Based on the new syllabus prescribed by the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations for the ICSE Course. o Environmental ese Education 10 (According to the Syllabus approved by the Honourable Supreme Court of India) P.S. Latika B.Sc. (Hons), MMS. Edited by Xavier Pinto Formerly, Deputy Secretary Council for the ISC Examinations, New Delhi Reeta Pullications (A Unit of MSB Publishers Pvt. Ltd), 4626/18, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Naw Delhi- 110002. Phone: 23275195, 32960525Phones: 23275195 (0) 26031061 (R) © Reserved with the Publishers First Edition: 2006 Seventh Edition: 2013 RePrint : 2015 Price: Bs. 180.00 Beeta Publications (A Unit of MSB Publishers Pvt. Ltd), 4626/18, Ansari Road Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Printed in India at Goyal Offset Works, Delhi . The authors have made use of the mate-ial| ‘The publishers wis to acknowledge the various| sources from which sketches, illustrations and information have been obtained; but for want of authentic information some sources cculd not be mentioned here. All the same we are grateful to them. Special thanks are due to the Pkoto Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. New Delhi, the U.S. Information Centre, New Dethi,| and the British Coancil Library, New Delhi. Our thanks are due to the Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi for allowing us to adapt or use some of the information given in| their valuable publications. We remain indebted to them for their help and cooperation. collected from various sources aver the years| and used by teachers in the classroom situation. It has not been possible to trac> some of -he sources. The publishers and tae authors will be pleased to make proper acknowledgements at the first opportunity. toeEnvironmental Education-10 is a textbook on Environmental Education for the candidates taking the ICSE Examination. “he book is written according to the syllabus approved by the Honourable Supreme Court of India and prescribed by the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations. It includes total coverage of each point of the Syllabus and Scope, on which the Examination paper will be set. The course content, as per the Syllabus and the Scope, is given at the head of each chapter. A lot of effort has been made to include each and every topic given in the syllabus, especially some of the topies which are no: very common like the Warli Tribe, Ralegaon Siddhi, Sukhomajri, ‘Sacred Groves, Indigenous Water Harvesting Systems, Rurvof-the-river Schemes and many more. ‘These chapters will help the students not only to understand better the environment scenario in India but also to meet the requirements of the syllabus and the scope. A number of exercises at the end of each chapter would surely enhance the student's understanding of the subject. % In the ICSE Examination, a few questions will be based on application and thinking skills. This textbook gives examples of such questions to enable the students to answer questions on such skills as recall, application, inference and judgement. % A Specimen Paper is given for the benefit of students to familiarise them with the pattern of questions to be asked in the Examination, ‘%* Irrelevant matter and repetition is avoided in order not to confuse students, * Glossary for ready reference of the Environment-related terms is given at the end of the book, It is hoped that all students who go through the book diligently will be able to answer with full confidence any question set for the ICSE Examination. All suggestions for the improvement of this book will be gratefully acknowledged.10. u 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. . Restaring Balance in Ecosystem—Measures to Check for Spoilage of Landscape . Conservation and Management of Water . Conservation and Management of Forests Conservation and Management of Ocean Resources . Conservation and Management of Soil WildliZe Conservation Application of Biotechnology Relevence of Indigenous Practices Environmental Pollution Sources of Pollution Effects of Pollution Abatement of Pollution Decline in Productivity Resettlement and Rehabilitation Energy Crisis—Rural and Urban India Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming Acid Rain Climatic Changes Ozone Layer Depletion Disasters Eco-Friendly Technology Consumer Education Community Participation for Ecological Restoration and Conservation Protection of Wildlife—Cruelty to Animals Enforcement of Acts, Laws and Policies Specimen Paper Glossary wi 5 1 21 29 37 49 58 65 75 3 123 126 131 135 145 156 163 17 177 187 189 103 108 116 122 125 130 134 144 155 162 170 176 186 188 192PYxa olga Tee ee ALLL Measures to Check ‘Course Content. for Spoilage of Landscape Syllabus and Scope Land occupies about 29 per cent of the earth's surface, the rest 71 per cent is water. Land has soils, forests, agricultural lands, mountains, human habitations, animals, water bodies, etc. ‘These components make up the land system, that supports the biodiversity in a region. Man has been exploiting land and its resources. He has been clearing forest lands for agriculture. However, over the years, the agricultural practices have undergone a great change. Today, man cultivates genetically modified food crops and cash crops. These require a change in the techniques of production and support systems like better irrigation facilities, inputs like fertilizers, and pesticides. The demand of growing population for shelter, economic activities, transportation and recreational activities have added pressure on the land-use pattern, In order to meet the demand for land, natural lands are being converted to other land- use patterns, resulting in destruction of the land cover. ‘The change in land-use pattems induced by human activities can be judged from the following: ( From 1700 to the mid-1980s, the cropland increased globally from 392% to 466%. It naturally grew at the expense of forest, grassland and wetlands. (i) The net irrigated cropland has increased, over the last 200 years, from 80,000 sq. km, to 2,000,000 sq. km. PE by about 15 annual global loss in forest cover may be as high as 1200,000 sq. km. ie has led to the loss of ‘$ annually in tropical forests. (iv) Land-cover 27,000 spec Causes or Lanp DrGRapaTion Land degradation takes place because of two causes: (@) Natural Causes which include different types of weathering and erosion processes like landslides, earthquakes, desertification, drought and floods. (ii) Man-made Causes which include hum activities such as mining, farming, deforestation, waste disposition, development activities like setting up human habitations, transport and communication, constructing dams and bridges, ete. MiningNN In this chapter we shall have an overview of the natural causes as we shall deal with them in detail later under the head, Disaster Management. ‘The following are the natural causes of land degradation: () Earthquakes: The violent earthquakes bring about changes on the surface of the earth. Earthquakes not only destroy human habitations by damaging buildings, electric and water supply but also submerge land under the sea, Some times rivers disappear or change their courses or zet flooded, (b) Desertification: It is a process of sustained land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. Areas next to deserts are more prone to desertification because of increasing aridity and wrong use of the resources like cutting of trees, overgrazing and clearing of the marginal lands. Human activities also accentuate the rate of desertification of an area. Such activities include the following: (i) Overgrazing of land exposes soil to forces of erosion and transforms land into barren landscape and finally into a wasteland (i) Mining activities for extracting natural resources adversely affect the local landscape due to large scale digging up process using most sophisticated mining excavators. These activities affect the moisture content of the soil leading to desertification. For example, in Goa, where manganese is found on the ground surface or a few metres below it, the surface soil is stripped off for the mineral exploitation, leaving behind « desert- like landscape. (i) Unscientific irrigation of arid lands for a considerably long period contribates to desertification. (iv) Desertification of an area takes place from uncontrolled exploitation of groundwater, mismanagement of watersheds, siltation and drying up of rivers. (c) Landslides: These refer to sudden or gradual movement of rocks or soll masses down the hill slopes due to the force of gravity. The occurrence of landslides is more common during the rainy season, Landslides result in the movement of soil, solid rocks end soil masses. These have a significant degrading effect cn land. (d) Floods and Drought: Floods cause loss of life and property. They degrade land by flooding settlements. They destroy agriculturel land through sand deposition and salinisation. They destroy forests, wildlife, leaching off the scil cover of its nutrients, ete. Drought refers to the period of dryness caused by the absence of rainfall or due to rainfall being lower than the average rainfall of a particular region. Drought causes following effects— ( shortage of food due to the decrease in crop production; (ii) lowers the level of ground water; (it) lowers the rate of microbial decomposition In soil; (Iv) decreases the rate of ntineral formation in the soil; and (v) leads to increase in the number of forest fires. Ie ry Melt Poruation GRowTH ‘Two centuries ago, R-T. Malthus propounded a theory of the relationship between population growth and economic development. He w-ote an essay in 1978 on The principl= of population’ and drew the concept of diminishing retums. He said that population will grow at geometric rate (.c., 10, 20, 40, 80...) whereas, at the same time food supplies increase only at a rcughly arithmetic rate (i., 10, 20, 30, 40...) Tha: is to say. thatthe resources cannot match the pace of population growth. Population grows fast in the developing countries. India’s population explosion neutralises the benefits of its economic progress. Most of the economic activities take place in cit:es which offer a hope for a better life. So there is pressure on available resources in the cities. Expanding cities encroach on surrounding areas, converting for its use — any kind of land, including fertile flelds, Land is also utilised for infrastructure, such as roads, industries, tourist facilities, and educational complexes. Better land-use planning, creation of satellite towns, and other measures are necessary Population explosion has also added pressure on food, forests, water supply and energy resources, If proper steps for population control are not taken, the country will face serious consequences in the near future. One must remember that man must control nature and he must also control his numbers. Poputation PROBLEMS ‘The growing pressure of populaticn on resource base, especially on arable land, has created many socio-economic and environmental problems. The population problems differ from region to region. Most of the world population lives in the developing countries. China and India have about 20 per cent and 16 per cent respectively of the total world population. The developing countries have over three-fourth of the total world population. Rapid growth of population, unemployment, inadequacy of housing and health, diminishing resources are the problems affecting the developing countries. Rising Population Cree Intensive Agriculture Increased Demand for Agriculture: Rising population needs more land for farming to meet the increased demand for food. Demand for land is also enhanced by some external interests. For example, forests are cleared to convert the land to grasslands in order to provide fodder for cattle, All this adds pressure on land and contributes towards land degradation and soil pollution. Intensive farming operations exhaust the soil of its nutrients. The fertilisers and pesticides used to enhance production get washed off the fields and pollute rivers and lakes and sometimes leach into the sub-surface and lower the quality of the groundwater. Moreover, both fertiliser production and irrigation require energy; the harnessing of energy takes toll of the environment. Unemployment: In most of the developing countries, the population is largely dependent on agriculture. There are very limited opportunities for the semi-skilled, unskilled and highly educated people. The rural areas are the places wherefrom large number of unskilled workers migrate to cities, thus creating pressure on the land URBANISATION AND CONSUMPTIO! URBANISATION ‘The great exodus of rural population into the cities in order to have better earning opportunities has led to the deterioration in the environment of urban areas. In fact, the rapid pace of urbanisation has transformed the natural green landscape into a polluted landmass.Urban sprawl and slums exp: problems. The high! industries. Due to uncontrolled urban quality, excessive air pollution, noise, dust and heat and the problems of disposal of solid wastes and hazardous wastes. Urbanisation, associated with industrialisation, has created environmental problems such as ( growth of shims; (i) industrial pollution (air, water, soil) The problem of air pollution is acute in urban areas. One of the reasons is combustion of fossil ‘uels and their products, Motor vehicles in urban areas are many and they produce hydrocarbons carbon oxide, nitrous oxide and lead particles Most noticeable effects of air pollution are reduced visibility, fog formation and reduced solar radiation. ‘ConsumPTiON In the modern civilisation people consume more than they produce. Therefore, the gross consumption is rising faster than the production. The US has only 4.7% of the global population, but consumes 25% of the world’s resources. If we compare an ordinary Indian citizen to a US citizen, the latter uses 50 times more steel 50 times more energy; 150 times more synthetic rubber; and 250 times more motor fuel. ‘The wealthiest nations in the developed countries consume the most resources, release the most pollution and also have the greatest capacity to make the necessary changes. The increased production in wealthy nations no longer serves to satisfy needs, rather, the creation of needs serves to increase production ‘The exploitation of resources by rich nations has a considerable impact on landscape. The impact of land degradation can be summarised as follo {a) removal of trees, vegetation; (b) construction of houses, (construction of septic tanks, jon create Pressure on land use and environmental productive agricultural land is encroached upon by urban houses, roads and ation rapid environmental degradation has taken place causing shortages of housing, worsening water A Slum Area (q) diversion of nearby streams for public supply, (e) accelerated land erosion, (f) pollution of streams and wells. Commercial deforestation gives rise to floods, annual run-off levels and causes global warming. In many parts of the world human beings obtain water supplies by pumping it up from groundwater sources. This has two effects, i.e. reduction in the level of water table and replacement of coastal areas of fresh water by salt water. Environmental consequences of these two phenomena include subsidence and soil salinisation. Water pollution has now become an acute problem. The causes of water pollution can be classified into the following groups: (a) Sewage and other oxygen-demanding wastes (b) Infectious agents (c) Organic chemicals (@) Other chemical and mineral substances (c) Sediments (f) Radioactive substances (@) Heat (thermal) pollution. Ce re Ce ee Remy toy We have discussed some measures which have added pressure on the urban areas and urban environment, This calls for an urgent need to put a check on the rising demands in the urban areas. Thus, we need to plan a strategy to limit eee eeepopulation growth as well as build for a balanced ecosystem. Some of these measures are: (a) Human fertility reduction programmes should be intensified to limit population growth. (©) Population welfare programmes like child care, immunisation, mainutrition control, safe drinking water, should be given priority. (©) Rural development programmes related to ‘employment, conservation of water resourc forests, etc., should be given priority (@) Agriculture improvement programmes should be undertaken. (e) Knowledge of land, soil and water management should be given to villagers. (f) The use of alternative sources of power such as biogas be popularised, (@ Widespread social forestry anc agro-forestry programmes should be implemented. (h) Conservation of forests and massive afforestation programmes should be a part of the national programme. Land pollution is the result not only of man's misuse of land but also due to solid waste disposal, Solid wastes are dumped into the ocean or open grounds; mining wastes are produced at the rate of millions of tons a day; slag heaps and mill tilings accumulate near processing operations; and industrial refuse contaminates streams and lakes. () Domestic and Municipal Wastes: One of the main cause of land and soil pollution is the growing quantity of domestic and municipal wastes. Household garbage includes food scraps, Plastic items, bottles. discarded papers, etc. The total quantity of solid waste is large and increasing. In the United States, raunicipal solid waste averaged 1.2 kg per person per day in 1920; now its quantity is more than 4.5 kg. The average person in India produces about 0.2 kg waste per day. The amount of solid waste generated is directly related with prosperity, (i) Industrial and Mining Wastes: The disposal of industrial solid wastes is the major source of soil pollution by toxic chemicals. The industrial wastes are discharged from coal and mineral mining industries and metal processing Waste as well as engineering industries. The wastes contain toxic metals such as lead, copper and chemicals having acids, They are responsible for soil pollution lite Oem et We have overexploited the natural resources without caring for their sustainable use. The signs of exploitative use of resources are: (a) Extensive deforestation accounting for loss of flora and fauna. (b) Drying up of drinking water sources and fall in the underground water levels. (6) Frequency of floods and droughts. (d) Land degradation due to desertification, salinity and waterlogging, (©) Deterioration in quality of air and water. () Unplanned urbanisation leading to unprecedented growth of urban slums Deforestation eeeWSR Mec tea) Sustainable use of resources means that we use the resources in such a way that meets the demands of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve their ‘own requirements. The following measures need to be taken to avold over-exploitation of resources: {a) Cultivation of land taking adequate care of soil fertility. (b) Development of irrigation facilities with proper water management. Use of water saving methods and roof-top water harvesting should be used. (c) Use of bio-fertilisers and bio-pesticides in order to have a biological balance. (a) Judicious use of underground water to avoid steep fall in underground water level. (c) Use of traditional seeds instead of the high yielding hybrid varieties te avoid spread of diseases capable of wiping cut the entire crop as it happened with Irish potato crop in 1985 and Bengal rice famines in 1942 (f) Avoiding the use of non-degradable material like plastic to prevent problems cf waste devices such as traditional conservation management. Short Answer-Type Questions 1, Name two natural causes of land degradation. 2. Name two man-made causes of land degradation. 3. What is meant by the exploitative use of resources? 4. Give the meaning of the expression, “sustainable use of resources.” 5. Give any two causes of desertificatiion. 6. State the damage caused to soil by overgrazing, 7. 8. What are landslides? Why do they occur specially during the reiny season? State the relationship between population explosion and economic development. 9. What is meant by urbanisation? 10. Mention the consequences of slum dwelling on the urban environment. 11. What type of waste material is generated by houses in a city? 12, What is the relationship between affluence and waste generation? Long Answer-Type Questions Explain two natural causes of land degradation. Explain how human activities are responsible for land degradation. What is the impact of floods and droughts on landscape? How does the population explosion affect city life? In what way does it affect agriculture and industry? How does urbanisation cause land degradation? Explain with examples, the impact of industries on environment. What steps are to be taken to improve the urban environment? Project Work Make a project suggesting measures to check the spoilage of lendscape statistics, make diagrams and attach pictures to illustrate your proje=t. ORNATE EKE Explain how the wrong irrigation practices have increased salinisation of the soll. (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) 2) (6) (4) {al (6) [al (6) 16] 14) (4) in your locality. Give RA ATTEN CE STEREE(oli mts aid dere femtapenent of wales BiMGIEG hea fan ett gd i robsusabar for agation lo Cajeree: Mahreanva, AP Orissa, Karnataka. Bey esc npce ok rs ch Sk se nn Neep To Conserve anp Manace Water Water is a prime natural resource and satisfies a basic human need. Due to increase in population, irrigation and industrialisation, the demand for water has gone up to a large extent. This has led to scarcity of water to such a level that it is being said that the third World War will be caused over the issue of water. We need to conserve this precious resource for the following reasons: (i) The overexploitation of underground water often results in the lowering of water table (i) The Joss of vegetation causes drought and reduction of rainfall and of the water table. (iit) Irrigation utilises more than 99 per cent of the total fresh water. (iv) The water demand for industrial use will in- crease more than two times of water demand for domestic use by 2025. (%) The increase in population with the progress of time results in water scarcity. (vi) Our water resources like the underground water, river, lakes etc. are polluted and their water can hardly be used without adequate treatment Ret tong ‘Watershed’ is defined as the slopes or sides of a basin: some times, streams and lakes in the valley are included as components of a watershed system. A watershed system delivers water through rills, gullies, runoff, streams to a larger body of water, Usually slopes of a semi-circular or circular hilly range form a good watershed to give rise to a large aquatic body like a lake at the foothill. A watershed region may be forested or non-forested Integrated Watershed Management Integrated watershed management means interconnected management of watershed to conserve soil, water, forests and other conservation systems to promote ecological balance. WarersHED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES the watershed management approach was included in the Fifth Five Year Plan in India. According to the Plan, the practices of conserva- tion and development of land and water are to be taken up to foster environmental sustainability. Integrated watershed management includes: () Conservation: Soil and water are to be conserved for their sustainable use. ii) Water harvesting: Systematic storage of water with provision for use in dry seasons in dry areas, A )‘A Watershed Management (iii) Reduction in soil erosion and runoff losses: Bunding, terracing, bench terracing, contour cropping, etc., are to be used to reduce runoff and soil erosion on the slopes of watersheds (iv) Afforestation: In watershed development, afforestation and other plantations play a significant role. They prevent soil erosion and promote retention of moisture. In high rainfall areas, trees are planted between different crops to reduce the runoff and soil erosion (v) Mining and quarrying: Improper mining causes the hills to lose stability. This results in landslides, soil erosion, ete. Contour trenching at an interval of 1 metre and planting soil binding plants help in making the hills firm and stable. (vi) Village participation: Participation of the farmers and tribals help in the success of watershed management programme. The communities are to be motivated for protecting the planted area and maintaining a water harvesting structure. Sukhomajri village in Panchkula distriet of Haryana, through active participation of the local people, is an example of a successful watershed management. RADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING Water has been harvested in India from ancient times. Each of our ancestors have perfected art of water management. Many water harvesting structures and water conserving mechanisms cu aed on tee States Name of Traditional |Water Harvesting System Rajasthan Kunds Gujarat Tankas Maharashtra Phad System Andhra Pradesh ‘Tanks and Anicuts Orissa Katas Karnataka ‘Teluparagis and Kere Western Himalayas} Khatri or Kuhl Gangetic plains Baolis or Dighis Central India Johads Western Ghats Surangam Eastern Ghats Korambu Ladakh Zing were followed in cach region of the country. © People harvested rainwater. From rooftops, they collected water and stored it in tanks built in their courtyards. From open community lands, they collected the rainwater and stored it in artificial wells. © They harvested rainwater runoff by capturing water from swollen streams during the monsoon season and stored it in water bodies. © They harvested water from flooded rivers. ‘The storing mechanisms or the water receptacle was known by different names in different areas. They were called Khatri or Kuhl in Western Himalayas, Baolis or Dighis in the Gangetic plains, Johads in central India, Bhandaras or Kere in the Deccan Plateau, ‘Surangam in Western Ghats, Korambu in Eastern Ghats and Zing in Ladakh. JOHADS There was a severe drought in Alwar district in Rajasthan during 1985-86. In 1985. volunteers from the Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS), a voluntary organisation led by Rajendra Singh, came to Alwar. They began the tradition of building ‘Johads’, an example of traditional technology that 12 RRM gk ORRIN APE P ENE Oe RR PPR Te AEE RRR NE SO eee PP earenyJohads provided water for use and for recharging ground water. Johads are check dams or embankments built to collect rain water during monsoon. Johads, popularly known as tankas in most parts of the country, are well-known traditional systems of water storage for lean periods in several parts of the peninsular India. These are simple mud and rubble barriers built across the contour of a slope to arrest rainwater. These earthen check dams are meant to catch and conserve rainwater. leading to improved percolation and groundwater recharge. They are built across a slope with a high embankment on the three sides while the fourth side ts left open for the rainwater to enter. ‘The water revolution, caused by johads in Gopalpura in Alwar District, spread to other villages. Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS) has played a very important role in facilitating the building of more than 5,000 johads in the distrcts of Alwar. Dausa, Bharatpur, Sawai Madhopur and Bikaner in Rajasthan. Impact or Jouaps Socio-economic Issues: The johads in Rajasthan have created a visible impact on the socio- economic condition of the region. Wells have been recharged and water supply 1s now available for the entire year. Livestock rearing has increased. It has increased food productior, helped in conserving soil, increased the level of water in wells, increased biomass productivity, and even converted seasonal rivers into perernials. Qarr Women: The johads have changed the women with water readily available to carry on productive work. Earlier they had to walk miles to find and collect water. The increased availability of water for cooking, washing and bathing has definitely improved the standard of their life. ‘Konps iv RasastHan ‘A kund or kundi is like an upturned cup placed in a saucer. These structures harvest rainwater for drinkirig, and are used in the sand tracts of the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat. A kund is a circular underground well. People have a saucer-shaped catchment area that slopes towards the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh across water-inlets prevents unwanted material from falling into the well. The sides of the well are covered with lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or at least a lid, to protect the water. Water from a kund can be drawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on the use (for drinking. or for domestic water requirements). Ran Singh from Churu district in Rajasthan is an expert builder of kunds. A Kund Tangas In Gusarat Tankas are small underground tanks, found traditionally in some houses in Gujarat. They are built in the courtyard of a house. They were circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime, in which rainwater was collected. Tankas were often beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep the water cool.‘Tankas in Gujarat ‘The water was used only for drinking. If in any ‘year there was less than normal rainfall and the tankas did not get filled, water from nearby wells and tanks would be obtained to fill the household tanks. The tanka system is also found in the pilgrim ‘town of Dwarka where it has been in existence for centuries. It continues to be used in residential areas, temples, dharamshalas and hotels. Puap System in MAHARASHTRA ‘The community-managed phad irrigation system, prevalent in north-western Maharashtra, probably came into existence some 300-400 years ago. In this system, the command area is divided into smaller zones called phads. It was practised in parts of Dule and Nasik districts of Maharashtra and is still in use in some places here. The system consists of a series of bandharas (diversion-weirs) built on rivers to divert water for agricultural use. Each independent phad system includes a bandhara (dam), a small canal (kalva) on the bank and distributaries (charis) for irrigation. Canals Phad Irrigation System (kalvas), excavated to carry wacer into the fields and distributaries (charis), were built from the kalva to different areas of the pnad. Field channels called sarangs carry water to individual Belds. Excess water is drained through sandams (escapes). ‘The bhandara based water diversion through canal is quite similar to the modern irrigation system. The crop:ng pattern ir. :he phads follows local wisdom. It consists 0° cash crops like sugarcane and groundnut ané food crops like wheat, gram and sorghum. Only one type of crop is allowed in one phad. Gene-ally, sugarcane is grown in one or two phads; seasonal crops are grown in the others. This ensures a healthy crop rotation system :hat helps maintain fertility of the soil and reduces the danger of water legging and salinity. Further, the supply of water amongst the phads could be varied according to the water requirements of different crops. For example, a phad with a wheat crop could be allotted a higher share of water than a phad with sorghum crop. The phad sys:em has givea rise to a unique social system to manage water use by supplying water to all the farms from bead to tail. The sequence of irrigation in a phad is from head to tail. ‘The farmers at the head receive irrigation water first and that too in plenty. The excess flow is utilised by the lower “arms. In order to ensure that the farmers at the tail-end also get adequate supply of water, the farmers at the top are not allowed second watering untill all farmers along the canal have received water for irrigation. Tanxs Anp Anicurs Iv ANDHRA Prapesi The tradition of tanks, some of which have been built as far back as the 14th century, remained the largest source of irrigation in Andhra Pradesh until mid-1960s. The coastal plains of Andhra Pradesh comprise a belt of varying width which extends from Vishakhapatnam in the north to Nellore in the south. The two main river systems of, this region are the Krishna and Godavari. Numerous small streams and rivers flow down the hills which have traditionally been used to irrigate crops either through cuts in embankments or by 1 EAR EET EERE PR OEEI a tanks fed by these streams. In the Vishakhapatnam district, the Eastern Ghats give rise to numerous streams that flow directly into the sea or to the Godavari. It has been recorded that traditionally weed and brushwood dams were bu:lt across the streams and flood waters were diverted directly into fields or indirectly through storage tanks. ‘The main rivers that were used for irrigation in these plains were the Varaha, Sarada, Nagavali and the Suvarnamukhi, There were a number of ancient dams, called the anicuts, on these rivers. In the Krishna and Godavari deltas, irrigation largely depends on channels drawn from the rivers. Hence, on the whole, irrigation in the coastal plains of Andhra Pradesh was dependent on tanks and anicuts, many of which are still in use today. Karas uy Orissa Orissa had a rich tradition of water harvesting. The katas were the main irrigation sources in the ancient tribal kingdom of the Gonds (now in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh). Most of these katas were built by the village headmen known as gountias, who in turn, received the land from the Gond kings. Land here is classified into four groups on the basis of its topography: at, (highland); ma! (sloped land); berna (medium land): and bahal (low land). A kata is constructed north to south, or east to west, of a village. A strong earthen embankment, curved at e:ther end, is built across a drainage line to hold up an irregularly-shaped sheet of water. Taere is a cut high up on the slope near one end of the embankment from where water is led by a small channel to the fields. In years of normal rainfall, irrigation was not needed because of moisture from percolation and, in that case, the surplus flow was passed into a nallah, However, in the years of scanty rainfall, the centre of the tanks was sometimes cut so that the lowest land could be irrigated. Tetuparacis AND Kere Iv KARNATAKA Traditional water harvesting for irrigation in Karnataka used a number of systems: water was supplied directly from river channels; from tanks supplied by river channels; from a series of tanks Sree as situated in valleys of rivers and streams and, by wells and springs locally called teluparagis, The teluparagi is a technique used by farmers when there are no rains. In the central portion of the tank, a circular area is marked and an clevated bund erected. Telukaluve or shallow channels are built into a teluparigl is used only for daily needs. When the tank is full, telukaluves are used to let out water on the lateral sides of the tank to supply irrigation water to nearby gardens alongside the tank. Tanks, called kere in Kannada, were the predominant traditional method of irrigation in the Central Karnataka Plateau, and were fed either by channels branching off from anicuts (check dams) builts across steams, or by streams in valleys. The outflow of one tank supplied the next all the way down the course of the stream; the tanks were built in series, usually situated a few kilometres apart. This ensured that water is not wasted through overflow and the seepage of a tank higher up in the series would be collected in the next lower one. Even today, there are more than 40,000 tanks in Karnataka. These tanks have been constructed using stone, cement or mud or a combination of these, In some cases, other water harvesting structures have been enlarged into major or minor tanks. eeu Many religions accept water as a symbol of spiritual purification. A number of myths and legends are woven around the sublime power of water. When man realised the utility of water he A Temple Pondkept the water ponds clean and safe. He made the gods as the presiding deities of water Tesources. It was a tradition to excavate a pond at the holy places. Such kunds or ponds were said to have been dug up by the deities or sages for the welfare of the people, some by the saints who practiced penance, to take bath themselves or to bathe their favourite gods and idols. Later they were believed to have miraculous powers and became famous holy water-places. Oricm or Poxps The orthodox Hindus practised charity. One ‘of the most important form of charity was the provision of water. An inscription of 1369 in Tamil ‘Nadu extols the merit accruing from the provision ‘of water by constructing a tank. The digging of a tank was considered as one of the great meritorious acts a person was expected to perform luring his lifetime. ‘Warer MAanacement in TeMPLes Tamil Nadu: Traditionally, settlements in South India were situated around temples. The temple tanks were the focal point of all activity. These tanks were used for bathing and religious rites. Festivals were held around the tanks at the end of the monsoon season. A temple (neerazhi ‘mandapam) situated in the centre of the tank would house the deity during these festivals. Tanks are known as eris throughout Tamil ‘Nadu. The eris have embankments on three sides and one side fs left open for the water to flow in. ‘The water stored in the eris is released through sluices. Water is fed into the tank from its catchment area by a feeder channel and the bund is reinforced by growing trees on it. Approximately one-third of the irrigated area of Tamil Nadu was watered by eris, the ancient tanks. Eris have maintained ecological harmony by controlling floods, preventing soil erosion and wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall, and recharging the groundwater in the surrounding areas. The presence of eris provided ‘an appropriate climate for the local areas. Without erls, paddy cultivation would have been impossible. Gey Andhra Pradesh: Agriculture in South India was traditionally based on small-scale irrigation. Despite the importance giver. to agricultural development, neither the Chola (8th-12th century} nor the Vijayanagar (14th-1€th century) empires in South India set up depart:nent of irrigation or public works. These activities were left to individuals, to village organisations and to temples, for the latter could -nobilise resources of land and money. The Saaivite temple of Kalahasti, near Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh used devotee endowments to excavate irrigation channels and to reclaim temp‘e lands. The Tirupati temple, established in the 9th century, is an excellent example of money endowments from devotees Jeing invested in developing agriculture, by promoting small-scale irrigation in the Vijayanagar Empire. By the 16th century, about 150 villages were assisted with investments by this temple. 7unds were used to build irrigation tanks. ‘Karnataka: An carly Vijayanaga- inscription from Mysore records that the state and the temple officials exempted from tax the land irrigated by a temple tank. The tank was const-ueted with funds given by a local merchant. The merchant was given the income from this land for two years after which the land and the tank reverted ‘0 the temple. However, a portion of the ‘and the merchant retained as his dasavanda (payment in land for services rendered) for constructing the tank. Another Mysore inscription dated 1410 indicates that village organisations and temples cooperated in the construction 0” irrigation works. The villagers built a dam on a river and built a channel through their land to the temple. It was stipulated that two-thirds of the water from the channel would be used for temple lands and one- third for the village land, with the cost of repairs and maintenance being borne in the same Rain is the primary source of water according to the hydrological cycle. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of water. In present times. we depend entirely on such secondary sources of water, forgetting the value EModern Water Harvesting of the rainwater. Water harvesting means to understand the value of rain and to make optimum use of rainwater at the place where it falls, In general, water harvesting 13 the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Derinrrion or Water Harvestina Rain water harvesting is collecting and storing rainwater, which includes activities aimed at— (a) harvesting surface and groundwater, (b) prevention of losses through evaporation and seepage, and {c) all other hydrological studies and engineer- ing interventions, aimed at conservation and efficient utilisation of the limited water en- dowment of an area such as a watershed. ‘Negps or Water Harvestinc In India, we have acute shortage of water during the year. This is because we have not cared to conserve water or rationalised its us, The annual rainfall in India is 1,170 mm (46 inches). This 1s higher compared to the world average of 800 mm (82 inches). Ironically, even Cherrapunji, which receives about 11,000 mm of rainfall annually, suffers from acute shortage of drinking water. ‘This is because rainfall in India cecurs during short spells of high intensity. Because of such intensities and short duration of heavy rain, most of the rain falling on the surface tends to flow away rapidly, leaving very little for the recharge of groundwater. This makes most parts of India experience lack of water even for domestic uses, Warer Harvestinc PorentiaL ‘The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water harvesting potential. Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x collection efficiency. Collection efficiency is taken into account because rainwater falling over an area cannot be totally harvested, because of evaporation, spillage, runoff and the first-flush wastage. Example: Here is an area of a flat terrace of 100 sq. m. ‘The average annual rainfall in Mumbai is approximately 2200 mm (87 inches). If the terrace floor is impermeable, and all the rain that falls on it is retained without evaporation, then, in one year, there will be rainwater on the terrace floor to a height of 2200 mm. Catchment Area of WaterArea of the plot = 100 sq. m (120 sq. yd) Height of rainfall = 2.2 m (2200 mm or 87 inches) Volume of rainfall = Area of plot x Height of over the plot rainfall 100 sq. m x 2.2 m 220 cu.m. (2,20,000 litres) Assuming that only 60% of the total rainfall is effectively harvested, Volume of water harvested = 1,32,000 litres (2,20,000 litres x 0.6) This volume is about seven times the annual drinking water requirement of a five member family. The average daily drinking water requirement per person is 10 tres. Warer Harvestinc Mrcuanism ‘The elements of water harvesting are given below: 1. Catchments: The catchment of a water harvesting is the surface which receives rainfall directly. It can be a paved area like a terrace or courtyard of a building or an unpaved area like a Jawn or open ground. Temporary structures like sloping sheds can also act as catchments. 2. Conduits: Conduits are the pipelines or drains ‘that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop to the harvesting system. Conduits may be of any material like Polyvinylchloride (PVC), asbestos ‘or Galvanised Iron (GI), materials that are ‘commonly available. 3. Storage facility: Rainwater can be stored in any commonly used storage containers like RCC, masonry or plastic water tanks. 4. Recharge facility: Alternative to storing, rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquifers. This can be done through any suitable structures like dugwells, borewells, recharge trenches and recharge pits ‘Srorivc Water ror Dect Use An underground RCC or masonry tank can be used for storage of the rainwater. The tank can be installed inside the basemert of a bullding or outside the building. Prefabricated tanks such as PVC can be installed above the ground. Each tank must have an overflow system for situations when excess water enters the tank. The overflow can be connected to the drainage system. Generally, runoff from orly paved surfaces is used for storing, since it is relatively free of bacteriological contaminaticn. Drainpipes that collect water from the catchment (rooitop) are diverted to the storage container. To prevent leaves and debris from entering the system, mesh filters should be provided at the mouth of the drain pipe. Further, a first-flush device should be provided in the conduit before it connects to the storage container. If the stored water is to be used for drinking purposes, a sand filter should also be provided. Water quality improves over time during storage in the tank because irapurities settle down in the tank if the water is aot disturbed. Even pathogenic (harmful) organisms gradually die out due to storage. Biological contamination can be further removed by disinfecting the water. Many simple methods of disinfection ave available which can be carried out at the domestic level RECHARGING GROUND WATE es) Various kinds of recharge structures are possible which can ensure that rainwater percclates in the ground instead of draining away f-om the surface. While some structures promote the percolation of water through soil strata at shallow depth (e.g., recharge trencnes, permeable pavements), others conduct water to greater depths from where it joins the groundwater (e.g., recharge wells). A few commonly used recharging methods are explained here. Innumerabie innovaticns and A TRS HN RRIRI eme maT eee‘A Recharge Pit combinations of these methods are possible. 1. Borewells and Dugwells: Rainwater that is, collected on the rooftop of the building is diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or filtration tank, from which it flows into the recharge well (borewell or dugwell). This would raise the underground water table 2. Recharge Pits: A recharge pit is a pit 1.5 m to 3 m wide and 2 m to 3 m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a brick or stone wall with openings at regular intervals. The top area of the pit can be covered with a perforated cover. 8. Percolation Pits (Soakaways): A soakaway is a bored hole of up to 30 cm diameter drilled in the ground to a depth of 3 to 10 m. The soakaway can be drilled with a manual auger unless hard rock is found at a shallow depth. 4. Recharge Trenches: Recharging through recharge trenches, recharge pits and soakaways is simpler compared to recharge through wells. Fewer precautions have to be taken to maintain the quality of the rainfall runoff. For these type of structures, there is no restriction on the type of catchment from which water is to be harvested, i.e., both paved and unpaved catchments can be tapped. 5. Permeable Surfaces: Unpaved surfaces have a greater capacity of retaining rainwater on the surface. A patch of grass would retain a large proportion of the rainwater falling on it, yielding only 10-15 per cent as runoff. A considerable amount of water retained on such a surface will naturally percolate in the ground. Such surfaces contribute to the natural recharge of groundwater. ‘Success Storms ‘Some of the success stories in water harvesting are: 1, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Chembur, Mumbai: Here water harvesting system was installed in June 2003. It has a surface area of 42,500 sq. metres and has the potential of collecting 46.75 lakh litres a year. 2. Asian Paints, Santacruz (East), Mumbai: It has a rooftop area of 10,280 sq. metres with a capacity to collect 50.000 litres per day in monsoon season. The water harvesting system was installed in 2002. 3. Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi: ‘The catchment area is about 3,15,380 sq. metres. The system was installed in June 2001 at the cost of 6.25 lakh. Most of the rainwater is diverted to recharge wells. 4. Panchshila Co-operative Housing Building Society Ltd., New Delhi: It has an area of 3,57,150 sq. metre, with a capacity to harvest 1,756 lakh litres of water annually. The system was installed in July 2002. The water is diverted to recharge wells. > we Short Answer-Type Questions Marks 1, Give two reasons to justify the need to conserve water. (2) 2. What is a watershed? What does the watershed management include? (2) 3. Why is the village participation important in a watershed management? (2) 4. What can be done to stop soil erosion in a watershed? 2] 5. What is known as a johad? What purpose does it serve? (21 Ceres esen 6. What impact do the johads have on the people o: Rajastha:? (21 7. How did the women in Rajasthan benefit from jonads? 12) 8. Describe what a kund is. Where was it in practice? (2) 9. What are Tankas? Name the area where they we-e in use. (2) 10. Give two advantages of phad system of irrigation 12) 11. Whate were kere? Name the area where they were in use. (2) 12. What were Eris? Why were they used? 2] 13, How is water harvesting done in cities now-a-days? 12) 14. What are the percolation pits? 2) 15. Name two projects which use the moder water Aarvesting system. 12) Long Answer-Type Questions 1. How can a good watershed management help to conserve water? (6) 2. How does afforestation in the watershed area help to conserve water? (4) 3. Briefly describe the traditional water harvesting system with reference to kunds in Rajasthan, 44 4. What are tankas? How did they differ from kunds? {6] 5. =xplain with diagram the phad system of irrigation in Maharashtra, How did it ensure water supply to all the fields? (61 6. 3xplain briefly the kafas system of irrigation prevalent in Crissa. (4) 7. 3riefly state the origin of the temple ponds. (4) 8. How useful were temple ponds in Tamil Nadu? 16] 9. With reference to temple ponds in Andhra Pradesh, show how the temples, cooperated with the government to conserve water. 14] 10. With the help of a diagram explain the concept ef modern rooftop harvesting system [4] 11. Explain with reference to rooftop water harvesting, the meaning and importance of “i) catchment area (ii) conduit (iii) storage facility and (iv) recharge facility. (6) 12. Why were the temple ponds important in South india? a Project Work Visit a local area where traditional or modern water havesting project is carried out. Write a report on the merits and drawbacks of the project.(oe moats ee een ie Conservation and management of forests, grasslands, semi-arid ecosystems. Strategies and methods of their conservation, laws, awareness, involvement of locals and technical methods. FORESTS Forest refers to a large tract of land covered with trees and accompanying undergrowth of shrubs, herbs and sustaining thousands of life forms, which include both plants and animals. In legal terminology, a forest is any land with its vegetative cover, that has been so declared under a legal provision. Roe or Forests Forests constitute one of the most significant features of land surface as they are prime source of energy required for all life forms. The forests intercept the solar energy and covert it into food. Role of Forests QE acer Forests play a vital role in protecting the environment as they perform the following functions such as maintaining oxygen and carbon dioxide balance. Forests provide a number of resources to mankind, like food, wood and medicines, as shown in the diagram. Neep For CONSERVATION OF FORESTS Man has been overexploiting the forests to satisfy not only his need but also his greed. Due to rapid population growth and the demand for more food forests have been cleared into agricultural land © Forests have been converted into pastureland for expanding dairy farming and cattle ranching, © Overgrazing in the forests by animals in the tropical and sub-tropical regions has resulted into large-scale degradation of natural vegetaiton * Ever-increasing demand for timber for various purposes due to industrial expansion and urbanisation has added to the problem of deforestation. © Construction of multi-purpose river valley projects has led to submergence of land and destruction of forested riversides. All these factors have led to decline in forests, thereby, decline in the forest productivity. Further, the forests influence human environment by moderating climate, regulating water supply maintaining fertility of sofl and purifying air. Absence of forest cover leads to soil eroston which increases load of the rivers. The increased surface load reduces water in the rivers for human use, eyConservation of Forests Siltation causes floods which destroy property crops and living beings. Lack of forest cover reduces precipitation, thus causing droughts. Deforestation results in the increase of the concentration of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Forests use Carbon dioxide during photosynthesis but the absence of allows more concentration of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because of its amption. Thus deforestation increases greenhouse effect in the atmosphere. This raises the temperature of the earth's surface and of the atmosphere leading to global warming and its harmful consequences. Hence, conservation of forest is of vital importance for the survival and prosperity of human kind. forests non. ‘Srratecies anp MeTHops oF Conservation To arrest deforestation and stop the diversion of forest lands for non-forest uses, the following conservation practices must be undertaken (i) Increasing the Area Under Forests: Loss of forests can be remedied by a massive programme of tree plantation. Planting trees on degraded lands and land that is unfit for agriculture will not only help in improving the environment but will also relieve harvesting pressure on forests. The planting of trees alongside of roads. railway lines, rivers and streams and canals, and on other utilised lands should be encouraged Green belts should be raised in urban and industrial areas as well as in arid tracts. Such a programme will help to check erosion and desertification as well as improve the microclimate. (ii) Stop Indiscriminate Felling of Trees: ‘There should be a strict ban on felling of naturally growing trees. No forest should be permitted to be changed without the Government having approved the management plan, which should issue necessary guidelines to the State Governments in this regard and monitor compliance. Ifa tree has to be cut, necessary permission has to be obtained. Besides, proper replacement of trees by planting saplings at least in the ratio of 1:10 (1 tree to 10 saplings) should be undertaken. (iii) Establishing Corridors Between different Reserved Forests: Wide corridors should be established in different reserved forests to allow the migration of wld animals. This will also help numerous species of animals to use these corridors for their dispersal and migration. (iv) Using Alternative Sources of Energy: In many parts of the world including India, trees are felled for providing firewood. So, in order to conserve forests, we must use non-conventional or renewable sources of energy, like solar energy. tidal energy, hydel energy, etc. (v) Proper Legislation and _ its Implementation: Strict laws should be made to check deforestation. Proper care should be taken to see that these laws are strictly implemented. Land laws should be so mofidifed wherever necessary so as to faciltate and motivate individuals and institutions to undertake tree- farming and grow fodder plants, grasses and legumes on their own land. Degraded lands should be made available for this purpose either on lease or on the basis of a tree-patta scheme. (vi) Regeneration of Forests: This can be done by sowing of seeds or planting seedlings, saplings or vegetative pacts. A degraded or denuded forest can be reforested by plantation, either monospecific (one variety) or mixed plantation (plantation of mixture of species) Taungya System is an artificial method of forest regeneration, In this system during initial regeneration period, agriculture is practised in the forest land. Next year seedlings of forest crops are grown in rows. This corabined cultivation of agricultural crops along with forest crops in ae 2 TR STEalternate rows helps in speedy penetration and spreading of tree roots deep inside the soil. When the seedlings mature, farmers are allotted another cleared forest plot. Forests can also be regenerated by dispering seeds from the sky through aeroplanes and helicopters. (vii) People's Participation: Participation of the local community is of utmost significance if any plan has to be enforced since the local inhabitants are the ultimate users. Most programmes now involve local communities in planning, decision-making and implementation. (viii) Technical Methods: In order to meet the growing needs for essential goods and services which the forests provide, it is necessary to enhance forest cover and productivity of the forests through the application of scientific and technical inputs. Production forestry programmes, while aiming at enhancing the forest cover in the country, and meeting national needs, should also be oriented to narrowing the increasing gap between demand and supply of fue:wood. No such programme, however, should entail clear-feeling of adequately stocked natural forests. Nor should exotic species be introduced unless long-term scientific trials undertaken by specialists have established that they are suitable and have no adverse impact on native vegetation and environment. In compliance with this viewpoint, Joint Forest Management, Socia’ Forestry and ‘Agro-Forestry have been undertaken. For details please refer to Chapter 6. Laws Retatina To ConsERVATION OF FORESTS India is one of the few countries in the world which has a Forest Policy since 1894. This policy was revised in 1952 and again in 988. The main objective of the forest policy 1s conservation, protection and development of forests. A number of Acts like The Forest Conservation Act, The Environmental Protection Act, Tae Biodiversity Act, The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, etc., have been formulated for the conservation and management of forests. For detalls please refer to Chapter 25. Grasslands occupy vast area of land within continental interiors. Grasses and variety of herbs constitute the main vegetation of these grasslands. Grassland Beosysten ‘They also comprise some of the greatest agricultural areas of the world of corn, cattle and wheat farming. Based on the availability of moisture and density of plant growth, the grasslands are of two types: © The Tropical Grasslands: These grasslands ie close to the Equator and are hot all year long. They are also known as Savannas. ‘These grasslands cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America and India. They are found in warm or hot climates where the annual rainfall is from 50.8 to 127 em per year. ©The Temperate Grasslands: These grasslands lie further from the Equator in areas with hot summers and harsh winters, Rainfall is moderate and occurs in the late spring and early summer. The major ‘Temperate grasslands are the Veldis of South Africa, the Puszta of Hungry, the Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the Steppes of the former Soviet Union and the plains and Prairies of Central North America. Roe or GrassLanps Grasses are of great value for quickly covering the bare soil, keeping it protected from erosion, absorbing rainfall and restoring soil fertility. Grasslands are an excellent source of fodder for the herbivorous animals and domestic livestocks. Meat and other products areabtained from forage consuming animals. In fact, about 10 per cent of the total food supply of world comes directly from pastures. Various species of grasses are used for paper and pulp making. NEED For ConsERVATION oF GRASALANDS Grasslands are fast diminishing all over the world. The main factors responsible for this include conversion of grasslands into agricultural lands, overgrazing and prolonged droughts. The phenomenal growth of cattle industry is responsible for ruthless overgrazing of grasslands, Such high grazing pressure results in ‘overexploitation of resources. Cattle graze eats up vegetative parts of the grass and shrubs as Well as the roots of the vegetation. This leads to the removal of certain amounts of organic manure fom the soil, exposure of the soil to erosion, Camage to the seedlings and replacement of edible grasses by non-edible grasses. The depletion of grasslands has also led to the disappearance of many of the grassland species. Thus, we need to conserve grasslands not only for their economic value but also for ecological reasons. ‘Stratecies anp Metuops or Conservation The grasslands should be maintained in such a way so as to obtain the maximum livestock production consistent with conversion of grassland resources. The following conservation measures are required for restoring the degraded and depleted grasslands: () Farmers and herdmen must be taught how to rear cattle. A big number of cattle may not give huge profits. A select healthy cattle Kept on a scientific way is a better option ‘i) Provision has to be made to grow fast growing grass in order to feed the cattle. (i) Different areas could be set apart in rotation for grazing purpose, so that each area has time for the grass to grow. (iv) The poor eroded soils can be enriched by applying organic fertilzers and reseeding to revive the grasslands. ‘y) All efforts should be made to control weeds, pests and predators. (i) Regular burning of grasslands help in enriching the soil for fresh growth of grass. Ga Laws RELatinc To ConsERvATION oF GRassLANDS ‘The grasslands are the most neglected ecosystems in India, They are the ‘common’ lands of the community and although they constitute the most productive ecosystems, they belong to all and are controlled by none. They remain unprotected unless they are notified as Protected Areas under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 or notified as Protected or Reserved Forest ander the Indian Forest Act, 1927. Despite the fact that the India has one of the largest livestock populations in the world, with an estimated 520 million heads, there is no grazing policy. Though the Government of India has formulated ‘Draft Grazing and Livestock Management Policy (1994), and ‘Draft National Policy for Common Property Resource Lands (CPRLs)’, these policies have not been implemented effectively. In the Draft and Livestock Management Policy, emphasis las been given to develop large blocks of grass reserves away from human habitation for higher production (in arid and semi-arid regions) and as fodder banks for drought years. The CPRLs seek to provide support, to the people and their production systems through restoration, protection, regeneration, upkeeps and development of grasslands. There is, no sound management plan fer the development of pasture land and protection of existing grasslands, some of which are unique and harbour rich fauna. cont ero Semi-arid ecosystems refer to the interacting system of biological community and its non-living environmental surroundings in regions that have between 10 to 20 inches cf -ainfall. These ecosystems are capable of sustaining some grasses and shrubs but not woodlands, Semi-arid ecosystems include the deserts of Utah, Montana and Great Basin (éll in USA). They aslo include the Nearactic realm, {.c., North American, Newfoundland, Greenland, Russia, Europe and Northern Asia. Here the summers are moderately long and dry, and like hot deserts, the winters bring low concentration of rainfall.Semi-Arid Ecosystem Summer temperatures average between 21 to 27°C and normally do not go above 38°C and evening temperatures are low, at around 10°C. Cool nights help both plants and animals by reducing moisture loss from transpiration, sweating and breathing. Furthermore, condensation of dew caused by night cooling may equal or exceed the rainfall received by some deserts. ‘The soil in the semi-arid ecosystems range from sandy and fine-textured to loose rock fragments, gravel or sand. They have a fairly low salt concentration and subsurface water. Semi-arid plants include white thorn, cat claw, mesquite, brittle bushes. lyciums and jujube These plants have spines which shade the surface enough to reduce transpiration. Many plants have silvery or glossy leaves which allow them to reflect more radiant energy. ‘The animals in semi-arid ecosystems include mammals such as the kangaroo rats, rabbits and skunks; insects like grasshoppers and ants; reptiles like lizards and snakes; and birds such as burrowing owls and the California thrasher. ‘California Thrasher Ene ‘Neep For ConsERVATION ‘Semi-arid ecosystems are far from being stable. Extended periods, too dry to suport the growth of plants, occur every year, and droughts of a year or longer duration are common. The environment is generally harsh, and during unpredictable droughts, very harsh. Only organisms adapted to dry and unpredictable conditions can survive, and even populations of well-adapted organisms experience wide fluctuations in numbers and levels of productivity. Semi-arid ecosystems provide critical habitats for wildlife and ecosystem diversity. These ecosystems have suffered some of the worst forms of degradation due to their fragility and increased pressure from growing population. Increased incidences of drought, intensive pressure of people on the land and improper land use practices have led to the deterioration of these ecosystems and their biodiversity. Besides, some of the developmental strategies have also affected the ecosystem of semi-arid regions, For example, the use of artificial irrigation methods have affected the natural characteristics and made the soil unproductive. The water-table in these regions is becoming low due to over-exploitation of ground water. Even some of the wildlife species have become extinet. Since semi-arid ecosystems take a longer time to recover due to extremely slow growth rate of vegetation, special measures are required to conserve them, Srratecies anp MetHops or ConsERVATION ‘The main conservation strategies for maintaining and developing semi-arid ecosystems include the following: (a) Demareating, strengthening, expanding, and consolidating conservation areas: (b) Assessing the impact of natural disturbances; (©) Applying techniques to conserve biodiversity: (@ Supporting capacity building efforts that promote the preservation and maintenance of indigenous and local communities: knowledge, innovation, and practices relevant to conservation of biological diversity with their prior informed consent and participation:(e) Integrated rural development on a sustainable basis. ¢.g., range management involving not only livestock, but also agriculture. infrastructure, marketing, wildlife, and tourism. (0 Soil conservation and restoration of degraded areas to conserve biodiversity; (@ Natural resources management activities which emphasise integrated resource use with conservation and development, such as use af water resources and its distribution in order to spread out grazing pressure and prevent vegetation deterioration. Laws Revatinc To ConsERVATION oF SeMi- Arw Ecosystems ‘The semi-arid regions have suffered extensive damage due to increasing demands and increasing pressures. These ecosystems are protected under the various environmental laws relating to forests, deserts and wildlife conservation “AWARENESS OF CONSERVATION PRACTICES ‘The environmental damage already inflicted due to rapid population growth, urbanisation and industrialisation, increasing needs of energy and fast and scientific technological advancement cannot be reversed. It cannot be further checked unless there is collective thinking, will and effort ‘These call for public awareness and participation for bringing about an attitudinal change and restricting further damage to the environment Effective implementation of environmental management and conservation programmes depend on education, awareness and training in the relevant areas. Without an understanding of how to conserve natural resources and the compelling need to do so, few people would be motivated to participate actively in programmes on environmental conservation. Therefore, the ‘Environmental Education, Awareness and ‘Training’ constitutes an important scheme of the Ministry of Environment. This is being implemenced by: (@) establishing eco-clubs throughout the country. Ge) Local Community Participation (b) giving training to Master Trainers. (©) broadcasting weekly radio programmes. (@) telecasting, under Mass Awareness Programme, episodes of half an hour weekly environmental television programme on Doordarshan National Channel, (e) organising the Environment and Wildlife Film Festivals. () giving awards like the ‘Young Environment Journalist’, ete. Invouvement or Locats Participation of local people is important in the conservation and management of forests. But sometimes there is no opportunity legally for those people to participate in this process. Even though there is an opportunity to participate in the forest conservation, sometimes people could not utilise it effectively or that process generates adverse results. This can be because of too complicated procedure, lack of awareness of social and economic problems in the local community, disregard for traditional culture including the management way for natural resources, tenure rights, ete. ‘The indigenous and local communities have managed forests for a long time by a sustainable way. Their traditional knowledge includes a lot of information about the nature surrounding them, and it is useful to improve natural resources management system. But in many countries,indigenous and local community's traditional Knowledge has been disregarded and destroyed. It is necessary to protect their knowledge and to build system making the best of i. ‘The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has some provisions to protect ané to apply wider traditional knowledge. It requires parties to promote wider application with approval and involvement of the holders of such traditional knowledge. This means that those who want to utilise traditional knowledge have to open all information related to their plan to the local inhabitants and explain it precisely before receiving their consent. Also in this provision, parties have to “encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of such knowledge, innovations and practices.” It means equitable sharing of the benefits derived from utilising traditional knowledge between inventor and holder. This provision recognises the importance of sharing information and sharing benefit equitable. All information that affects a social, economical situation should be shared. This includes sharing of traditional knowledge, or the latest scientific findings. Benefit sharing also means sharing cost equitably. Sharing benefits could become an incentive for participation of local people. Participation of the local community not only provides the labour force for the environmental projects but also lowers the cost of production by improved utilisation of resources. Then, the environment is preserved and the benefits of the controlled use are reaped by the local community. === Short Answer-Type Questions Marks 1. How does deforestation affect biodiversity? B 2. Give two steps to be taken to conserve forests. B) 3. What sort of energy resources could be used in rural areas to prevent felling of trees for firewood? 221 4. Give any two strategies for conserving forests, 2) 5. Mention any two Acts releted with conservation of forests. 21 6. Name the two types of grasslands based on the availability of moisture and density of plant growth, PI 7. Give any two uses of grasslands. 2 8. Give any three strategies for conserving grasslands. RI 9. What are the semi-arid ecosystems? Bi 10. Mention any three measu-es being implemented by the Ministry of Environment for creating awareness about environmental conservation. 12 11. Give two reasons why the participation of local community fs important for the management and conservation of forests, PI Long Answer-Type Questions 1. What are the major reasons for the decline in the forest cover? Why do we need to conserve forests? (6) 2, Explain briefly any three methods for forest conservation, Why do we need proper legislation for conserving the forests? icy rene mene (73. What is meant by the term ‘grasslands’? Explain the role of grasslands and the need to conserve them, (6) 4. Wry Is it said that the grasslands constitute the most neglected ecosystems in India? [4] 5. What are the semi-arid ecosystems? What are the reasons for their degradation? 6] 6. Wey do people need to be aware of the various conservation practices? What steps are being taken by the Ministry of Environment to creat public awareness for pro-ecting the environment? I6] 7. Explain how the involvement of the local community ensures sharing of information and equitable sharing of the benefits, (4) Project Work ‘Study the diagram and find out the percentage of the following five elements based on the use of the forest: 1, Employment 2. Energy 3. Food, 4. Industrial raw material 5. Support to agriculture Ediusof Ocean*Resources coral reefs, gas. This Chapter has the following two sections: Section I: Conservation and management of ocean resources, marine and coastal ecosystems as well as the importance of cora. reefs. Section II: The role of oceans :n water cycle, supply of food, regulation of climate, as source of minerals and natural gas SECTION I Marine resources can be classified into the following categories: MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 1. The ocean is rich in food resources, such as () animal resources (fishes, crabs, prawns, zoo planktons etc.) and (i) plant resources (phytoplankton, sea grass) ‘The seas and oceans have nor-food resources e.g., corals. 2. Marine resources include mineral resources such as (metalic minerals, (ii) fuel minerals (petroleum, natural gas), and (i) construction materials, 3. The oceans provide us with energy resources, such as () petroleum, (i) natural gas. oereray mar ent ao Ce ee Roead ‘Conservation and management of ocean resources - marine and coastal ecosystems, importance of ‘The role of oceans in the water cycle, supply of food. regulation of climate, important source of minerals, natural Coral reefs are important for their rote in bio-diversity preservation and eco-tourism. 4, Non-Conventional energy resources us with non. The oceans also provide conventional energy, such as: (i) tidal energy, (ii) wave energy. (iii) biomass energy. Need for Conservation: There is a pressure on marine resources due to rapid population explosion. Therefore, it is necessary to take steps for conservation of marine resources. Decrease in the fish population due to overfishing has been taking place. This leads to reduction in production of fishes in future. Ctr mc lu eo Since sea water cannot be confined within the boundaries of a nation, world community should take steps to keep the seas and oceans free from pollution. Measures need to be taken to reduce as well as to treat effluents into the marine waters. The two formidable problems in the conservation of marine resources are the (2) international character of marine resources and equal right of all countries for their use; (2) high mobility of marine organisms. It is necessary to enact international laws and to enforce them strictly for sustainable utilisation of marine resources. In this context, following points should be noted. O There is need for effective laws related to the exploitation of deep sea resources. Cire nee eee le>}Serious ecological researches for the understanding of marine biological processes (both chemical and physical) is also required, O The endangered species of marine organisms mainly fishes, which are at the verge of extinetion due to overfishing need immediate Protection. For example, eight species of whales have become endangered and are facing extinction. A few countries like the UK, Norway, the Netherlands, etc. have self- imposed laws for the protection of whales. G Marine farming includes the processes of Productivity and reproduction, breeding and production of certain sea animals by making them captive in certain localities of seawater, feeding then on additional nutrient feed, ete 3 Lom crete The following points should also be taken care of far the efficient management of marine resources. (1) There should be a regulated exploitation of marine resources. Knowledge of the quantity of resources including the process and rate of regeneration of biological (living, plants and animals) resources is essential. 2) This could be done through a survey of fishing areas by maintaining catch statistics mapping of breeding places of fishing and determination of their numbers. (3) Proper arrangement of canning and refrigeration for storage of fishes. (4) Bfficient methods and techniques of fishing, (5) Steps should be taken to develop breeding and rearing of certain selected marine organisms, ocean husbandry, marine pasture for the sustainable yield of marine resources. (6) We should keep the seas and oceans pollution free. The major sources of marine pollution are the discharge of waste water, sewage, and toxic chemicals from the urban areas and industrial establishment of coastal areas into the seas. Conservation of Marine Resources Oceans cover nearly 70 per cent of Earth's surface. The oceans and the major seas are connected. Together they form a wide variety of ecosystems. Living organisms are found at all depths in the water mass but with a decreasing density. In marine environment, physio-chemical composition of water (saline water), oxygen content, light and temperature differ at different levels. Depending on the availability of light, the ocean environment is subdivided vertically into a (i) Photic Zone, where light is sufficient for photosynthesis, and an (i) Aphotic Zone, where it Is completely dark. The green plants and different types of fishes and the animals are present in the Photic zone while non- photosynthetic fungi, bacteria and some animals are found in the aphotie zone. The waves and tides (which are produced by the pull of moon and sun) also influence the marine ecosystem. We have studied how to conserve and manage marine resources in the beginning of this Chapter. (oteyNey yo bea Coastal zones include estuaries and coastal wetlands, river mouths, bays, mangrove forests, and salt marshes. Here the seawater mixes with freshwater with nutrients from rivers, streams, and the run-off. Hence, this region is fertile together with plenty of sunlight. eee errr ree ee ere TTI TESCoastal saltwater wetlands are the ocean's nurseries, where many fish species spend the first part of their lives. They are the major breeding, nesting, and migration areas for birds and animals. These wetlands protect coastlines from erosion and reduce damage from storms and cyclone: The flow of groundwater through coastal marshes prevents saltwater intrusion that would otherwise contaminate the wells in these areas. Wetlands control flooding by holding excess water and releasing it slowly. They help in recharging groundwater and in purifying water by trapping and holding pollutants in the soil. Coastat Areas Protective Mrasures 1, The Department of Ocean Development, Department of Environment of Central and State governments, coast based industries, navy, non-governmental organisations, port authorities, civil authorities of coastal towns should be included in the coastal zone management strategy. 2. Municipal and industrial wastes should be treated before being allowed to join the sea. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be checked by suitable control techniques. 4, Recreational beaches should be maintained as per the hygienic and aesthetic standards. Pollution of the beaches by dumping of waste should be prevented Marine pollution Cont Marine Animals 5. Offshore and on-shore structures and projects should be approved after a full environmental impact assessment, incorporating all the protective measures, 2 . The existing legislations like disallowing structures within 500 m from the high tide line should be enforced. 7. Agriculture in fertile delta lands needs to be scientifically managed in order to reduce the harmful impact of pesticides. INO 3 3) ‘The coral is a polyp, an organism that lives in the shallow sea. Its skeleton is composed of limestone and dolomite. The layers of deposition of the skeletons of these polyps form a shallow rock known as Coral Reef. Coral polyps thrive in the tropical oceans confined between 25°N and 25°S latitudes. Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans and seas because they require high mean annual temperature ranging between 20°C and 21°C. for their survival. Numerous coral polyps live, at a place, in groups in the form of colony and form calcareous shells around them. Since coral polyps cannot survive above water level, coral reefs are found either up to sea level or below it. They are generally attached to submarine platforms or islands submerged under seawater. ‘The coral reefs are more diverse than the tropical rainforests because the coral reefs have about 1,000,000 species. This is why coral reefs are called as rainforests of the oceans.Tyres or REEFS @ Fringing Reefs: It is a coral reef, which is attached to the shore, either as a continuous wave-washed erosion platform or separated from the coastline by shallow lagoon (i) Barrier Reef: This is an elongated accumulation of corals lying at low-tide level parallel to the coast, but separated from it by a wide and deep lagoon or strait. Great Barrier Reef, located parallel to the east coast of Australia, is the largest of all the barrier reefs, in This reef stretches for a length of 920 km and covers about two-third of the coastal length of Queensland province of Australia the world. (iit) Atoll: A ring of narrow growing corals of horseshoe shape and crowned with palm trees is called an atoll. It is generally found around an island or in elliptical form on a submarine platform. There is a lagoon in the middle of the coral ring. Cora, Bueacuina Coral bleaching refers to loss of algae from the corals resulting in the white colour of corals which is indicative of death of corals. Global warming has been reported as the major factor of coral bleaching. The coral bleaching during 1997-98 has been recorded a the most catastrophic event as it accounted for rge-scale death of corals in the tropical ozeans of GO countries and island nations. 31 Nino phenomenon contributes to coral bleach:ng. Coral Reefs and Biodiversity Corals are important animals in the groups of marine organisms. These are generally called rainforests of the oceans. The coral colonies provide different types of habitats for different marine organisms. Most sea fishes lay eggs in the coral colonies. In fact, corals are the base of biological community. The marine biological health depends on the richness of corals. Coral bleaching is caused by global warming consequent upon deforestation and rapid rate of industrialisation. ECO-TOURISM co-tourism means management of tourism and conservation of nature to maintain ba‘ance between the requirement of tourism and ecology on one hand and needs of local communities on the other. Coral Reefs are ideal venues for eco- tourism marine 2) LL ee NE TSEco-tourism Characteristics of Eco-tourism General characteristics for eco-tourism are as follows: (1) All nature-based forms of tourism in which the main motivation of tourist is to maintain the ecological balance as well as the traditional cultures prevailing in a region. (2) It includes educational and research features. (3) It is generally organised for small groups by specialised locally owned business groups. (4) It minimises negative impact upon the natural and socio-cultural environment (5) It supports the protection of natural areas by: © Generating economic benefit for host communities. © Providing alternative employment and income opportunities for local people. © Increasing awareness towards the conservation of natural and cultural aspects among local people and tourists. The distribution of coral reef is restricted to low latitude areas, where the water temperature exceeds 18°C all through the year. Reefs are widely developed throughout the Pacific and Indian oceans. Cm re rns SECTION IL Pema Nr) Seas and oceans are endowed with different varieties of biotic and abiotic resourc types—the land and water masses. The rivers while draining through land areas of the lithosphere, bring different types of materials into the seas. These materials contain mineral elements of different types, plants and animals. It may be remembered that oceans are vast reservoirs of biotic resources. Nearly 40,000 species of molluscs, and 25,000 species of fishes are found in marine waters, Besides mineral resources, different types of vitamins and medicinal elements are also found, ‘The oceans are usefull to man in the following ways: ere Aste OA) The total volume of water in the oceans and seas is constant. This is because all the water that evaporates from the earth's water bodies is eventually returned to them directly by the process of condensation and precipitation; and indirectly by stream and overflow from land surfaces. s of two Oceans and seas have a huge volume of water which eventually evaporates, forms clouds, condenses and returns to the oceans and land ts)by means of rain, snow, hail, etc. Thus, the water moves from the earth and the oceans and returns to them. This cycle is known as the water cycle. ‘Oceans with huge water collection are responsible for water cycle on earth. D amo) Marine food resources are divided into two protein rich food resources for the use as food for human beings (e.g. fishes), and (i) animal feed mainly for domesticated animals. Use of sea fishes for food is very beneficial because these contain plenty of protein and aminoacid in right proportion, Vitamin B,, and very little quantity of saturated fat and cholesterol and thus help in reducing high blood pressure and heart diseases. Most of the fishes are also used as animal feed. Planktons are floating sea plants and animals that live up to the depth of 200m from sea level. Plant planktons, called as phytoplanktons produce food through the process of photosynthesis with the help of sunlight, water and atmospheric carbon dioxide and thus they are primary producers known as autotrophs. Algae and diatoms are most important members of this community. Vitamins and Drugs Resources: Man uses marine organisms (plants and animals) to make vitamins and medicines to cure different diseases. Marine pharmacologists are busy in investigating physiological, physical and chemical properties of marine organisms like crabs, sea weeds, sea cucumbers, barnacles, horseshoe crabs, shark: cods ete. Shark of! and cod liver oil are already in use as energy tonics, Vitamins and Drugs ‘Temperature Rainfall Violent Storms} Ocean and Climate ND REGU Oceans regulate climate on land. The climate of the coasts becomes warm o- cool according to the current moving along the coast which may be warm or cool. () Temperature: Warm or cold ocean currents flowing near a coast exert a significant climatic influence. The warm Equatorial currents tend to raise the temperature of the places where they flow. The otherwise hot climate of Peru is greatly cooled by the cold Humboldt Current. The warm Kuroshio Current keeps the ports of the cold Alaskan coast ice-free in winters. (ii) Rainfall: The air above the warm ocean current becomes warm and acquires greater capacity to absorb moisture. Thus, the winds help in increasing the amount of precipitation in the affected coastal areas. For example, the North Atlantic Drift and the Kuroshio Current bring in sufficient rainfall along the western coasts of Europe and eastern coasts of Japan respectively. On the other hand, cold currents discourage rainfall. For example, Kalahari desert along the western coast of South Africa and Atacama desert along the western coast of South America owe their existence to some extent zo Benguela and Peru Currents respectively. (ili)Pog: Dense fog occurs where the warm and cold ocean currents meet. The air above warm current is warm and acquires a lot of water vapour. When it meets the cold air above cold ocean currents, the water vapours of the warm air are condensed into minute water particlesSSF which form fog. Japanese coast has dense fog when the warm Kuroshio Current meets the cold Oyashio Current. Similarly. New Foundland where the warm Gulf stream meets the cold Labrador Current creates a dense fog. (iv) Violent Storms: Violent storms follow the line of meeting of cold and warm currents. The hurricanes which occur off the coast of United States follow the line where Gulf Stream mingles with the cold currents. Cre 5 is ‘The metallic and non-metallic minerals are found in the oceans in two forms e.g. (i) mixed with sea water in solution form, and (li) mixed with ocean bottom deposits Minerals Dissolved in Seawater: The minerals in this category are salt, bromine, magnesium, gold, zinc, uranium, thorium etc. It is said that one cubic kilometre of seawater has 41.25 million tonnes of solid materials in dissolved form. In India salt is made from seawater along the coasts of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Minerals dissolved in seawater can be separated following an elaborate and expensive process. Minerals of Sea Deposits: Mineral deposits on continental shelves and slopes are: diamond, platinum, sulphur and building materials like sands, gravels, boulders etc. India monazite, Oceans has the largest reserve of monazite in the world (90 per cent) in Kerala coast Manganese nodules are the most significant minerals found in the ocean deposits. nodules have nickel, copper. cobalt, lead, zinc iron, silicon, ete. Manganese Subsurface minerals in the oceanic crusts of continental shelves are mineral oil and natural gas. Reserves of offshore mineral oil in India are found in Konkan coast (Maharashtra) coast, Malabar and Coromandal coasts, Krishr Cauvery delta coast, Sundarban, ete. The important offshore oil fields of India are the Bombay High, Bassein and Aliabet Continental shelves in the ocez of natural gas. It is a fossil fuel which is found along with petroleum in the oil wells. However. some oil wells yield only natural gas Gujarat s have deposits Millions of people use natural gas to heat their homes, cook their mea laundry. Mar heat and power. Natural gas accounts for about 20 per cent of the commercial energy used in the world Is and dry their industries use natural gas for Natural gas burns easily to produce heat. It is a smokeless fuel and is non-polluting. It ts supplied directly through pipes for domestic and ‘Sources of MineralsSs industria. use. The compressed form of natural Over three-fourths of India's natural gas comes. gas Is known as CNG (Compressed Natural Gas). from Mumbal High. Natural gas reserves are found Recently it has been used as an alternative to at Cauvery offshore and as well as in Kutch petrol or diesel in the automobiles. This gas is offshore in Gujarat and in Krishna-Godavar: basin known as an eco-friendly gas. off the coast of Andhra Prades’. Short Answer-Type Questions Marks 1. Give two reasons to justify why we should conserve marine resources. (2) 2. Mention two difficulties in conserving marine resources. [2] 3. How can we conserve fish population? 21 4. Why do we need global laws to conserve ocean resources? (2) 5. Give two measures to be taken to protect coastal ecological regions. (2) 6. What is known as the water cycle? [2] 7. How does water regulate temperature on earth? (2) 8. Mention some of the marine food resources. (2) 9. Name two minerals found in the sea. (2) 10. What harm is done by oil spills to sea animals? (2) 11, What are corals? How are the coral reefs formed? (2) 12. What is eco-tourism? (2) Long Answer-Type Questions 1. Give three measures to conserve the marine Ife 6 2. Why are the coastal ecosystems important? 4) 3. What measures would you use to protect coastal areas? (6) 4. How do the oceans regulate the climate? la) 5. What are the marine biotic and abiotic resources? (6) 6. Explain the origin of coral reefs. {el 7. What role do the coral reefs play in promoting biodiversity in the occan? (4) 8, What are the characteristics of eco-tourism? (6) 9. Explain the link between coral reefs and biodiversity. la 10. Ir. what way are the coastal regions important to maintain. biodiversity? [41 Project Work 1, With the ever-increasing population and pressure on land, can marine resources supplement our food requirements? Make a study and write a report. 2. Find out the measures being taken in India to promote Eco-Tourism. 66 PENETRATE ee ey eee meConservation and man: wgement of soil ss alternate cropping, judicious use of inputs like water, fertilizers, pesticides; use of manure, biofertilizers and biopesticides; plantation and conservation of grasslands to check soil erosion: forest conservation including Joint Forest Management (JFM), forestry and agro-forestry. afforestation including social Rotation of crops, phasing out of organic and chemical fertilizers: green maruring; compost, farm yard manure; ‘eutrophication from use of excess cherrical manure; biofertilizers as alternatives which are eco-friendly Danger of Pesticides, such as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides. Use of bio-pesticides—biological pest control, e.g. Neem. Importance of social forestry and agro-forestry. MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION f OF SOIL Soil is a sustainable resource. Modern farming techniques are designed to get maximum profits. Soil management refers to the process which attempts to adjust soil factors to maximise crop production at the lowest cost. Good soil management attempts to preserve the best characteristics of the soil for many years. The main objective of soil management is to control soil degradation and to improve soi. productivity, The basic objectives of soil conservation measures are the following: (@ Protecting the land surface from the impact of rainfall. (i) Increasing infiltration of rain water. (ii) Decreasing the volume and velocity of overland flow. (iv) Reducing soil erosion by modifying physical and chemical properties of the soils. Sea Seem aes! Soil conservation is required to preserve the soi for maintaining soil fertility. productivity, water table, vegetation cover, species of trees and soil moisture Soil conservation includes measures and techniques related to crop management. They help to intercept raindrops and reduce their splash effect. They improve the intake of water by improving the content of organic matter in the soil and soil structure. The following are the biological measures which help to reduce the overland runoff and help in the conservation of soil.oO (A) Atrernate Cropma It refers to the technique of growing a crop for a few seasons and then replacing it by another crop. Continuous growing of one crop such as tobacco causes erosion. A good rotation helps in maintaining the soil fertility. Good rotation crops are small grams and legumes. Legume nodules trap the Nitrogen from the atmosphere and make it available to the plants in the soil Another type of alternate cropping consists of a series of rows of one crop such as corn ot soyabean in a wide strip. The next strip is then planted with a crop conserving soil such as a grass or a grass-legume mixture. The cover crop, such as legumes, traps the soil that erodes from the row of the main crop. It also helps in preventing the spread of pests and plant diseases from one strip to another. If the cover crop happens to be nitrogen rich legumes, then the soil fertility is restored, (B) Juvicious use or Inputs just be a balance in the use of fertilisers, water and pesticides. We shall study about the use of biofertilisers and biopesticides later in this chapter. The use of too much of water leaches the soil and increases salinity. So care must be taken in this direction. Traditional agricultural practices with special reference to legume in cereal rotation, use of green manures and rural agricultural waste as There Alternate Cropping. compost, build up the soll organic matter base of fertility. Each farmer can prerare his vermicompost on his farm and apply it to tke soil. Earthworms which naturally grow in the soil are indicators of efficient nutrient recycling. Good soil management irctudes the following: () Judicious use of irputs like water, fertilisers and pesticides (ii) Maintenance of good soil structure by employing careful tillage practices and by adding crop residue. (iii) Careful fertilisation and irrigation through soil testing and plant analysis. liv) Proper use of marginal land which ts probably not suitabl> for cropping. Soil erosion can be checked on slopes of hills by contour farming. (v) Economic management for sustainable agriculture, Le., for future plantation and not only for the present crops. (vi) Covering the soil with grass and trees to protect it from rain and wind. (vii) Conservation of natura’ wetlands to preserve natural drainage pattsrrs and wildlife. (viii) Proper management of solid waste by recovery and reuse. (C) Green Manurinc In agriculture, a green manure is a type of cover crop grown primarily to add rutrients and organic matter to the soll. Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period, and then ploughed under and incorporated irto the soil. Green manures usually perform multiple functions, that include soil improvement and soil protection. Leguminous green manures such as clover contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules that fix atmospheric nitrogen in a form that plants can use. Green manures increase the percentage of organic matter (biomass) in the soil, thereby improving water retention, aeration, and other soil characteristics. The root systems of some varieties of green manure grow deep in the soil and bring up nutrient resources unavailable to shallower- rooted crops. Common cover-crop functions of weed suppression and prevention of soil erosion are often LLL TTL Te ee ETE es