship routing model the
operating conditions. As a result, several holistic models are developed computation of the probability of failure in structural capacity and load
to provide a decision to select the optimal level of trim and thus reduce effects; thus helps to expect repair cost, cumulative fatigue damage, total
the total ship resistance that directly affects the power required and the travel time, and carbon dioxide emissions as way to evaluate the risk
fuel consumption. assessment procedure over a certain period of time. The collection of
real data is not enough to evaluate the ship performance and route se­
lection; therefore, the main goal of this system is to be installed on board
to provide suggestions and help the ship master in taking the decision

Fig. 24. Distribution of ballast-free ships papers over the years. Fig. 25. Distribution of ship weather routing papers over the years.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

Fig. 26. Sharing percentage of each topic toward green shipping.

during the trip (Perera and Soares, 2017). The data of the wind is also hull optimization has the largest number of citations, with 2,827, fol­
important to enhance ship weather code, especially in rough weather lowed by BWMS and then the other topics. Considering the average
conditions to estimate the ship motion in transient conditions accurately citation per item, the slow steaming ship speed topic takes the first rank
(Acanfora et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2017; Perera et al., 2017; Zaccone et al., with 19.91, followed by WHRS and alternative fuel, then the ship
2018a). Dickson et al. (2019) illustrated the significance of considering weather routing, after-treatment systems and air lubrication systems.
the influence of numerical error and performance uncertainty when The other topics have values lower than 10, where the BWMS has 9.24,
performing a weather routing study, where the uncertainty and the and the efficient steering gears take the last place with 4.36.
standard deviation of voyaging time increase sharply. By applying the Regarding the last column in the table, most of the topics have their
speed reduction technique (Taskar and Andersen, 2020) and use of highest number of publications in 2022, except the WHRS topic in 2020,
wind-assisted propulsion in ship weather routing code, 500 t of fuel per air lubrication technologies in 2019, wind propulsion technologies and
year for a Tanker can be saved (Sun et al., 2022a; Tillig et al., 2020). BWMS in 2018, slow steaming ship speed in 2015, efficient steering
Using machine learning technique, Yuan et al. (2020) concluded that the gears in 2014 and ship coating in 2011.
weather routing and draft optimization could have negative marginal The topics related to propulsion systems, fuels, after-treatment sys­
cost-effectiveness, signalling the importance of prioritizing these tems and weather routing have the highest number of publications in
measures. 2022. This number reflects the importance of stringent regulations and
In summary. the interest of researchers in decarbonization and sustainability. Among
all presented topics, the highest number of publications, with 809 pa­
8. Bibliometric analysis pers, is achieved in 2022.
To provide the relation between the full set, a citation network is
Based on all exported papers, a bibliometric analysis shows that, out developed using VOSviewer (VOSviewer, 2022). A Citation network is a
of the 6,247 papers, 2,170 titles focus on engine technologies, followed graph that describes the citations within a collection of documents. The
by 776 titles focus on propeller selection and 687 titles on alternative full set is exported from Scopus in CSV format and then imported to the
fuel. After that, the after-treatment systems, hull optimization took software. The minimum size of the cluster is defined by the minimum
place, followed by WHRS, BWMS and ship weather routing, and then the number of publications among all sets.
other papers with a number of titles less than 200. Fig. 13 shows the As shown in Fig. 27, several clusters are present. Each one represents
percentage of share of each topic toward green shipping. a defined set; for instance, the purple one represents the papers related
Table 2 shows the statistics summary of each topic as well as all to engine technologies, the brown for alternative fuel, and so on. Each
14,345 citations, followed by alternative fuel with almost 9,504 cita­ node represents a single paper in each cluster and is linked to the other
tions, then the after-treatment systems, propeller selection, WHRS, slow nodes (papers) based on their citations. The number of papers presented
steaming ship speed and ship weather routing. Below 3,000 citations, in this figure is reduced to the full set, as the software has neglected all

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

Table 2 the papers with no citations. Due to the low number of papers in
Search statistics. different sets, the cluster of this paper is merged within the nearest big
Number Set Number Total Average Highest cluster; for instance, the set of ship coatings is merged into the BWMS.
of set of papers number citation number of From this figure, it has been noticed that the dominant clusters (with
of per item publications a large number of papers) are related to the main prime mover as the
citations per year no.
main source of power and pollution and the fuel used. There is also an
(year)
interaction between the sets of after-treatment systems, wind propulsion
1 Hull 473 2,827 5.98 50 (2022) technologies, WHRS and DC distribution system with the two previous
optimization
2 Ship coatings 193 1,611 8.35 24 (2011)
sets. The sets of propeller, efficient steering gears, hull and air lubrica­
3 Air 68 775 11.40 11 (2019) tion technologies are far from the previous clusters, while they have an
lubrication interaction between them as they are related to the concept of ship
technologies design. Also, the same concept is related to the sets of BWMS and ship
4 Engine 2,170 14,345 6.61 252 (2022)
coating. Due to the large amount of data required in modeling, the ship
technologies
5 Propeller 776 5,145 6.63 90 (2022) weather routing set have an interaction with most of the other sets
selection dealing with them in terms of design and operation.
6 Efficient 94 410 4.36 12 (2014)
steering gears 9. Discussion and development trend
7 Wind 107 728 6.80 14 (2018)
propulsion
technologies In this section, a discussion, development trend and comments are
8 Alternative 687 9,504 13.83 147 (2022) presented related to the techniques discussed in the paper and the
fuel existing gaps related to each topic. Five main topics are presented; hull
9 After- 520 6,298 12.11 79 (2022)
design, propulsion systems, new clean fuels and treatment systems,
treatment
systems power systems and ship operation. Each topic consists of several
10 Waste heat 325 4,530 13.94 51 (2020) technologies.
recovery From the performed bibliometric analysis, the interaction between
system the different technologies is presented. The engine technologies set has
11 DC power 80 562 7.03 28 (2022)
the highest number of publications since 2010 and, therefore, the
distribution
system highest number of citations. It has been followed by the propeller se­
12 Slow 174 3,464 19.91 25 (2015) lection and alternative fuels in terms of the number of publications.
steaming ship However, the number of citations in the last one is higher than in the
speed
propeller selection. The set of slow steam ship speed has the highest
13 Ballast water 317 2,928 9.24 37 (2018)
management average citation per item as it is considered a fast effective technique to
system reduce fuel consumption. The number of papers and research works
14 Ship weather 263 3,275 12.45 31 (2022) began to increase, and the highest number of all publications was in
routing 2021 due to the interest in the development of new technologies and
Full set 6,247 56,402 9.90
achieving a smooth transition towards green shipping by 2050.
In the topic of hull design, hull optimization, ship coatings and air
lubrication technologies are discussed.

Fig. 27. Co-citation network of the full paper set.

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

Regarding hull optimization, the research papers mainly focus on required to operate the equipment and thus reduce the fuel consumed.
optimizing hull form by changing the hull size and the shape of sections The improvement in the hydraulic systems is in the interest of the
to reduce the resistance and improve the behaviour of flow around the companies to achieve efficient operation and perform a risk assessment
bow or stern. CFD computations are widely used for accurate and (Göksu et al., 2023; Lloyds Steels Industries Ltd, 2021).
practical computation for every hull form and can be able to assess a The use of wind energy is another effective solution for green ship­
reduction in ship resistance by around 10% from the existing hulls. ping, either installing a sail and kite propulsion system or using rotor
However, it is important to compute the effect of these changes on the sails. Harnessing the wind’s power will be a suitable way to reduce fossil
hydrodynamic performance (Chang et al., 2023), the arrangement of the fuel consumption or any alternative fuel as well as emissions by around
superstructure and on the amount of cargo that can hold by the ship to 20% and improve the value of indices applied by the international or­
achieve an effective improvement toward energy efficiency and reduce ganizations (Sun et al., 2022a). At the same time, a techno-economic
the value of indices suggested by the IMO. Furthermore, more research study is required to achieve the feasibility of the system being
is required to study the ship’s behaviour in different weather conditions, installed onboard (Nfnr Alkhaledi et al., 2023).
providing wider information about the modified hull along the ship In the topic of new clean fuels and treatment systems, alternative
routes (Tadros et al., 2023b). fuels and after-treatment systems are discussed.
Several works have been published to consider the green raw ma­ Regarding the alternative fuel, it is expected that bio-methanol and
terial in the coating’s production. The development of ship coatings green ammonia will be the typical types of fuels used in maritime ap­
must attract more attention from researchers to provide a suitable bio- plications for long-term strategies, which will reduce the value of sug­
coating to be used onboard and can resist harmful species and ship gested indices to a lower level. However, it is required to provide clear
corrosion as well as providing a lower level of roughness to the ship hull standards for the fuel properties to be suitable for combustion and avoid
controlling the increment in the fuel consumption along the years any engine problems. Also, clear policies related to production and
(Ravenna et al., 2022; Tadros et al., 2022e, 2023a) as well as providing consumption must be available at a reasonable cost to be economically
empirical formulas to improve the existing computations (Hakim et al., practical (Islam Rony et al., 2023). The use of a suitable alternative fuel
2023). It will be also important to give attention to the blade surface of will affect the long-term strategy and can lead to cutting down the
the propeller, as a main part of propulsion system to ensure a better exhaust emissions and complying with the regulations of tier 3. Also,
performance (Chen et al., 2023). allowing the flexibility of engine operation and thus the fuel cell in the
Air lubrication systems effectively reduced the contact between the near future (Seyam et al., 2023) using several types of fuels according to
hull and water, thus reducing the resistance generated by around 26%. the ship route maximizes engine performance and thus reduces fuel
However, it is essential to estimate the system cost, hull modification, consumption (Elkafas et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2023), in particular along
and stability in further research for a feasible study. the microgrid of the ship (Fan et al., 2022).
In the topic of propulsion systems, engine technologies, propeller The after-treatment systems support the short-term strategy similar
selection and efficient steering gears are discussed. to the alternative fuel to cut down exhaust emissions. They effectively
Regarding engine technologies, the development and combination of cut down NOx and SOx emissions, especially when the ship is sailing in
the different types of technologies are implemented nowadays to the ECA area. The two types of equipment must be optimized to fit the
improve engine performance and thus reduce fuel consumption and engine, avoid any back pressure problems, and be technically effective
exhaust emissions. Optimization procedures, research operations and (Zhang et al., 2023). Techno-economic studies are performed to
machine learning techniques are becoming effective tools for finding the compare after-treatment systems and alternative fuel installation or
best combination of the key parameters. These models are extended combine both options based on the ship route. More information can be
from design stage to digital twin models offering better predictive achieved with the existence of different case studies (Karatuğ et al.,
capability and scalability than the typical mean value models (Hautala 2022). CCS systems are still under investigation to prevent the emitting
et al., 2022) and can be used to predict the fault conditions along the of CO2 into the air while stored and injected into the depths of the earth.
system (Karatuğ and Arslanoğlu, 2022). It is crucial to investigate the effect of the injection process of CO2 over
Fuel conversion and upgrading the engine, either two- or four-stroke, the next decades (Mukherjee et al., 2023) and their effects on the EEDI
to operate in the dual-fuel engine become an essential solution toward (Law et al., 2023) by performing a comparison between the use of new
decarbonization in more detailed CFD models (Xiang et al., 2023). Also, fuel or installing an after-treatment system (Sheng et al., 2023).
engine downsizing will be a suitable solution to reduce the fuel In the topic of power systems, WHRS and DC power distribution
consumed by reducing engine friction, as proposed by Wartsila. As the systems are discussed.
engine is the main source of power and pollution onboard, great interest The selection of a proper waste heat recovery system is another
from the engine companies has been noticed recently, allowing the use suitable solution to produce more power and thus improve energy effi­
of new fuels and their blends (Dierickx et al., 2023), to reduce the level ciency. The selection of the system is mainly based on the ship’s needs in
of emissions as well as provide a flexible operation of the ship to operate terms of electricity as well as the main prime mover installed onboard.
with any kind of fuel according to the ship routes (Shu et al., 2022). The ORC has become widely used, and several studies have been per­
Therefore, engine manufacturers are in a race against time to announce formed using several types of organic fluid to improve the system’s
the new engines in the market by the beginning of 2024 (Wärtsilä, performance. It has a direct effect on increasing the energy efficiency of
2022). the ship. The performance of ORC can be applied to new power systems
The selection of a suitable propeller is an essential step during the for the concept of green shipping such as the fuel cell based on the
design to consume less fuel by around 5%, provide sufficient thrust to investigation of energy, exergy and economy (3E) (Wang et al., 2022b).
the ship and avoid cavitation, strength and noise issues, especially in the More research can be extended to evaluate the WHRS performance
higher sea states. Therefore, several studies have been performed to based on new types of fuels (Altosole et al., 2023) and life cycle
simulate unconventional propeller shapes as well as to study the assessment to reduce the ORC’s global warming impact (Kallis et al.,
behaviour of wake flow along with the propeller disk in relation to the 2022).
stern shape. The simulation can be extended for further research to es­ DC power distribution system becomes an effective way to provide
timate the wake field for new designs using CFD to improve the overall flexible control to the different electrical pieces of equipment, avoiding
system (Andersson et al., 2022; Tadros et al., 2022g) and in particular to AC systems’ problems. However, more attention is needed to provide a
the electrical systems (Lovibond et al., 2023). more feasible study for complex systems as well as compute the reduc­
The development of the steering gear’s performance and the retrofit tion in losses along with the systems supported by variable speed drives.
of more efficient equipment become essential to reduce the power In the topic of ship operation, slow steaming, ballast water

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

management systems and ship weather routing are discussed. Then, based on the papers published between 2010 and 2022, an
Slow steaming is an effective and rapid solution toward decarbon­ overview of the technologies and techniques related to each part of the
ization and reduces fuel consumption and exhaust emissions where the ship is presented. It has been concluded that there is no single solution
ship operates at lower engine loads. It has been frequently studied since for sustainability in shipping; however, combining several techniques
six years ago as it has a direct effect on reduced fuel consumption by will increase energy efficiency and will be more practical when com­
around 25%. However, the ship must be designed to sail at this speed in bined with big data and ship routing codes. A holistic model is suggested
safe mode, especially in heavy weather conditions (Pelić et al., 2023; to be proposed in future research showing the interaction between every
Taskar et al., 2023). Also, the cargo weight must be taken into account part of the ship as well as the surrounding environment to achieve
along the trip, so the ship can achieve a high rank of EEXI and CII and maximum overall performance.
avoid any penalties from the international regulators. This study’s findings contribute to mapping the scientific knowledge
Ballast water management attracts researchers’ concern about of each technology in the maritime field, identifying relevant topic
providing more stability to the ship along the trip and reducing the areas, visualising the links between the topics, and recognising research
transportation of harmful species from one area to another, avoiding gaps and opportunities. This review helps to present holistic approaches
destroying the stability of the environment. Therefore, the free ballast in future research supporting the cooperation between maritime in­
system is suggested. At the same time, it is required to perform several dustry stakeholders to provide more realistic solutions toward
computations based on CFD to ensure the fitting of the system on ship sustainability.
performance and provide clear regulations.
Also, the ballast systems have an impact on ship speed and fuel Declaration of competing interest
consumption for both ship conditions, ballast and laden, which are
considered to positively affect net voyage revenue and a significant The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
reduction in GHG (Elkafas, 2022). The use of time series or historical interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
data will play an important role to apply surrogate model based machine the work reported in this paper.
learning to achieve the optimal operation condition (Li et al., 2023).
The previous points are mainly related to ship design, particularly Data availability
the specific design speed. However, it is essential nowadays to perform
the computation for design purposes and extend it to include the oper­ No data was used for the research described in the article.
ation behaviour of the ship and engine (Stark et al., 2022), in particular
with the existing of weather conditions (Bernardino et al., 2023). Thanks Acknowledgement
to the ship routing studies to identify and optimize route selection and
provide support ship master to take accurate decisions according to the This work was performed within the scope of the Strategic Research
real situation. This can be selected according to the fastest route, ship Plan of the Centre for Marine Technology and Ocean Engineering
safety (Zyczkowski and Szlapczynski, 2023) or fuel economy (Char­ (CENTEC), which is financed by the Portuguese Foundation for Science
alambopoulos et al., 2023). It can also combine multi-objective to ach­ and Technology (Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia-FCT) under
ieve more stabilization in ship performance during sailing. This kind of contract UIDB/UIDP/00134/2020.
study would not exist without the availability of big data on weather
conditions, including waves and wind, as well as the detection of ship Abbreviations List
performance using smart meter data. Therefore, the data can be ana­
lysed and trained using machine learning techniques toward improving 0D Zero dimensional
the existing design and the operation of the fleet as well as ensuring 1D One dimensional
safety (Moreira et al., 2021; Perera et al., 2011, 2012, 2015; Perera and 3D Three dimensional
Mo, 2016, 2017; Uyanık et al., 2020, 2021; Xu et al., 2023), as well as 3E Energy, exergy and economy
developing a non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM) approach to be able AC Alternating Current
to continuously detect the ship loads among her life (Bucci et al., 2021; ACS Air Cavity Ships
Lindahl et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2021b; Ramsey, 2004). Finally, life cycle AER Annual Efficiency Ratio
assessment becomes an essential study that evaluates the ship propul­ AIE Active Impedance Estimation
sion systems and the fuel used, particularly the new fuels according to ALS Air Lubrication System
the ship routes in comparison to the current one. Also, these studies can ANN Artificial Neural Network
help estimate an overall evaluation of the GHG along the ship life in ARC Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
comparison to the electric propulsion system (Mio et al., 2022; Sarathy AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021b). CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
10. Conclusion CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CH4 Methane
A comprehensive overview and bibliometric analysis are presented CII Carbon Intensity Indicator
by analyzing thousands of papers published in journals, conferences and CO2 Carbon dioxide
book chapters targeting the development and improvement of energy CPCS Chemical processes for carbon Solidification
efficiency, decarbonization and green shipping in the maritime industry. CPP Controllable pitch propeller
This paper presented the related research to improve green shipping, CRP Contra-rotating propeller
emphasizing the technologies and techniques to reduce exhaust emis­ CSV Comma-separated values
sions and fuel consumption. The paper considered the effect of the DC Direct Current
current international regulations to improve the ship’s energy efficiency DCS Data Collection System
and reduce the level of emissions. A clear regulation and details related DF Dual-fuel
to the EEXI and CII are still under development and will be announced DoE Design of Experiment
before entering into force in 2023. These types of regulations will have a ECAs Emission control areas
significant effect in the short term and will be considered as a database EEDI Energy efficiency design index
for the long term. EEOI Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator

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M. Tadros et al. Ocean Engineering 280 (2023) 114670

EEXI Energy Efficiency Existing Ships Index Abadie, L.M., Goicoechea, N., Galarraga, I., 2017. Adapting the shipping sector to stricter
emissions regulations: fuel switching or installing a scrubber? Transp. Res. D.
EGCS Exhaust gas cleaning systems
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EGR Exhaust gas recirculation Abb, 2019. https://global.abb/group/en (accessed 6 April 2020).
EIAPP Engine International Air Pollution Prevention Acanfora, M., Balsamo, F., Lauria, D., Rizzuto, E., 2020. A new identification method for
EPL Engine Power Limitation non-linear roll resonance in irregular waves. Ocean. Eng. 197, 106809 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.106809.
ESI Environmental Ship Index Aktas, B., Atlar, M., Turkmen, S., Shi, W., Sampson, R., Korkut, E., Fitzsimmons, P., 2016.
EU European union Propeller cavitation noise investigations of a research vessel using medium size
FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Ester cavitation tunnel tests and full-scale trials. Ocean. Eng. 120, 122–135. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2015.12.040.
FEM Finite element method Altosole, M., Benvenuto, G., Campora, U., Laviola, M., Trucco, A., 2017a. Waste heat
FPP Fixed pitch propeller recovery from marine gas turbines and diesel engines. Energies 10, 718. https://doi.
FT-Diesel Fischer-Tropsch diesel org/10.3390/en10050718.
Altosole, M., Benvenuto, G., Campora, U., Laviola, M., Zaccone, R., 2017b. Simulation
GA Genetic Algorithm and performance comparison between diesel and natural gas engines for marine
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