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 MISSIONS IN SOUTH INDIA

VISITED AND DESCEIBED

BY

JOSEPH MULLENS,

MISSIONARY OF THE LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY IN CALCUTTAc

LONDON :

W. H. DALTON. COCKSPUR STREET.

1854.
PRINTED BY J. THOMAS, BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, CALCUTTA.
 PREFACE.

Having, during my residence in India, made numerous enquiries into

the Missionary Statistics of different parts of the country ; and having

read much concerning the progress of the gospel in Tanjore, Tinnevelly

and Travancore, I left Calcutta at the close of 1852, in order personally

to visit these localities, whose names have become so well known to the
christian church at large. My tour through the Presidency of Madras
occupied the first three months of 1853. The farther I travelled and the
more I saw of the Missions conducted by members of different Societies ;

the more deeply did I feel impressed with the extent, the variety and the
influence of the labours, which are carried on in South India for

the conversion of its idolatrous population. The farther I travelled, on

the other hand, the more deeply did I feel the immeasurable extent of

the ignorance and idolatry which yet exist. On my return to Calcutta

I delivered a short course of Lectures, on the history, condition, and

prospects of these various Missions. In publishing these lectures, I

desire earnestly to encourage the Church of Christ, from a sight of at-

tained success, to pray and labour more earnestly for that which yet re-

mains. Even writers who have lived in India endeavour to depreciate the

work and the fruits of Christian Missions. Would that such men would
first ponder the facts which those Missions present for their considera-

tion. To furnish such facts is one chief object of this little sketch.
 CONTENTS.

Page
Introduction,
Presidency of Madras,
Its Geographical Divisions,
The writer's journey.

THE TELUGU MISSIONS.

Their history and present position, 9
The ghauts, 19

THE CANAEESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

Their history and present position, 20
General state of feeling, 24
Interesting discussion with Musalmans in Bangalore, ... 28
General progress in Bellary, 33

THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

History of the Mission, 88
First group : Missions around Dharwar, 41
The Lingaits, ih.

Colony at Malasamudra, 45
Second group : Mangalore, 47
Third group : the Malealim Missions, 51
A native christian liturgy, 53
General labours of the Mission, ... 54
Literary labours. 55
Itinerancies, 56
Missionary expenditure, ... 58
Mission in the Nilgiri hills, 59
VI CONTENTS.

Page
THE TAMIL MISSIONS FROM MADRAS TO MADURA.
The Tamil country, ... ... ,.. ... 63
The Tamil people, ... ... ... ... ... 64
The Tamil language, ... ... ... ... 65
The Danish Mission, ... ... ... ... Q,Q

The moderu Tamil Missions, ... ... ... 77

Missions in the town of Madras, ... ... ... ,. 78
Tanjore and Madura, ... ... ... ... 81
A hill Mission, ... ... ... 84
Caste in the Native Churches, ... ... ... 85

MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS IN TINNEVELLT AND SOUTH

TRAVANCORE.
The Shanar country, ... ... ... ... ... 91
The Shanar people, ... ... ... ... 94
The Shanar religion. Devil worship, ... ... ... 96
Pirst success of the Grospel, ... ... ... 100
Growth of the Shanar Missions, ... ... ... ... 104
Why the Shanar converts are so numerous, ... ... ... 110
What kind of Christians are they, ... ... ... 112
Native agency, ... ... ... ... 114
Native liberality, ..., ... ... ... ... 116

THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

Their origin and history, ... ... ... ... 119
The country and population of Travancore, ... 123
Moderu etforts to enlighten the Syrians, ... ... 126

THE JESUIT MISSIONS IN SOUTH INDIA.

Their origin, history and decay, ... ... ... ... 132
Their modern revival, ... ... ... ... 135

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

The Khond country, ... ... ••• ••• ^^^
The Khond people,... ... ...
^^^

The Khond language, ... ... ... ... 148

 CONTENTS. vn

Page
The Khond religion, 151

Human Sacrifices, 152

Government efforts to suppress these rites, 156
Discussion of their measures, 161
Eesults of these measures, 174
What has been done with the Merias, ... 175

THE KELIUIOUS CLAIMS OE THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

Extent of country and population, 179

The strength of superstition, 184

The great temple establishments, 185
Encouragements, 188

Christian Union, ... 189

 LECTURE FIRST.

ON THE TELUGU AND CANARESE MISSIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

The missionary spirit of the present age has turned with peculiar in-
terest towards Hindustan. The savages of Tahiti, New Zealand, and the
Sandwich Islands ; the slaves of Guiana and Jamaica ; the Hottentots,
Katlres and Bechuanas of South Africa ; the Negro tribes of Lagos and
Badagry ; uncivilized and barbarous all, have asked in their ignorance
for the instructions of Christ's servants and been taught the way of ever-
lasting life. The Jews in Hungary, Poland and Tunis ; the Armenian
Christians of Constantinople and Beyrout ; the Copts of Cairo ; and the
Nestorians of^Oorumiah; have been called upon to awake from their
spiritual sloth and receive the heart of the gospel as weU as its external

forms. Twelve hundred missionaries, the messengers of the churches,

now preach the gospel m various countries of the globe ; and few places
that have ever given them admittance remain entirely unoccupied. But
of these valued teachers, British India has secm-ed by far the largest
share. That security of property, that order and stability in the Govern-
ment, which in India have attracted the indigo and sugar planter, the
cotton speculator and the merchant, have, added to the free enjoyment
of religion, drawn thither the feet of those who seek not the goods of
India, but the people themselves. Thus it happens that more than one-
third of the missionaries scattered through the world have been located
within its ample territories ; of whom as many as one hundred and thirty
have entered it from America, Germany and Switzerland.
Many considerations shew the importance of the Missionary agency
how at work in India, and the value of the results Avliich have already
been attained. Two years ago, the -writer of these pages pubhshed a few
such facts for the information of those by whom Indian Missions are
carried on, and proved beyond all question that the position they occupy,
B
 :

a INTRODUCTION.

is one of the most promising and hopeful kind. A later and more com-
plete enquiry, undertaken for the purpose of correcting any error that
might have arisen in the former instance, confirmed the previous account
in almost every particular, and shewed that on most points, the results
had even heen understated : whilst every year is found to add to the
agency, and realises increased fruit from the labours both of past and pre-
sent days.
During the present year, the number of European and American
MISSIONARIES laboui'iug only amongst the native population in India and
Ceylon amounts to four hundred ; together with forty -eight ordained
NATIVE MISSIONARIES, and sevcTi hundred native catechists. These
agents are employed in the public preaching of the gospel in the vernacu-
lar tongues ; in courteous public discussions upon the errors of the Hindu
and Mahomedan religions; in the instruction of the young; in the
pastoral care of native churches ; in the composition of Christian works
in the native languages, and in the translation of the Word of God. The
Native Christian churches are now three hundred and thirty-one in
number, and contain eighteen thousand five hundred communicants.
Connected A\ith them, and with them enjoying the regular instruction
and discipline of the gospel is a body of individuals, termed Native
Christians, entirely separated from the Hindu and Musalman commu-
nities. The entire Native Christian population now includes one hundred
and twelve thousand persons, young and The Vernacular day-
old.

scHOOLS maintained in Indian Missions, thirteen hundred and fifty in

number, conidaw forty -seven thousand, five hundred boys. Ninety -three
BOARDING Schools for boys contain tivo thousand four hundred scholars
and a hundred and two boarding schools for girls, contain /i^;o thousand
eight liundred girls. There are maintained one hundred and tiventy-six
English day-schools giving a superior education to more than fourteen
thousand scholars and students. Female education is carried on in
three hundred and fifty day-schools, with about twelve thousand girls,
both Christian and heathen ; in addition to the boarding schools mentioned,

whose superior advantages are confined almost exclusively to Christian

children. Efforts are stiU continued to improve the ten translations of
the WHOLE Bible, and the five other versions of the New Testament,
which have already been completed : as well as to increase the valuable

stock of vernacular Christian works, suitable both for heathens and Chris-
tians, now available in all the chief Indian languages. Christian tracts
and the four Gospels are widely scattered beyond the immediate bound-
 INTRODUCTION. 3

aries of Missionary stations; and twenty-five printing presses are

engaged in supplying them. Upon this agency, vast in itself, but small
compared with the sphere in which it is maintained and with the aims
which it seeks to accomplish, the liberality of twenty-two Missionary
Societies spends nearly two hundred thousand pounds a year.
The number of actual converts in India is frequently spoken of as
small, and none will deny the fact, in view of the millions upon miRions
who remain heathen still. But he, who considers actual converts as the
sole fruit of missionary labour, takes but a partial view of the subject,

and submits it to but an imperfect test. Missionary instruction, while

aiming to secure such converts on the largest scale, has intermediately
obtained results of another kind, which indirectly remove obstacles to its

progress and are a guarantee of perfect ultimate success. Acting with

influences derived from the Government, from commerce and from
general intercourse with a foreign people, it has done much to break down
the exclusiveness, in which Hindu Society was slii'ouded, and especially
to diminish the high esteem in which the brahminical priesthood was
once held. It has in various ways met the powerful difficulties which
prevent the conversion of the Hindus, and has encountered them success-
fully. The bonds of caste, reverence for the sacred books, veneration for
a long-established priesthood, and a blind attachment to their idolatries,
constitute the chief obstacle to their reception of an eidightened and
reasonable religion. But missionary teaching has assailed these obstacles,
diminished then influence, and produced on an extensive scale, a state of
mind admirably preparative of great religious changes in future days.
Where this teaching has been most efi'ective, many signs have been
manifested of a decay in the strength of Hinduism. The decrease in the
number of those who fi'equent the native seats of learning and study the
ancient and authoritative Shastras : the diminished regard paid by the
better- educated class to their Hindu spiritual teachers ; the repudiation
by that class of the scientific portions of the Vedas and Pm"ans ; the decay
and ruin of the ancient temples ; the small number of new ones erected
in their stead ; the great decrease in many parts of the country in the
number of people gathered to celebrate the annual feasts and draw the
huge idol cars ; the increase of the new sects under new leaders, holding

as prominent doctrines the folly of idolatry and the necessity of a holy

life : the discussion by Hindus of various castes, of questions like female
education and the re-marriage of widows, which were supposed to belong
to pundits only and to have been settled by the Shastras ages ago : the
B 3
 —

4 PRESIDENCY OF MADRAS.

extensive ackiiowlcflgniciit ])y the common people of the folly of idolatry,

and of the wicked character ascribed to their gods a more correct appre- ;

ciation of the real character of moral evil, and the awakening of a con-
science long dimmed by ignorance and vice all attest the spread of
purer knowledge and a loosening of the bonds which bind the people to
their wretched ancestral faith. On the other hand, the diminution of
angry discussions "\ntli missionaries, and a greater readiness to listen to

what they preach ; the willing reception of portions of the Bible and of
religious tracts ; the large number of copies which are beyond all doubt
privately read and pondered ; the respect with which the name of Christ

is in many places received ; and the very strenuousness of the opposition

offered to Christianity where it is best known, are signs that its power is

felt both by friend and foe, and that many regard it as the religion which
shall ultimately prevail. To the decrease of Hinduism, many influences

contribute. Intercom'se with Europeans, whether connected with the

Government or with trade; the introduction of European notions of
justice into legislation European ideas of science and morality, as well
;

as religious instruction, tend to exhibit by contrast the weakness, and

expose the errors of the religion of their Hindu ancestors ; but it must
bs allowed that Missionary teaching on the subject has been the most
direct, the most Avidely spread has continued for the longest time and
;

been applied in the most systematic way. The spread of Christian light

by the direct preaching of the gospel is of com-se its pccidiar pro\-ince.

PRESIDENCY OF MADRAS.

Amongst the different territories of Hindustan which have enjoyed the

benefit of missionary labours, and have exhibited many of their fruits,

the Presidency of Madras naturally first attracts the Christian's eye.

Though not the largest of the Presidencies, nor the most important, either

in relation to government, commerce, or political events, it has had the

laro-est share of missionary eflbrt, and exhibits the largest
amount of
palpable results. This Presidency was the first into which missionaries

entered, and has therefore been cultivated the longest time. Nearly one

hundred and fifty years ago the first Danish missionaries took up their
residence in Tranquebar ; and steadily maintained a course of instruction
for the enlightenment of the pagan mind. During the whole of last

century, one and another continued to arrive to occupy the places of

those who died, and to extend the labom's of the mission to new districts.
 ; :

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF THE PRESIDENCY. 5

Thus it happened that while nearly all the heathen world lay in dense
darkness, the Gospel was preached successfully in Southern India. While
the cannibals of New Zealand destroyed each other Avithout hinderance
while the idolatry and vice of Tahiti remained unknown; while the
Negro race were being subjected to the darkest horrors of the slave-trade ;

while the Hottentots in South Afi'ica were shot unmercifully by their

Dutch Masters; while China, (its infanticide and idolatry unknown,)
was reckoned by some European infidels as the abode of piety and peace ;
— the province of Tanjore and the town of Madras were benefiting by the
same system of gospel -instruction which has since elevated these degraded
people. During all last century, in these two localities the Word of God
was preached and read in the Tamil language. Christian books were circu-
lated in small numbers, and a steady witness offered for Christ, amid the
native heathenism and European irreligion, which then so extensively
prevailed. The history and progTcss of these Missions, and the position
wliicli they have at present attained must on this account alone, be
matters of deep interest to all Christian minds : while that interest is

deepened and lastingly secured by the internal character of many of the

missions themselves. The following is the number of Missionaries and
converts which the whole Presidency now contains.
Missionaries, 182
including Ordained Natives, 18
Catechists, 405
Churches, 128
Communicants, 10,662
Native Christians, 76,591
Vernacular-school boys, 24,500
Enghsh-school boys, 4,286
Day-school girls, 6,639
Boarding-school girls, 1,470

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF THE PRESIDENCY.

A few words premised on the Geography of South India, will help our
readers to understand clearly the progress of its Christian Missions
especially as the country is divided so simply and naturally that its

details can be easily remembered. The great continent of Hindustan,

after projecting into the sea, slopes off to a point towards the south, and
that extreme point is termed Ccqie Comorin. Almost all the projected
 ;;

6 GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF THE PRESIDENCY,

part with those sloping sides, is included in the Presidency of Madras.

On the eastern slope lies the Bay
of Bengal ; on the western, the broad
Indian Ocean : and on the north of the Presidency are situated Orissa,
Hydrabad, and the Presidency of Bombay. The Presidency naturally
divides itself into tliree great districts. On each side there is a narrow
sHp of plain close to the sea, varying generally from ten to eighty miles
in breadth ; in the centre is a broad and undidating plateau, three thou-
sand feet high ; this includes the Pro\inces of Mysore, Coorg and the
Ceded Districts. Ranges of hills, called Ghauts, run along the country
on both sides, between the low plain near the sea, and the higher land
of Central India : they are called the Eastern and Western Ghauts
respectively. These natural physical divisions of the country are accom-
panied by somewhat similar divisions of the people and of their languages.
The Eastern sea-coast and plain are inhabited by two different nations

the Telugus, who occupy the district from Orissa to Pulicat : and the
Tamils who possess that which extends from Pulicat to Cape Comorin.
The high central province contains the pure Canarese population : the
Western strip of sea-coast is possessed by the Canarese people in the
north, whence the province is caUed Canara ; and by the Mdledlis* in
the south. The Mdledlis occupy the province of Malabar, with the dis-
tricts of Tellicherry and Calicut also the little kingdom of Cochin, and
;

the chief portion of Travancore. Thus Telugu is found in the north-east

Tamil in the south-east; Canarese in the centre and north-west; and
Mdledlim in the south-Avest. The Tamil and Mdledlim of course meet
near Cape Comorin.
The Missions of the Presidency may be also divided on the same

principles : being much separated from each other by the difference of

tongue. Beginning along the Bay of Bengal, after passing Orissa and

the town of Puri, we find Missions among the Telugus at Vizagapatam,

Masulipatam, Guntoor, Rajmundry, Nellore and Cuddapah. Passing

through their comitry, we come to the Tamil Missions at Madras at ;

Tranquebar ; Taujore and Trichinopoly. Farther south, they are flou-

rishing in the districts of Dindigul and Madura : and next in TiimeveUy,

and at Cape Comorin. In the centre of the Presidency, Bangalore is the

estabbshcd at Bel-
head of the Canarese :\Iissions which have been also

* This word is usually written in the form Malai,aUm ; a form which both sug-
the Malay people; with
gests a wrong pronunciation, and some connection with
whom however it has nothing to do. Each a is accented and pronounced as a in

hard. The name is connected with 3Iala-har.

 : : ;

THE WRITER S JOURNEY. 7

lary, Goobee and Mysore. On the West coast the Basle Society has
Canarese Missions at Dharwar, Honore, Mangalore and Cannanore : and
chief stations in the Malealim country at Tellicherry and CaHcut. The
Jews at Cochin speak Maleiilim : so also do the Syrian Christians of
North Travancore, to whom the Church Missionary Society has for many
years preached the gospel. Each of these groups of Missions I propose
to notice in the course of these lectures^ adopting the following order
The Telugu, Canarese and Tulu Missions.
The Tamil Missions in jNIadras^ Tanjore and Madura.
The Shdndr Missions in Tinnevelly and South Travancore.
The Syrian Christians in North Travancore.
I also add Lectm'es on subjects of a similar kind^ and of great interest

The Romish Missions in South India :

The Government Mission among the Khonds

The Claims of the Madras Presidency for more missionaries.

THE WRITER S JOURNEY.

To describe in fall the numerous incidents of the writer's journey

through so large a portion of the Madras Presidency, is not the purpose

of these lectures : but^ in order to shew the authority upon which many
statements are made, and many descriptions offered, it may be useful to
give a mere outhne of the course which that journey took, and the places
which I visited.

In going down the Bay of Bengal towards Madras, the ship stayed a
week at Vizagapatam. I thus had the opportunity of examining the
oldest Telugu Mission in the country, and of receiving from Mr. Gordon
the oldest missionary, and from his bretliren, much information concern-
ing the progress of other missions since estabhshed. After a short stay
in Madras, during which I saw almost aU the missionaries of that city, I
set out on my journey into the interior. In order to make the best use
of my limited time and to prevent the necessity of going over the same
ground twice in certain places, I proceeded in the first place straight

westward into the very heart of the Presidency, to Bangalore : visiting

on the way the iovnx of Arcot and the celebrated temples at Conjeveram,
At Bangalore I met all the missionaries both of the Wesleyan and Lon-
don Societies, and visited their chapels, press and schools. Thence I
went south to Mysore, where there is a Wesleyan Mission; went over
the palaces of Hyder and Tippu at Seringapatam : saw the gateway
8 THE writer's journey.

where Tippu was killed, and visited their celebrated tombs. Crossing
" the valley of death," a jungle twenty-five miles deej), resembling the
pestilential Terai at the base of the Himalaya, I entered the Nilyherry
Hills on the north side, and spent two days at Ootacamund. Four miles
from Ootacamund at Kaity, the residence of the late Mr. Casamajor, I
saw the German Mission Avhich he established and the villages of Badagas
for whom it was specially designed. Descending the Nilgherry Hills on
the east side by the splendid Pass of Konoor, I came down into the
eastern plains to the London Mission at Coimbatoor, being the first

missionary from Bengal that had ever visited those parts. I then
passed through the great gap in the Ghauts, at Palgaut, to the West
coast of India, and reached Trichoor the most northerly station of the
Church IVIissionary Society among the Syrian Christians of Travancore.
Thence I sailed down the Backwater'
' to Cochin, passing on the way
numerous Roman Catholic Churches, in the island of Verapoli and its

neighbourhood. In Cochin I \isited the Jewish synagogue with Mr.

Laseron its missionary and also his Jewish school. Thence I proceeded
to Cottayam, the head-quarters of the Syrian Mission, and saw its hand-
some Gothic Churches, its excellent schools and useful press. I visited

also Mdvelikdri, one of the most flourishing stations, and thence proceeded
to Quilon. In these parts, I travelled close to the western coast, often
along the sea beach itself, looking over the broad waters of the Indian
Ocean which stretch away without interruption to the coast of eastern

Africa. Lea^dng Quilon which has been for thirty years a station of the
London Missionary Society in Travancore, I proceeded to Trevandrum,

another station, the residence of the Raja of Travancore, who sent the
ivory throne to the Great Exhibition thence I went to Pareychaley, a
:

third station of the London Mission, and concluded the first portion of

my journey by arriving finally at Nagercoil, the head-quarters of the

mission, a few miles from Cape Comorin. I spent a fortnight among

these interesting missions, visiting all their chief stations in turn ; and
greatly enjoying the society of the missionaries in Avhose charge they lie.

After a visit to Cape Comorin I set out on my return to Madras by com-

ing up the east coast, and through the Tamil country. I first spent

twelve days among the many stations in Tinnevelly ; and then Avent on
to Madura, Dindigul and other stations of the American Mission. Thence
I proceeded to Trichinopoly where Swartz lived and Heber died and ;

to Tanjore, where Swartz is buried. I next visited Negapatam and saw

both the Wesleyan INIission and Jesuit College : and thence continued
 THE TELUGU MISSIONS. V

my journey to tlic oldest Mission in India, that at Tranquehm\ Passing

the temples of Chillumbrum ; the old Mission at Cuddalore, founded by
Mr. Kiernander ; the Jesuit College in Pondicherry ; and the Seven
Pagodas at Mdvalipuram, I proceeded to Madras, whieh I reaehed after

an absence of twelve Avceks. In this journey I travelled thirteen hundred

and sixty miles ; includhig Madras, I saw altogether fifty Missionary
Stations and ninety Missionaries. [As an illustration of the extent to

which Missions are now carried on in Hindustan, I may state that I

less than one hundred and ninety-four
have myself seen and spoken to no
living Indian Missionaries : in addition to twenty-seven others, who have
died or left the country.]
I cannot conclude this short sketch of my interesting and delightfid
journey Avithout gratefully recording the kind and hospitable manner in
which was everywhere received. The missionary brethren of all Societies
I

welcomed me with the utmost cordiality, and in many cases, though

personally a stranger, seemed to regard me as an old friend. This kind
reception arose probably from the correspondence I had previously had
with them when compiling my missionary statistics in previous years.
They entered readily into my enquiries and gave me much information
concerning the history, condition and prospects of their different spheres
of labour. We were able to compare notes on the character and difficul-

ties of missionary work in different parts of Hindustan : and to derive

therefrom mutual instruction and mutual encouragement. I was also

greatly pleased to hear the cordial manner in which they spoke of each

other's labours. Though belonging to many Societies they know each

other personally, join in common labours and make use of each other's
works. This cordial union is nothing new in India, but I mention it as
a patent fact which struck me both as excellent in itself, and as a token
of the future success of their common labours. The pleasure of my
visits to so many of the labourers in the Lord's vineyard, and the im-
pressions which they made upon my heart wdl, I trust, abide with me as
long as life lasts.

THE TELUGU MISSIONS.

The country entirely occupied Ijy the Telugu nation is the narrow
strip of sea-coast on the Bay of Bengal, which stretches from Ganjam to
Pulicat. about six hundred miles long, and varies in breadth from
It is

ten to eighty miles. It is bounded on the western side by a broad chain

10 THE TELUGU MISSIONS.

of Ghauts, the undulating country above which is also inhabited hj the

Telugu peo])le far back into Hydrabad. Near Gcwjam these Ghauts
come down close to the sea, and continue to throw oft' spurs towards the
coast as far as Coringa. It was a great treat to those of us who had
lived for some time in the flat plains of Bengal, as we sailed along the

Telugu coast, to see these hills following one another in quick succession,
clothed with jungle to their very summits. In the highest of all, the
hills we remembered that once the Mcriah sacrifice so widely
of GooMSUR,
prevailed among the Khoonds though that cruel rite has now, through
;

the efforts of Government, been almost entirely extinguished. The level

country is fertile and from it the peasants raise abundant crops of corn.
Indigo, sugar and cotton also are found among its productions. It is

well watered by numerous smaller streams, but numbers also the Kistna

and Godavery among its rivers. The population is large; though in some
of its districts, especially in jNIasulipatam and Guntoor, immense num-

bers, reckoned by hundreds of thousands, were swept away in the great

famine of 1833. Owmg to the abundant population we find throughout
the comitry flom-ishing towns and villages. Vizagapatam, the head-
quarters of the Military Division in the Northern Circars, contains now
50,030 people; having increased from 20,000 in about forty years.
Viztanagram the residence of a Raja, numbers 28,000. Masidipatam, a
pretty to^ni nearly two miles square, built in the usual Indian style and
containmg about twenty pagodas, has 90,000. Rajamwidrij, Guntoor,

Nellore and Onyole are also large and important places. To these must
be added the to^vn and district of Cuddapah.
The first eff'ort to extend the gospel to the Telugu people was made by
Dr. Schultz, one of the early Tranquebar missionaries, who fomided a
mission in INIadras. Finding among the jNIadras population a large
number of Telugus, (then called Gentoos) he began to translate the

Bible into then- tongue ; and established, and maintained for years,

Telugu classes in his schools. There is reason to believe that his Telugu

jNIunshi died a true Cliristian, the first fruits to Christ of that great
nation. Dr. Schultz completed his translation of the Bible ; but liavuig
no means of printing it, took it to Halle on his retm-n to Europe ; and
it has never since been heard of.

The first settled Mission to the people in their owai country was
estabhshed by Messrs. Cran and Desgranges of the London Missionary
Society, who proceeded to Vizagapatam in 1805. Like others of their
day, they began their ministerial Avork with religious services among
 ;

THE TELUGU MISSIONS. 11

Europeans and the neglected children of the English regiments but :

they also applied themselves diligently to the Tclugu language, and soon
became knoAvn among the nati^•es as religious teachers for them. They
admitted native boys into their school, conversed frequently with their
neighbours, and itinerated among the surrounding villages. They com-
piled tracts, consisting of scripture passages on particular subjects, which
were printed at Madras ; and began to prepare a complete translation of
the Gospels and Acts. They were much encouraged at the outset by the
aid furnished by a Telugu brahman who had been baptized first by the
lloman Catholics and afterwards received at Tranquebar. In the myste-
rious Pro\'ideuce of God these two brethren who had entered on their
work so well, were cut off in the beginning of their usefulness. Mr.
Cran died in 1809 and Mr. Desgranges in 1810. Tavo new missionaries

however arrived, Messrs. Gordon and Lee ; they again were soon joined
by Mr. Pritchett, who had been to Rangoon, and had been compelled to
retire from his mission there. Mr. Lee left in 1815, but Mr. Dawson
arrived the same year and occupied his place. The three brethren,
Gordon, Dawson and Pritchett, continued their preaching and school
instructions uninterruptedly for some years ; during which they endea-
voured to enlarge the mission by founding a branch at Ganjam. They
found that the people had l)egun to understand the gospel, and at Cliica-

cole some who had never seen any thing but their tracts, had declared
they would become Christians. The translation of the New Testament
was completed before Mr. Pritchett's death, and put, I believe, into

circidation. That of the Old Testament was far advanced and was com-
pleted by Mr. Gordon. It is now being printed for the first time by the
Madras Bible Society : only small portions, like the Psalms, having been
circulated hitherto. Mr. Pritchett died in 1820, after eight years' labour

the brethren Gordon and Dawson remained alive ; the former till 1828 ;

the latter till 1832. They were not privileged to see many converts

drawn from the district ; but they had extensively spread the knowledge
of the gospel among the villages and towns in their neighbourhood, and
proved a great blessing to the poorer European population, who would
otherwise have lived destitute of religious instruction. The houses where
they resided, the garden they planted, and the chapel they erected still

exist : and their sons are now carrying on the labours from which they
ceased only with life.

A second Mission among the Telugus was founded at Cuddapah, in the

Ceded Districts below the Ghauts, in 1822. Its first Christians were
c 2
12 THE TELUGU MISSIONS.

Tamils from Cliittoor; and the extreme inconsistency, weakness and

irreligion which prevailed among them for many years, proved a strong
barrier to the spread of Christianity among the people, for whose good the
mission had been commenced. The administration of a sound and faith-

ful discipline at length purified the church of these evils, although its

numbers were reduced. From that time an eminent blessing rested on

it from above, and Christianity began to take firm root in the Telugu
villages by which Cuddapali is surrounded.
These two stations, Vizagajmtam and Cuddapah, under the London
Missionary Society, continued to be the only Missions among the Telugus
till the year 1836, now seventeen years ago. The famine of 1833 drew
marked attention to this interesting people, and efforts were specially
made to spread the gospel where it had not been hitherto declared. The
first additional station was established at Narsapore by Messrs. Bowden
and Beer in 1836. These labourers for Christ were two young trades-
men from Barnstaple, who had come to India anxious to carry on mis-
sionary Avork while supporting themselves by their trades. The latter

part of the scheme failed, as it has done elscAvhere ; but fe-iends took up
their cause and sent them money, and have continued to support them
to the present time. Both learned the language well ; and have been
exceedingly useful. Mr. Bowden is said to speak Telugu like a native,

and it is remarkable that he has been especially successful among the

chuklas, or shoe-makers, to Avhom in a manner he himself once belonged.
He was for sometime engaged by Col. Cotton to preach to the natives
engaged in the construction of the great Aiiicut or dam across the River

Godavery near which they live. Another station was established in 1839
at Cicacole by the London Mission, as an offshoot from Vizagapatam
from which it is a few miles distant. In 1811, the Church Missionary
Society took up MasuUpatam, incited thereto by an offer made to Bishop

Corrie by some gentlemen of the station, to provide a considerable por-

tion of two missionaries' salaries. It Avas this offer which brought out
to India one of the most spiritual and gentle, yet energetic missionaries
of modern days, the Rev. Henry Fox. His career was short but striking,

more useful perhaps to his countrymen, as an example of self-devotion,

than distinguished by success among the heathen. Since its establish-

ment in 1841, the mission has been well supplied Avith agents, has been
well managed, and is one of the most efficient missions in the Telugu
land. Nellore was taken up by the American Baptists in 184!0 : Raj-
mundry and Guntoor, in 1845 by the Society of North Germany. The
 THE TELUGU MISSIONS. 13

Free CI lurch also opened schools at Nellorc. Thus has provision been
made for a more extensive proclamation of the gospel among this long-

neglected people.
It will readily be supposed that missionaries pursue in the Telugu
country, plans very similar to those adopted in other parts of India :

particvdarly in the mofussil districts. They act as pastors and teachers

of the chm'ches which they have gathered : have near them boarding
schools for christian children and orphans; superintend and instruct
vernacular schools, where only elementary knowledge can be communi-
cated : and in the Ijcst towns have established English schools besides.
They also frequently undertake extensive itinerancies into country dis-

tricts : their opportunities for such labour, as in all the Madras Presi-

dency, not being nearly so limited as in Bengal : the sun and weather
being more favourable.
The general knowledge and religious condition of the people at large

seem to be much the same as they are in villages in Bengal. They have
their periodical festivals and melas : with this peculiarity, that at certain
places they worship particular Avatars or incarnations of Vishnu. At one
place near Vizagapatam, a crowd of 25,000 people assembles annually to
worship the Boar-incarnation : in another, to worship the Norsingh or
incarnation of the man-lion. If the small-pox or cholera rages badly,
they all bring their sacrifices to the Ammdvaru, each caste ha^dng its

own priests ; who slaughter buffaloes, sheep and fowls in her honoiu' : in
her name the swinging feasts are held. Snakes, Hanuman and the
brahmin-ldtes are extensively honoured and even worshipped. The
brahmins of course are superior to all. Fakeers are accounted peculiarly
holy. The same shastras, the same legends prevail there as in Upper
India. The same rules of caste are obeyed. The same vices too abound.
Lying is especially common. " How could the world," say they, " go on
without lying." The doctrines of Pantheism and Transmigration are
continually advocated, and bring forth the same apathy and indifference
among them, as they produce elsewhere.

But the work of the Lord is steadily making progress. Here and there
an individual conversion takes place in the upper classes, rending families
asunder and causing the thoughts of many hearts to be revealed. Every
year witnesses additions to the infant churches. Although the majority
of the Telugu missions have been in operation only about twelve years,
yet the religious impressions produced upon the people in general arc
plaiidy discernible. A great amount of Bible knowledge has been widely
 ;

14 THE TELUGU MISSIONS.

spread ; in some heathen families it has been fonnd that the Bible is

daily read and prayer daily offered. Wherever new temples are built or
old ones repaired^ it is usually observed that the obscene figures which
once formed their chief ornament are removed ; a fact owing doubtless
to the light which from the gospel is now l)reaking upon the darkness of
ages. It is manifest that the leaven of the Word of God is working.
In many places the people aclaiowledge that Christianity wiU prevail;
that their gods are weak ; that idolatry is foolish. In proof of this the

singular fact is exhibited, that they have begun to give up many of the
inferior deities, and to appeal especially to Uaji belie^'ing him to be Al-
mighty. Processions are constantly formed of persons carrying lights
and singing hymns in praise of Raini. I saw one such when in Vizaga-
patam.
Missionaries frequently meet with facts like these during their exten-
sive itinerancies ; it is in their journeys that the^^ come into closest con-
tact with pm'ely native life, and gain a thorough insight into native
notions especially in the country villages. For instance ; at Narsampett,
several years ago, Mr. Edward Porter was preaching to a congregation
of upwards of a hundred persons, and found it heart-cheering to see the
regard which these poor people paid to the word of life. One old woman
about eighty years of age, listened mth marked attention for some time
Mr. Porter was much struck with her appearance, and having finished

his address tmnied aside to converse with her. He asked if she wor-
shipped idols :
" No ;" she replied, " I have left them off." " How long
have you left them off?" "Ever since the great famine :" (very likely

the year 1833). " Whom then do you worship?" She pointed to the
heavens and said :
" That God, he only is God and no one else. These
people," she continued, " have a thousand opinions and a thousand

religions, therefore God does not d^^•cll with them : you speak of one
God and one true way, therefore God dwells with you." It was dchght-
ful to hear such a testimony from a poor decrepit old woman, sm-rounded

as she was with all the abominations of idolatry.

In the village of Dhoosee, in 1845, Mr. Dawson had little less than

the whole population to hear his preaching ; men, women and children
thronging around him from morning till night. Many from their looks
and expressions seemed convinced of the truth, but felt the difficulties in

their way to be very great. A little company of ten persons returned to

his tent in the dark, after others had gone home, and calling to the

servants asked ;
" What is the name of that SaA iour, that IMaster has
 THE TELUGU MISSIONS. 15

been telling us of; we try to recollect it, but cannot." The servants,
thinking it perhaps too bad of them to trouble the missionary again at
night, after being with him all the day, replied, " Master is just gone
and laid himself down ; don't trouble him again." Mr. Dawson however
called to them : and asking them to come in, one of their number, rather
an old man, entered the tent, and sitting down, said " Sir, we have
;

been hearing all that has been said, and we have felt persuaded that the
truth is on your side. A few , of us have therefore consulted together
that it is not right for us to disregard your message, and your disinter-
ested concern for our welfare ; and we have thought that we would
henceforth, though we cannot do all that you have told us, give up the
worship of idols and false gods and think of and pray to this Saviour
alone, but we could not recollect his name. Is it this .?" he said, pro-
nouncing it rather incorrectly. Mr. D. repeated the name of Jesus to
them several times, and after speaking to them a little more of its being
the only name under heaven given among men whereby we must be
saved, proposed to them, to send a man to stay vai\\ them continually
and teach them the worship of the true Saviour, of whom they were so
anxious to hear.
Pleasing as these indications are of an improved state of things, too
much importance should not Ijc attributed to them : the very circum-
stances of the ease forbid it. At Peddapur, a blacksmith several times
visited Mr. Gordon, declarmg his dissatisfaction with Hinduism, and his
desire to become more acquainted mth the claims and doctrines of Chris-

tianity, with the narratives of which he seemed to be much interested.

" But how," was his sensible question, " are we to become acquainted
with it ? You are here to-day and away to-morrow, and we have no
means of obtaining the we want ?"
instructions
A native baptized by Mr. Dawson at Chicacole, was in the first instance

led to think of the interests of liis soul, through the instrumentality of a

Telugu tract. He had been contemplating a visit to Jagannath, and
was on the eve of preparation, when a copy of the tract on the worship
of Jagannath was accidentally discovered by liim in his box. He read it,

relinquished the project of his pilgrimage ; became a stated attendant at

Mr. Dawson's chapel ; and a steady adherent to the truth.

At both the Chm-ch Missionary Enghsh School in Masulipatam, and
that of the London Mission at Vizagapatam, young men have been led
(as in Calcutta and jMadras), to give up Hinduism and profess the reli-

gion of Clmst. The same uproar has followed there as here. The same
16 THE TELUGU MISSIONS.

violence ; the same stern trial of the hest affections ; the same attempts

to deceive by lavish promises ; the same appeal to the magistrate, and

the same stand made by the convert —that he wished to be a Christian

because the Bible is true —have occurred with them as they do in Bengal

or Bombay ;
pronng that the work of the Lord is one, and that opposi-
tion to its progress springs eveiy where from the same cause.
In 18i9, considerable religious enquiry took place among the villagers

of the Palnaud, a district to the west of Guntoor, among the Ghauts.

They were under the instruction of j\Ir. Heyer, of the American Lutheran
Mission, who had shortly before taken up a permanent residence in their

midst. Of these people, thirty-mne were baptized in 1819; and one

hundred and twenty-five the following year. Whether ultimately a sincere
and well-based chm'ch of Cluist has been formed among them I knoAV
not : but one important guarantee for their sincerity, exists in the fact

that they are well off in the world. They are both farm-labourers and
Aveavers : land-o-smers must employ them in the former capacity : while

in the latter also they can earn enough for their support : they are thus

rather independent. Mr. Heyer also has taught them, that he who would
eat must work. The people were baptized perhaps rather hastily : but
there was reason to beheve them sincere.

During the last eight years the gospel has made special progress in the

neighboui-hood of Cuddapah. Of the four out-stations attached to the

central mission, that of Cherlopilly seemed first to aAvake to a sense of
the evils of idolatry. In ISIS, omng to the instructions of the catechists

and the influence of the Reddy or headman, himself almost a Christian,

aU public idolatrous festivals entii-ely ceased in the village ; a chapel was

erected and a small congregation regidarly met to be instructed in the

"Word of God. In 1849, the son of the chief Reddy wished to be bap-
tized, and strangely enough received the full consent of his parents to
this public profession of his Christianity. Other \illages have since
exliibited a similar spirit; and the native catechists, who frequently

itinerate among them, have home the most pleasing testimony to the
impression which the gospel has produced on the people's minds. It

would be easy to multiply the most interesting examples ; but the follow-
ing may serve as a specimen.
One says :
" On the thu-ty-first of October, 1850, I arrived at Door.
About thirty persons assembled to hear the word. After I had spoken

to them, Unkunnah received me kindly into his house and wished me to

stay to instruct 1dm and his friends. Accordingly I staid with him aU
 THE TELUGU MISSIONS. 17

that day, explained the Christian religion, and at night ten other persons
joined us to whom I preached the word of life. I read and explained the
fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of Luke and the third chapter of John.
We then knelt doAvn and prayed to God. Though Hindus they all

knelt down v,-iili us and prayed, and appeared much interested in what
was said to them. One man of the assembly called Parvah said ;
— Sir,

I am very desirous to embrace the Christian religion, because I have

searched many Hindu books, but have not found such precious words as
these. He said also ; Sir, since you visited us eight months ago, I have

not had any comfort in my heart on account of my heathen ways, and

though I have often intended to come and see you, yet I have been
hindered on account of my family, but noAV you are come I am very
glad." He and some others are desirous of embracing the Christian
rehgion, and to have their children instructed in this good Avay. This
inquirer followed the catechists to Cuddapah and staid ten days, receiv-

ing instruction. Unkunnah, his host, and three others from the village

were baptized the following year. At Pedalah, also in the neighbom'-

hood of Door, fifteen families gave up idolatry and presented their

idol to the missionary ; several individuals have been since baptized as

Christians.
Another catechist preached in a large village, at a feast in honor of
Vislmoo. When they brought out the idol on a large car, he went near
and spoke to the people : Why are you all looking at that idol, if you
speak to it will it speak to you, and if you set fire to it will it not be
burned ? He then declared the glory, power and goodness of the great
God, and of the salvation which he had wrought out by Jesus Christ for
poor sinners. The people replied ^Tiat you say. Sir, is very good our
: :

idols are vain and can do us no good. You must come, Su', from time to
time and declare to us these good words. When asked by the catechist
why they came to the feast if they did not believe in the idol, they said,
'
We onhj come to look at the sight and laugh, but ive have no faith in the
idol. We believe in one God ; Ave have read yom' books and like the

At Yeypuralu a man came to the same catechist

A;visdom they contain,'

and embracing him Avith great affection said Are you a disciple of our :

Lord Jesus ? He then took him to his house, lodged him for tAvo days
and heard the Avord of God Avith great attention. He said that he had
heard about this true religion some time ago at Cuddapah, and that ever
since that time he had left off the worship ofidolsandAvasinthehabit of pray-
ing to God. He also begged the catechist to stay and instruct his children,
D
18 THE TELUGU MISSIONS.

Among the converts baptized in 1850, there was one who had been led

to profess himself a christian by the reading of tracts and the regnlar

hearing of tlie word. He came to Mr. Porter one morning and Avith much
feeling delivered up his brass idols, the former objects of his worship.
Throwing them on the groimd, he said : Enough of these, I have done with
them and wish to have no more to do with them. I have read much and
learnt much in my heathen books ; but I have found no rest. In Christ
alone is rest. After Mr. Porter had conversed with him for some time on
the delightful change that had taken place in his views and feelings, his soul
seemed to gather fresh strength, and taking from his neck a silver chain
bearing the name of his god, he cast it on the ground saying : Enough,
nothing but sin has cleaved to me all the time I have kept this close to me.
Let it go, I have done with idols ; please. Sir, take it : I now know of
something better. The love of. Jesus ! O how different to all this. I know I
must be persecuted by my friends and relations, but I must not mind that.
After being under further instruction for three months, he was Ijaptized
at Muddunpilly the out-station, in the month of May ; since which time
he has continued steadfast in his attachment to the Christian religion.

Through his influence and instructions his aged father,who was once the
chief guru or priest in the village, has renomiced idolatry, and is now a
regular attendant at the Mission Chapel.
During last year the fruits of missionary labour in Cuddapah and the
villages which sm'round it, Avere manifested in a still more striking man-
ner. The congregation at Cuddapah increased to two hundred; and ten
members were added to the Chm-ch. Mr. Porter baptized no less than

fifty-one adults, chiefly at the out-stations : and many others for the first

time renounced idolatry, and placed themselves under christian instruc-

tion. Of this large number thirty-two reside at Ubdalapuram, sixty miles
from Cuddapah. On making their profession they delivered up their idol

to the missionary and set apart the temple as a clu-istian school-room.

Sm-ely none can read of facts bke these without saying concerning de-
graded India: "Lift up your heads; the day of redemption draweth
nigh."
Thus the Knowledge of the gospel
fruits of missionary labour appear.

is spread amongst old and yomig, by public preaching in itinerancies by ; ;

the gift of gospels and by schools both English and vernacular. A

tracts ;

few are added to the churches in many more doubts and fears are excited
:

respecting the idolatry they noAV profess : and some believe the truth they
fear to confess. At the present time there exist among the Telugus^ eleven
 :

THE TELUGU MISSIONS. 19

missionary stations, with twenty missionaries. The Churches contain 210

members, in a community of 720 The 23 vernacular schools
christians.

contain 600 boys and 30 girls the boarding schools number 43 boys and
:

110 girls six English schools contain 310 boys. The New Testament has
:

just been re\ised : and the Old Testament is nearly completed : a small
stock of tracts and books has been prepared. A mission-press at Vizaga-
patam is wholly devoted to Telugu literature. But sixteen years ago, few

of these agencies were in operation in only two localities : under God's

blessing they have all increased and are being employed efficiently. May
they be speedily rendered fruitful in the conversion of souls !

THE GHAUTS.
The Telugu country is separated from the high land of central India,
by a rugged belt of mountains called the Ghauts. Whoever therefore
wishes to go from the plains of the Carnatic into the Mysore, must pass
through the mountain chain. These Ghauts are in most places immense
conical hills varying from six hundred to eleven hundred feet in height

tliey run generally in a direction fi-om North East to South West. In

some parts they stand close together ; the fcAV ravines are abrupt ; and the
rugged fronts of these rocky hills present an almost perpendicular wall to
the traveller. In other places the ravines are wider, and allow opportuni-
ties for constructing carriage roads. A few of the passes are easy of
ascent, but the majority are very difficult. The belt of Ghauts, varies
from three to ten miles in depth : and in passing through this district or
along its face, the traveller sees near and around him nothing but these
majestic hills. Sometimes they seem to be following each other like
mighty waves over the land : sometimes they form a solid barrier to all
advance. Their individual appearance greatly varies. Some are covered
with jungle to the very summit : others are more bare, and from the loose
masses of bleached rock lying upon their surface, seem at a distance cover-
ed with well-built to^vns. Some have only broken fragments of rock
scattered over their grassy slopes : but otliers are adorned with mighty
boulders, that assume the most singular forms. Of these boidders some
resemble huge heads, or sohd cottages, or hulls of ships : all are of granite,
blackened and weather-worn by tlie storms of thousands of years. Whose
hand scattered them there in such profusion ? From the day when the
first aborigines that took possession of the land, walked in their midst, all

changes in Indian Society have passed before their eyes. The Brahmin
D 2
20 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IX THE MYSORE.

and the Khetriya passed through them to conquer the first ownei's of the
soih Before tlicm the Mogul seized tlie Brahmin's patrimony. Through
tliera the Malirattas on their swift horses carried off the plunder of the
plains : and Hyder and Tippu fought battles at their feet. They have seen
injustice^ oppression and war, and before God are witnesses. Man has pass-
ed away ;
generation has followed generation : but the hills abide there
still. Their very stability is to us an element of comfort. Solid and long
enduring as they have been "^
the mountains shall depart and the hills be
removed ; but the Word of the That word has
Lord endure th for ever."

said that the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth. " All nations

shall serve him."

THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

The high table-land to which the Ghaut-passes lead, and which lies

three thousand feet above the Carnatic plains, is a noble sphere for mis-
sionary labom\ It stretches away five hundred miles from north to south,
from Belgaum in the ]Mahratta country to the Nilgherry liills : and con-
tains nearly fi^'e millions of inhabitants. It contains the Principality of

Coorg, the districts of Bellary and Kiu'nool, and the great province of
Mysore. It presents to the eye a broad undulating plain, pierced here
and there by hills ; some of Avhich like Nundydi'oog and Severndroog, from
their precipitous character, furnish natm-al fortresses for the defence of

the territory. Grey granite every where abounds ; and its fine slabs furnish

the natives with their doorsteps and the front of their shops. Of these

several districts the Mysore is best kno^^^l and in the best condition. Its
Government is efficient ; the administration of justice is prompt ; the roads
are in the finest order : the climate is salubrious, heat rising only to 88°

in the hot weather, and falling to 61° in the colder season. Trade is

prosperous : the soil is fertile : property is secure. Every thing in\dtes

the missionary to come forth and exhiljit to perishing idolaters the life-

giving gospel of Christ. The town of Bangalore, in the centre of the

province, is its chief city. It contains more than 100,000 inhabitants.

Of these the real native Canarese population reside in the Pettali or native
town, but the larger luimber are Tamils attached to the cantonment. The
military force consists of no less than three native Regiments ; a Begi-
ment of English Foot, one of European cavalry the usual detail of artil- :

lery and the stafi". The town is also the seat of the Government, the
 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 21

Mysore Commission. It lies opposite the best passes between Madras

and the west coast, and from it branch out roads to Bellary on the north,
to Mangalore on the India ocean, as well as to all parts of the province
of Mysore itself. Immense trade too is carried through it, thus complet-

ing the other elements by Avhich its importance is determined. But there
are other large towns in the province. Chittledroog , the head of a Sub-

division, has 14,000 people. Goobee with 6000 ; Coonghulyaih. 10,000 and
Toomkoor are all purely native towns. Mysore, the residence of the de-
posed Raja, is also a most important spot; as well as the decayed town of
Seringapatam. The people which occupy this immense territory are the

Canarese. They are an interesting race ; thoroughly Hindu ; and have

been little affected by the Musalman conquest of India which fell on them
from Bijnagar. Their simple village habits, government, hospitality, and
gentleness still continue ; Europeans even having had but httle intercourse
with them.
They have been almost entirely neglected by missionary societies. The
first attempt at missionary labour among them was made by Mr. Hands
and Mr. Reeve of the London Missionary Society at Bellary, at the very
north of the Canarese territory, in 1810. Mr. Hands by whom the station
was opened had great disadvantages to contend with in native work. He
had neither Grammar, Dictionary, nor Vocabulary he had to form : all

for himself : but met his difficulties with a patient spirit and soon began
to conquer them. Meanwhile he made friends among the Europeans, for
whose good he mauitained regular services : and opened a free school for

the destitute children of the soldiery. He thus sought to be useful to his

countrymen, while yet unable to speak the Canarese tongue. In 1813, he
established an English school for the natives, selecting the best scholars
in the Telugu and Canarese schools. He began also to translate the

Bible and was aided in tliis work by his colleague Mr. Reeve. Sub-
sequently a native chm^cli was founded, boarding schools were opened :

and a mission press established. A second Canarese mission was be-

gmi in 1820 at Bangalore, a more central station than Bellary, by
two missionaries of the same Society. At first much attention was paid
to the large Enghsh population in the Cantonment : and to the Tamil
people connected T\ith them. As
town of Bangalore was under the
the
Government of the Mysore Raja, the missionaries could not venture to
preach in its bazars and streets to the Canarese population. They en-
deavoured however to get their native teachers placed in the surrounding
towns : and on one occasion resorted to an ingenious device to secm-e their
22 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

object wliich may be noticed. Tliere is a custom among Hindus_, wlien

one native Avishes to obtain a gift from another, which is at first refused,
that he should sit pertinaciously at his door, day after day, until his re-
quest is gi-anted. As any e\nl wliich may happen to him is superstitiously
believed to revert to the person who refuses, such a proceeding is much
dreaded. It is called sitting in dherna. When Mr. Campbell wished to
get ground for his catechist's house in a town near Bangalore, and had
obtained the Kaja's order, the Fonjdar who was hostile, purposely delayed
executing it. Mr. Campbell then said to one of his catecliists ;
" Now,
Jacob, you must go every day to the cutchery and sit in dherna on the
Foujdar, while we pray for success.'^ Por six weeks he went, each day
reminding the Foujdar that he waited for his final orders : and at length
they were issued. Things went on unsatisfactorily for ten years, tiU
1830; when the system of government was changed, the province was
taken under the charge of the Hon, East India Company and the way
for preaching the gospel every where was opened in the fullest degree.
A very interesting fact occurred in connection with this change of govern-
ment whicli made a deep impression on the people and is Avorth mention-
ing. In order to see it well carried out. Lord William Bentinck, then
Governor-General, went up to the INIysore : but he travelled without
escort of any kind. The country people were astounded when they saw
him riding alone in his palankeen, and conceived from the circumstance
the highest idea both of his character and of English greatness. " Why !

say they to this day, if only a little Polygar goes to the next village, he
must have his guards and attendants with their swords, and so on : but
here the man that rules from the Himalaya to Rameswaram, comes as if

he were nohody. Abdh ! what a wonderful people you are !"

The Wesleyans established a mission in Bangalore in 1821 : but it was
long confined to English and Tamil services, the former of which were
exceedingly useful among the soldiery. The Canarese mission was com-
menced in 1836 by Mr. Garrett : when an English school was estabhshed

and a press put up. Both these establishments are now very efficiently

conducted ;
— in fact almost more so than any of their kind that I saw
out of Madras. The English school receives from the government a
monthly allowance of three hundred and fifty rupees, and is admirably
provided with materials for instruction. Both the missions at Bangalore
are prosperous. Their services for the heathen ; their Christian chapels in

both native languages : their boardmg, vernacular and English schools

are all maintained by a good staff of missionaries. There is one unfor-
 :

THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 23

tunate circumstance al)out their location which may be noticed. The two
missions, with their mission houses and land, stand sideby side just out
of the native town. This is not however their fault. The Wesleyans were
there first ; and when the London Missionaries were Avishing to build
their Canarese mission houses quite clear of the Cantonment, they chose
a spot just away from the native town, but on the side opposite to that of
their Wesleyan brethren. They then applied tlu'ough the proper officer,

to the head of the jMysore Commission for a grant of the land : but he
replied :
" What ! do these missionary gentlemen want to spread their
webs like spiders, to catch the natives. No, no ;
put them doAvn alongside
of the others.^' And there unfortunately they are. The greatest harmony
however has always prevailed between the brethren of the two bodies
they travel together, preach together, and are intimate personal friends.
I had the pleasui'c of meeting the whole of them at one time during my
short visit to Bangalore.
In the limited compass of these Lectures it is impossible to detail
at length the history of these useful Missions : or to descrilie, as they
deserve, the interesting events which have taken place during the groAvth
of their prosperity. We might contemplate with pleasure the gradual
progress of Canarese christian literature ; the translation of the Bible ;

the compilation of the Dictionary; the preparation of the Grammars

both in English and Canarese : the increase of christian tracts and school-
books : and other useful labours of the presses at Bellary and Bangalore*
We might shew the great benefits which have resulted from the Christian
Boarding Schools, especially that at Bellary, under Mr. Reid : record
the usefulness of the Theological Class at Bangalore ; or detail the pro-
gress of the Native Churches. Most worthy too of special mention are
the life, character and history of Samuel Flavel, the Native Pastor
of the Bellary Church, whose steady consistency, fidelity and zeal for the
Lord's work, present an excellent model for the imitation of his country-
men the native preachers. But all these things we must pass by, in
order rather to describe the progress of the gospel among the people
generally.
Instances might readily be multiplied of individual conversions that
have occurred in connection with these various missions : all illustrating

the silent but sm'c progress of the gospel, the difiiculties in the way of its
profession, and the all-powerful grace of the Saviour by which those dif»

ficulties are triumphantly overcome. One convert, in his heathen days

the priest of a temple, said on his baptism at Goobee ; —" I have travelled
 ;

24 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

day by day to gather flowers ; I have talked and put on temple garments
I have made ofierings to the idols. Yet no idol, either in dreams or when
awake, has said to me, ' Thy sins are forgiven ; thou receivest salvation
thy sins are washed away.' I have fasted and prayed ; but it has never said
to me :
' Thou shalt escape hell and enjoy heaven.' The idol is a lie, I
forsake it and embrace Jesus Christ as my Saviour and God." How
many have borne similar testimony and
for the same reasons have pass-
:

ed over from the domains of Hinduism, into the kingdom and church of
Christ.

At the present time in the purely Canarese country, the JNIysore and
Balaghat (of which Bellary is the capital), there are seven missionary
stations, with sixteen missionaries and fifteen catechists. The church
members are 284 in number, and the Christian community consists of
736 individuals. The only boarding schools are in the London Missions
at Bellary and Bangalore : they contain forty -three boys and sixty girls.

These schools have been found extensively usefid, and from them have
come forth several useful labourers in the mission ; both school teachers
and native preachers. Twenty vernacular boys' schools are maintained
in and around the principal stations, with 500 scholars; and five girls'

day-schools with 130 girls. Five hundred boys are studying in the
English schools.
It will be seen from this statement that a great deal more might be
done for the Mysore, than what is doing at the present time. Only
Bangalore and Bellary are well maintained stations. Yet the whole
country, salubrious and healthy, with a simple and intelligent people, is

open to missions which, judging from the recent growth of the older
stations, might soon be prosperous.
The state of public feeling with respect to Christianity is no longer
what it was. Indifference in former days was added to ignorance. But
the extensive itinerancies of the Missionai'ies, and the wide spread of
tracts and portions of the Bible which are both read and talked over by
the people, have enlightened them greatly as to the truths of the Bible,
have excited a imiversal expectation of their ultimate triumph, and pro-
duced in many individual minds, the secret conviction that to be a Chris-
tian is both right and good. Mr. Ilardey of Bangalore, the Wesley an
]\Iissionary, in one of his recent Reports has furnished some remarkable
illustrations of this fact, which are best given in his own words.
In 1850, Messrs. Ilardcy and Sanderson took a torn* of more than six

hmidred miles, from JNIysorc to Bangalore, and thence northward through

 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 25

an immense number of villages and towns. They preached to thousands

of people, many of whom had never heard the gospel before, and distri-
buted a large number of scriptures and tracts. Their hearers listened
with marked attention. In places where Christian truth was somewhat
known, there was opposition and fierce argument : and in one village, the
sight of a converted brahmin excited a tremendous outburst of rage. In
the large towns of Davanagerry and Chittledroog, the interest aroused by
their visit was intense, and visibly increased during their stay. Congre-
gations of all classes amounting sometimes to five hundred persons, heard
their addresses with solemn stillness. Missionaries had never been there
before. ''
In journeying through the country," says Mr. Morris of Coon-
ghul, " one sees temples left to decay, the Avorship of idols rejected and
ceremonies abolished. We Avant an increase of human instrumentality,
under Divine Providence and grace. Had we more labourers much might
be done.'^ In Bidnagairy for eight years the people have forsaken their
temple, declaring that as the idol could not protect himself, he is no God.
They assert also that they are Christians : but like hundreds in Bengal,
they have never had the courage and grace needed to profess the gospel.
The same thing happened at Singonhully near Goobee. A missionary
one day going near the temple of Runga found that it wore a very deso-
late appearance. Might he go in ? —he asked of the people. Oh yes, he
was at perfect liberty. With his shoes and hat ? Yes : it did not matter.
He went in and found the whole going to ruin. He asked the reason
and was told the following story. '^
You one day told us that Runga could
not be God, because he could do nothing for himself ; much less could he
do good to us Avho worshipped. We thought this was a wise speech, and
agreed to leave the god alone and try. We soon found that his light
went out ; and that his garlands of flowers became dry and shrivelled.

Moreover just at that time, the roof fell in over his head, exposing him to
the heat and rain. We saw that he was helpless and there Ave left liim.^'

Who will say after such a fact that missionary labours are useless ? The
people of that village have not however embraced the gospel. One man
was most reluctant to hold intercom'se Avith the missionaries, apparently

dreading its results. That man was the first to come out, and he and his
family, now grown up, have proved most zealous and consistent christians.
In 1851, Mr. Hardey who was stationed at Bangalore thus spoke of his

general preaching labours. " This year has been decidedly the most inter-
esting I have knoAvn amongst the Natives. Our congregations have uni-

formly been large, and in general deeply attentive. We have always com-
E
_2b THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

mcnccd our street services by singing a Canarese hymn, which never fails

to secure a good congregation. \Vhen I came to Bangalore, three years

ago, it was next to impossible to speak for five minutes without interrup-
tion from a low class who were not satisfied with interrupting merely, but
abused us before the \A"liole assembly, which was not to be endured if we
Avished to stand our ground and be respected in the streets. I determined
to put a stop to this in the beginning, and very soon an opportunity oflfer-

ed. One evening whilst we were preaching, standing on an elevation,

which I always aim at doing, a profligate-looking man, mounted the eleva-
tion, on the opposite side of the street ; and pulling out a book from im-
dcr his cloth, he marched backward and forward, and imitating our into-
nations of voice, made use of much abusive language, and called me such
foul names, that it was with difficulty I could restrain my Catecliist. Se-
veral brahmins entreated me to go away, saying, it was not proper for a
Em'opean gentleman to stand and hear himself thus abused. I continued,
however, to address the people. By tliis time at least two hundred per-
sons had assembled ; and when I was leaving, the man evidently became
alarmed at having used so much abusive language, and began walking
quickly down the street. I went over to the Choultry opposite, and
pointing out the man, desired the policeman to seize him. He ran and
quickly turned the man's face towards the multitude, who were now all

anxiety to see what was to be done. As soon as he Avas brought to the

Choultry, 1 said to the standers by :
'
So long as I was preaching I bore
with this man's abuse, but noAv I will shew you that I am not to be insulted
in the street by any man. I will now see whether the authorities will
protect me against any man Avho feels himself at liberty to abuse me at

pleasure.' The people were all excitement, and I said ;

' Bring him at

once to the Amildar, and we will see if he persists in this conduct towards
me, who have done nothing to proA oke his anger.' At once the man
was led away towards the main street, followed by the entire mass, who
were now greatly excited to know what would become of the matter. We
had not gone very far when a respectable man, a friend of ours, came out
of breath and entreated me to spare liis relation who was a bad fellow,

and had done very AATong in using abusive language to an Enghsh gentle-

man. I said, ' If before all these people,' —who had increased to at least

five hundred, ' he wiU confess that he has done wrong, and will never
again speak to me in the streets, I will forgive him.' But no, his proud
spirit could not submit to this, though his increasing fear was every mo-
ment becoming more apparent. I said to the policeman, '
Bring him to
 — :

THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 27

the Amildar/ and having proceeded a little further, the man^s friend again
entreated me not to take him before the authorities. I replied, '
If he
will ask forgiveness, and confess he has done wrong, I will forgive him
but if not, I will not allow him to escape, till I have known the mind of
the Amildar.^ Seeing me determined in my purpose, and feeling that
we were di-awing near to the cutcherry, and that the people were staring
upon him in every direction, he became greatly excited and alarmed.
Before the multitude I then catechized him to the following effect :

' Have you done me an injury in abusing me in the pubHc street, and
in interrupting me in the discharge of my duty ?' Sir, I have.' Will ' '

you promise me never to speak to me again in the street, or interrupt me

when preaching ?' ' I will promise.' ' Now then, before all these wit-
nesses I forgive you, and never wish to see your face again, but as a
friend.' I then dismissed him, and was thanlvful enough that I had
gained a victory before five or six hundred people, without having appear-
ed before the authorities. —The effect of this proceeding was almost magi-
cal ! The news of it flew all over the Pettah, and from that time to this,
our congregations have been better, more attentive, more interesting ; and
in scarcely a single instance, since that time, have these characters inter-
rupted us in the streets."
The circulation of scriptures and tracts is adopted among the Canarese
as well as in Bengal, and meets with the same result. All over India,
especially in village districts, an intense desire is exliibited to get books.

Mr. Arthur, on this subject tells the following story. He Avas one day in
the town of Biddiri. He had preached and distributed a number of tracts,

when he saw a tail boy trying to elbow liis way through the crowd
with great earnestness. He could not succeed and called out ; Sir, you
must keep one for me : you must keep one for me. Mr. A. amused at
his earnestness, said : Why for you above all others. He replied, '
Oh, Sir,

we want it for our school ?' It then came out that once before a boy be-
longing to a heathen school a few miles oft' had obtained some books : and
pleased with their wonderful sense, the master and scholars had discarded
their old books in order to study them. Hearing that the missionary was
expected at Biddiri, they had despatched the boy on an expedition to get
as many more for the school as he could.
Mr. Hardey also gives most pleasing testimony to the same effect.
" Were we to give books to all who ask for them in the streets, or to all
who come to our houses, the supply could not be furnished. We are
compelled to use much discretion, and to refuse many who appear very
E 2
28 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

urgent, but who we have reason to beheve would not make a good use
of them. Yet we are bound to give to all those whom we know sufficient-

ly, and who can assign a reason why they wish to possess the books of the
Christian Religion. It has been very gratifying to us during the year
to find so many persons who know the names of the different tracts and
portions of Scripture, and who ask for them by name. This convinces
us that the books are not only known and read, but talked about. We
have always made it a practice to promise a second book, if an account
of the contents of the first book taken, can be given. In many instances
the first book given has been brought back, that an examination might
be made as to its contents. In one instance a man copied the entire
tract entitled, "In whom shall we trust?" which he had copied as
nearly like the printed work as possible. He sent to us by post saying
we had given it to him at Cuddoor, which is 130 miles from this; and to
shew us that he had read it carefully he had sent us a copy of the book.
He earnestly requested more, which we sent by post. It is quite true that
many of our books are destroyed, not maliciously, but principally for
kites. There was one Brahmin in the cutcheriy who employed persons
to collect tracts from us, and then tore them up for the amusement of
the by-standers. It would betray a singular apathy on the part of the

people, if they received all we gave them and destroyed nothing. Their
tearing up our books is rather a good than a bad sigu. It shews they
fear them, and are conscious that they are powerfid though silent mes-
sengers.
A most interesting circumstance occurred last year in connection with
the Masalmans of Bangalore. thus detailed by the same writer.
It is

" In the early part of the year, the JNIusalmans were much excited
against us. One who had read in Mr. Eice's School, challenged me to

prove that Christ is the " Son of God." I said, I was not in the habit

of discussing with every man in the streets who thought himself qualified
to speak on religion ; but if he would call his Kajee, or priest, I would
discuss the matter with him. Being near to the mosque, he quickly
brought his Kajee, and we at once entered upon the subject in hand. But
knowing the slippery character of these men, anrl their fearful propensity
for lying, I determined to have everything upon paper, that there might
be no escape until the matter was brought to a close. I then called two
or three respectable witnesses, and in their presence, Ibrahim Sahib,
Kajee, engaged to prove from the Christian Scriptures, or as he called it,

the " Holy Bible," and from the Koran, that Jesus Christ is not the " Son
 ;

THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 21)

of God." T engaged to prove from the Christian Scriptures that Jesus

Christ is the " Son of God/^ and therefore God. At the Musalman's parti-
cular request it was added ;
" If the Missionary be overcome he shall be-
come a Musalman. If the Musalman be overcome^ he shall become a
Christian." I allowed this insertion the more readily, knowing their
great anxiety to make proselytes, and that to secure a missionary they
would put forth their utmost strength. We each put his signature to the
paper, and the witnesses did the same. The next morning we met to
conclude all preliminaries. A Hindoo Jury consisting of two Brahmins,
one Rajpoot, one IModaliar, and one Chetty, were named, and their signa-
tures obtained as such. Into their hands I gave my five Canarese volumes,
and my English Bible, stating that the one was the Holy Bible in Cana-
rese, the other in English. In each volume the Jury put theii" distinctive

mark, that the same books might always be consulted. But a difficulty

arose about the Koran, for the Jury insisted upon its being produced. After
much delay, discussion, and anger, amongst the Musalmans, it was
brought carefuUy folded in a handkerchief, and a chair provided for its

reception. Besides the Koran beautifully written in Arabic, and as beau-

tifully interlined with Hindoostanee, two other books, as beautifully
written, were produced. These contained several great discussions which
had been held between the Musalmaus and the missionaries in the North
as the Jury could not deface these books, or even touch them, they were
carefully folded up in the handkerchief, and the mark was put upon the
knot, so that it could not be opened, but by the consent of the Jury. The
preliminaries thus arranged, and it being agreed that two chairmen
should be nominated, one by me and the other by my opponent, who
should preside alternately ; we parted to meet again the next morning.
At six o'clock, on the morning of the ith of April, 1851, we met at the

gate of the Mosque, and as a suitable place had not yet been provided, I
walked into the yard of the Mosque, all the people following. I went
straight to the large shed, in which several of their things for the
yearly feast were kept. An oily chair was brought for me and another
for my opponent. As I did not on that morning succeed in obtaining a
Christian Chairman, Shankrappa, an elderly Brahmin, occupied the Chair.
He opened the proceedings in the presence of many Brahmins, Musal-
mans, and others, by addressing me to the following effect " Why have :
—
you come to this place ?" " To prove that Jesus Christ is the Son of God,
I am come." '^
How will you establish tliis ?" " From these five Cana-
rese Books, marked by the Jury, and called the Holy Bible, will I estab-
 — ;

30 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

lish this truth."Then turning to the Musalman, the Chairman asked :

" Why have you come to this place?" "To prove that Jesus Christ is
not the Son of God, I am come here." " How will you estabhsh this?"
" From the Christian Scriptures, and from the Koran Avill I establish this."
Then addressing us both, the Chairman required that we should not inter-

rupt each other, and should submit to the Chair. —As this was altogether a
heathen assembly, and I was anxious to give the Musalman a fair chance
to make good his cause, I commenced the discussion by quoting passages
of Scripture, shewing that Jesus Christ is the " Son of God." But
having only half an hour each, being determind to keep as near to the
English custom as possible, that the people ever hereafter might under-
stand our method of public disputation, I only produced fourteen passages
of Scripture with explanations, remarking, that I had more than ninety
passages to produce upon a future occasion. —The Chairman then called

upon the Musalman to reply, but he asked for eight days to prepare,

which was conceded.

" The difficulty now was to obtain a large and neutral place of meeting.
Though there were several, the owners were alarmed at the idea of being
comiected with a dispute between the missionary and the Musalmans.
I engaged if possible, to obtain the loan of Mr. Rice's large school
room in the neighbourhood. This was readily and kindly granted. On
the 11th of April, we assembled to hear the Musalman's reply. A Musal-
man gentleman took the Chair on their side, and the Rev. Colin Camp-
bell on my side. —The reply consisted of twenty passages of Scripture,

in which Jesus Christ is called the " Son of jMan." These passages were
torn from their connexion ; and apparently selected at random. In my
reply I took occasion to reproduce each passage in its connexion, and shew

that in the connection in which it stood, Jesus Christ was also called

the " Son of God." The di\ine and human natures of Christ had not yet
entered into his understanding ; but the subject being of vital importance
to both the INIusalman and myself, it could not fail to be interesting and
exciting to the various classes present. On this occasion there must have
been four or thousand Musalmans inside and outside the building
five

and with all Mr. Campbell's self-possession and tact, he could not con-
trovd the Musalman multitude. They had produced twenty passages, I
had produced only fourteen. Twenty was six more than fom-teen, and

in this consisted their victory. Nothing would satisfy the Musalmans,

but a declaration on the part of the Jury that twenty was a larger num-
ber than fourteen, and that twenty had overcome fourteen. The Jury
 THE CANAllESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 31

protested, saying that, until I acknowledged I had no more to say, the

matter could not be concluded. Sometime before the close of the meet-
ing, as soon as the Musalman tumult commenced, the Brahmins had
managed to convey themselves out of the place, being alarmed at notliing
so much as jMusalman fury.

"On the 18th of April, I again appeared to reply to the Musalman.

My opponent was not forthcoming, though I had waited half an hour
in his mosque, and in reply to the messengers of the Jury he said, he
was coming. After waiting some time, my reply was read, and as my
opponent was not present, the Jury gave him other eight days for con-
sideration ; at the same time handing over my reply. —At the expiration

of the eight days, the Jury again sat to hear the IMusalman's reply to my
second paper, but he not making liis appearance, they declared the dis-
cussion at an end.
"On the morning of the 18th instead of being in his place, Ibrahim
Sahib collected all the Musalmans at the corners of the different streets,

and haranguing them, declared the missionary was beaten ; the Musalman
had conquered, and now the missionary must become a Musalman. This
occurred at the very time when the Jury were sending messengers after
him. The discussion being over, the difficulty now was to obtain the

decision in wTiting from the Jury, as until that could be obtained, the
Musalmans must enjoy their street triumph. Besides, the intelligence of
the discussion was spread all over the Mysore country, in less than a
week fi'om its commencement, and it was of great importance to myself
to have the matter cleared up. In every street I was asked what the Jury
had decided in the matter. Had I allowed the matter to slip through, I
should have been hooted through the streets, perhaps as long as I remain-
ed in the town. It cost me two months hard work to get the entire matter
settled. Several of the Jury being Government servants, felt their honour
at stake, but two of their number were greatly afraid of the future con-
duct of the Musalmans towards them ; and it required every exertion
of the remaming three to screw up their courage to put their signature to
the documents. At the close of two months the Jury furnished me with
a most lawyer-like statement of the whole affair, not omitting a single
matter. It occupied seventeen pages of foolscap paper, and besides those
there were other seventeen foolscap sheets which came before them,
but which, my opponent not being present to hear, are not included
in this document. During the two months which intervened, between
the close of the discussion and delivery of the decision of the Jury,
32 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

I was hooted by the Musalmans in every street in which I preached.

One morning, one of them in his rage cursed me, by saying, I should
become ashes, if I took the name of the Koran into my lips. Another
said, suiting his action to the words, he would cut me to pieces if I did
not let the Koran alone. Another said, that before they began to dis-
cuss with me they ought 'to %ave given me a thorough beating. Their
anger was much increased, because the discussion had lead me to read

very carefully, the entire of Sale's edition of the Koran, with Savary's
notes. I referred them to chapter and verse, and told them many things
before the Hindoos, of which the latter had never heard, and which were
very unpalatable. This, I believe, was the great reason why the discus-
sion so soon closed, for I promised them I would make known all the
matters of the Koran before I had done with them.
" As soon as the papers from the Jury were sent to me, I published
their account of the discussion, and their decision thereon, with their
signatures. This I distributed through the Pettah. The effect of this
has been very remarkable. From the first day on which I circulated the
tract up to this time, not a single Musalman has opened his mouth to me
in the way of opposition. They listen to our preaching in greater numbers
than formerly, but it is always in silence. If I had dropped the matter, at
any point short of publishing the tract, I saw clearly that the Musalmans
would have the advantage over me in the streets, as they could lie ad-

infinitum. But when there Avas once the decision of the Jury to which
to appeal, I should have no occasion to fear the face of any man.
" For two years past there has been a remarkable demand for the four
Gospels in Hindoostanee by the Musalmans. Up to this time, we are
quite at a loss to know what is done with all the books we have given
amongst them. Matthew appears to be the favourite gospel with them.
Nothing is clearer than that many of them read the gospels, for they talk

about their contents. But there is a fatal blindness resting upon their
minds. They cannot perceive in Christ, " God manifest in the flesh."
Their principal aim appears to be, to collect passages in which Christ is
called the " Son of man ;" and we have been surprised many times at

their total rejection of the divinity of our Saviour. Some of them —

say, the Paraclete promised by Christ to come after Him, is Mohammed.
But in this case they shew their blindess, for they leave the entire con-

nexion, and entertain two ideas only, the Paraclete is to come ; —the Para-
clete is Mahommed. —Thus, they fully believe that Mahommed being pro-
mised, and ha\dng come as a prophet, is superior to Christ."
 :

THE CANAUESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 33

Durini^ the last few years, tlie people in tlic neiglihourhood of Bdlanj,
the oldest station in the Canarcse country, have seemed to he drawing
nearer to the kingdom of God. For a long period the missionaries have
preached in the town, and wandered through the villages ; have visited,

revisited and visited again the great festival at Humpee, proclaiming the
love of Christ to a sinful world ;
yet almost in despair of penetrating the
dense mass of ignorance and irreligion in which they were engulphed.
But signs appear that their labours have not been in vain, and that if

carried on still, with faithfulness and zeal, they will soon result in wide-
spread and substantial fruits. In the towns near Bellary a considerable
acquaintance with the facts and principles of Christianity is found to pre-
vail. In parts where the gospel has been longer and more fully preach-

ed than in others, the people evince a deeper interest in it : although in

some minds there is exhibited a steady and bitter dislike. The mission-
aries are no longer regarded as strangers. Their character and errand
are w^ell known, and many are most anxious to hear their message.

Not long since Mr. Shrieves set out on a preaching tour through the
district, and met with the most striking illustrations of the pro-
gress which the gospel has made in the people's minds. On his arrival
at Kosgee, the people crowded round, and being encoiu-aged by the pre-
sence of several hundreds, he preached to them upwards of three hours.
They did not like to go aw^ay as long as he was able to speak. On telling
them that he intended to stay with them for eight days, they were pleased
and came in great numbers daily. He was obliged to make two compa-
nies of the people who came, to enable the teacher and himself to speak
to them audibly.
Again he proceeded to Kumply, a large town where there are many
weavers. On beginning to preach in the Pettah, the people came in
crowds to hear him. He invited them all to visit liis tent at any time
they wished : they consequently came every day in increasing numbers
those who came were mostly weavers, but there were some of other castes
also. He always had a large and attentive congregation from five to
nine o'clock in the evening. Seeing the people were so anxious for in-
struction, he felt it necessary to stay longer with them than he had in-

tended. On learning this fact they were much pleased. Many of the
people called him into their houses, when many gathered together to hear
and to ask questions. Some acknowledged that Christianity was true, sav-
ing ; we see that this is the only way by which we can be saved. Others
said; we are ready to embrace Christianity. A remarkable spirit of
34 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE.

enquiry was prevalent among them. He distributed nearly three cooly

loads of Scriptures and tracts. After staying Avith them twenty-four

days, he told them that he was going away : they asJ:ed him to remain
another week still.

The native eatechists meet with a similar reception, and are often hos-
pitably entertained by enquirers, as we saw in the neighbourhood of Cud-
dapah. The catechist, John Reid, in one of his journeys visited Kamply,
Errode and other places, in all of which he preached the gospel and
had conversations with the people. Many heard the message, and most
listened with attention. Some assented fully to the excellence of Cliris-

tianity, and said they were hindered from embracing it by caste. At

Errode, which is in the Nizam's country, after he had preached, the peo-
ple brought rice and milk, and said if any thing else Avere required, they
would readily furnish it, and refused money wlien offered to them. A
man who had seen him before, said he remembered with pleasm^e what
he had heard about Christ. The tracts offered were taken with great
eagerness. At Kimdakul the people expressed much pleasure in hearing
the gospel. They took a light away from a neighbouring temple, saying
it was of no use there and w^ould do for him to read by. They urged
him to remain another day, promising to supply him with all he re-
quired.
When Mr. Stanger was recently returning to Bellary from a tour, he
found two men who had come from a distant idllage, and said they were
o-oing to Bellary. On being asked why they were going thither, they
said ; We w^ant to hear of the true God and to be instructed in the
Christian religion. Mr. Stanger asked ; Why are you so anxious about

this. Thev replied ; We have often heard that the padres at Bellary say

that an idol is nothing, and that all Avho worship idols will go to hell ; we
have given up the worship of idols for the last year, and wish to serve the

true God. They accordingly came to Bellary. One of them after a

short time left, and the missionaries have not seen him since ; the other

seemed much in earnest he made very gratifying progress in the know-

;

ledge of the truth, and gave them every reason to believe that he loved
it too. Accordingly he was baptized in the Mission Chapel.
The annual festival at Humpee has long been celebrated for the en-

thusiasm with which its rites were celebrated. But e\e\\ there, the gos-

pel is winning its way. Even there, where the Hindu kings once reigned
in splendor, and where they rendered Hindu idolatry powerful, the gospel

is beginning to enlighten the understanding and to change the heart. It

 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 35

is evident from the nieajj^rc atteiidauces at the festivals, that although the

self- interested and crafty supporters of idolatry, strain every nerve in

decoratiiii;- tlie cars, in order to dazzle the eyes and impress the minds of
the multitude with superstitious fears, thereby to maintain their hold in
their hearts, yet the people seem to invest them with less importance than
they once did. They are being impressed with the fact that Hinduism is

on the wane; and that Christianity is gaining ground, and will even-
tually be the only religion of mankind. The attendance at liumpee last

year was smaller than it has ever been in years gone by. Tradition re-
ports that formerly the yellow silk flag used in the idol's procession, was
bouglit, in the days of his prosperity, for thirty thousand rupees, i. e.

.€3000. Last year a wealthy merchant bought it and placed it on the

temple for three hundred and fifty rupees or £'do ! Is not the power of
idolatry waning fast ?

A step beyond the mere general assent to the truth of Christianity is

the hard one of pul)liely professing it. Though many hold back, and
endeavour to persuade others that they are Christians without that pro-
fession, yet some are found willing to make it, and brave all the difficul-
ties by which such a step is beset. Others again are ready to make the
profession without feeling the conviction, and thus put a difficulty on the
missionary's side. These things are tlius stated by Mr. Ilardey.
"About June last, a Rajput, began to visit me, and brought with him
a volume of the Old Testament in Canarese, which had been given to
him many years ago in Bellary. He appeared very desirous to under-
stand our Scriptures, and was particularly fond of the Book of Psalms.
I engaged to read with him once a week. This continued for some time,
when he invited me to his house. He had a large nnmljcr of females
and children, all of whom, in the Hindu fashion, he gave to me. He
afterwards wished to be baptized and all his house. He said he would
work in the garden, but I must provide for the women and children.
But this providing for new converts always has been, and will, for a long-
time to come, be a great difficulty in the way of baptizing these people.
Until there are many more Christians, most of those who now become
such will be great sufferers, if not cared for by the Mission.
One day
I said to this man-: If you become a Christian, you must renounce all
caste. He at once replied, " I will forsake it, and I will give you a
proof if you wish it, that I forsake it." I at once called a servant who
Was a heathen pariah, to bring the bread. I cut a piece of the bread and
gave it to him, and he ate it in the presence of ^Irs. Hardey, the servant and
F 2
 "

36 THE CANAllESE IMTSSIOXS IN THE MYSORE.

myself. I could have baptized these people, hut theu the burden of a
large fixmily was the difficulty, and T let the opportunity pass. This per-
haps was wrong, but I was powerless as to supporting them. I am
l)old to say that, were I a Jesuit, or had I a Jesuit's means, I could bap-
tize a hundred persons in the year. Nay, if I could secure a bare liveli-

hood, in the shape of situations, I could baptize many. Not more than
two months ago a man came fifty miles to be baptized, but I had no rea-
son to believe that he had any thing in vieAV beyond a livelihood, and I
sent him away. In Goobbee, a brahmin, once came to me on the Satur-
day night, and urged me to baptize him at the public service next morn-
ing, saying, I must not delay. He offered me his sacred thread to con-
vince me that he was in earnest. — I enquired if he had any debts, and he
confessed that his creditors were pressing him. I suppose he thought he
should throw his debts upon me by becoming a Christian. I knew him
well, and knew his character was not good, and refused to take his sacred
thread, or to baptize liim. Another brahmin, of whose sincerity I had
no doubt, actually took off his sacred tliread, in a private room, and gave
it into my hands, to convince me that he was sincere. These things shew
that Hinduism is fast loosing its hold upon even the brahmins ; and I
attribute to ]Missions, and the distribution of the word of God.
it all

" About four months ago, another llajput came to my house, and in
the midst of a conversation upon religion, he repeated page after page of
Mr. William Campbell's Sermons. I was for some time at a loss to

know what he was repeating, for he spoke very rapidly, and what he said
was e^ddently well committed to memory. He told me he constantly
read these Sermons and our Scriptures, and prayed to God morning and
night through Jesus Christ. His statement is authenticated by one who
is now a Christian, and lived several years in his house. Missionaries
have not laboured in vain. The seed sown by our predecessors has been
and will yet be found by us. The seed we are scattering wiU be found
by our successors. '
Brethren, pray for us, that the Word of the Lord
may have free course and be glorified, even as it is amongst you.'
The last j^oint illustrative of the growth of knowledge and increase of
liberal ideas among the Hindus is seen in the change of their opinions
respecting practices in their ov.n system.
The subject of the Second Marriage of Hindu Widows is beginning to
excite strong attention amongst the Brahmins of Bangalore. Some time ago
a very valuable tract about it was written in Sanskrit by a learned Pandit
in the North. Mr. Wilkinson, a civilian, who knew this Brahmin only
from his learning, was so much struck with its reasoning, and its bold
 THE CANARESE MISSIONS IN THE MYSORE. 37

exposure of the horrid system of perpetual widowhood, that he wrote a

long and vahiablc Essay in EngUsh to accompany the Sanskrit tract.

This Avas scut to the Commissioner of the Mysore, together with the
Tract, which he handed over to the Divan who has had it translated into

Canarese. The Commissioner has sanctioned the printing of 1000 copies

at the Grovernraent Press. —This translation was brought to Mr. H. early
in the year, and after reading it carefully he began to talk about it

amongst the brahmins. They almost all approve of the Second Marriage
of Widows, but cannot see how it can be brought about. — So much in-

terest is the subject exciting, that two brahmins have visited him several

times urging him to assist in bringing about so desirable a result. They

said, we have each a daughter, a widow one twenty years old, : the other
fifteen; and we don't know how to save them from ruin. He was much
gratified to find only one old Pandit who opposed the Second Marriage
of Hindu Widows. He became very angry with the other brahmins,
and said they were all going over to the Missionary, were bringing dis-

grace upon their own religion, and were giving the Missionary an insight
into all their secret matters. —Another brahmin came and said, he would
obtain the signatures of almost every brahmin in Bangalore in its favour,

if Mr. H. wished. The Tract first spoken of is nearly printed, and

when once circulated, it will doubtless produce great excitement. But
this tract has had a narrow escape. The brahmin who had the original
translation of the book wrote to Mr. H. in great perplexity saying, the
Commissioner had sanctioned the printing of the book, but he could
nowhere find the Manuscript. It had created much bad feeling on the
part of the more rigid brahmins, and the manuscript had probably been
destroyed by some of them. Fortunately, he had had the whole carefully
copied, and the book is actually being printed from that manuscript.
It may be perceived from these things that there is a friendship springing
up between the more liberal brahmins and the missionaries which, in a
few years, we trust, may lead to great results.
Infanticide, is perhaps the most glaring evil connected with the perpe-
tual mdowhood of the Hindu females. Thousands of young girls who
have lost their husbands have their heads shaven and are doomed to
perpetual degradation. The consequences of their ill-treatment are, they
become prostitutes, and numbers of infants, the fruits of illicit intercourse,
never see the light of day. Infanticide, though strictly forbidden by the
law, is in this Avay carried to a very fearful extent. Several brahmins
have asserted that wo less than thirty infants are in this way destroyed every
month in the year, in the one town of Bangalore alone.
38 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

Tlie west coast of the Madras Presidency from Honore to Calicut,
including the pro\'inces of Canara and Malabar, has been taken as a
missionary sphere by the Evangelical Society of Basel. The country
is but a narrow slip of land, between the western ghauts and the sea ; it

is hilly but fertile ; and contains several large seaport towns, amongst
which jMangalore and Cannanore are best known. The languages spoken
are the Canarese, the Tulu and the Malealim. All these tongues are

ancient ; and two of them contain an extensive native literature. It was

the opening of Hindustan to foreign as well as English missionaries by
the Company's Charter of 1833, that first led the Basel missionaries to

settle in the country. The western coast of India, except Bombay and
Travancore, had never been entered by other than Jesuit missionaries,
and finding it still unoccupied, tlie Basel Committee anxious not to inter-
fere in any way wdth the efforts of other Societies, but rather to preach to
those that were left in ignorance, under the ad^dce of friends in Bom-
bay, adopted it as their sphere of labour. Three missionaries were there-
fore sent to Maw^c/ore in 183 i; and there established the first station

of the mission. Four others followed in 1836, when Dharwar above

the ghauts, in the very north of the Canarese country, was occupied. In
1838 a third mission was commenced to the south of Mangalore at

Tellicherry among the jNIiilealis; and on the arrival of five new brethren
in the same year, a fourth station was fixed near Dharwar at New Hooblij.
Putting forth its strength with earnestness and vigour, the Society des-
patched five more missionaries in 181-0, and yet five others in 181'2:

upon which important missions Avere commenced at Cannanore upon the

sea coast, at Bettigherry and also at Calicut. The climax of its Euro-
pean strength was reached by the mission about 1 8 15 : at which time
twenty-six missionaries were engaged in the service of the Society. Since
that year it has done little more than efficiently maintain the stations
previously established, and allow for the absence of the usual proportion
of invalids.
The mission, which tlius sprang into maturity in less than twenty
years, has been carried on Avith the vigour and energy which first led to

its formation. The numerous introductory labours required every where

at the outset of such undertakings have long been completed. Every
station has its mission-houses, its school-buildings and its church ; to
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 39

which in the two principal stations have been added printing-offices and
industrial schools. The missionaries have therefore long since been able
to devote an undivided attention to the spiritual olijccts of their toil. In
order to secure that cud, they have pursued, to a great extent, the same
plans as have been adopted by other Societies in other localities throughout
Hindustan. They have preached the gospel in the vernacular tongues at
their immediate stations, and by contmued and extensive itinerancies, have

carried it to the distant villages and towns, among Avhom their lot has
been cast. Where a demand existed for English education they have esta-

blished christian English schools ; and have elsewhere offered a christian

education in the native tongues alone. For the benefit of their native
christians, they have maintained christian boarding schools and an indus-
trial school to improve their means of livelihood. For the enlightenment
of all, christian and heathen, they have engaged in the translation and
circulation of the scriptures, and have kept two printing presses con-
stantly employed. All these varieties of agency employed in faith, and
sanctified by prayer, have recei^^ed a l^lessing from on high : and the
fruits of success Avliich they are able already to exhibit, must be regarded
by all interested in that agency with astonishment and thankfulness.
Nor should it be forgotten that in their labours, the missionaries of the
Basle Society, in adopting plans similar to those of other missionaries
in other parts of India, have met with a similar experience. They have
found the same dense ignorance of the first principles of religion in
Canara and Malabar, ^vhich have been met in north and eastern India.
The same opposition to truth, the same love of idolatry in the Hindu,
the same bigotry in the Musalman Moplah, have resisted them as have
depressed others. Some who came for gain
converts have deceived them, :

others have backslidden, who were weak. Boys have run away from their
boarding schools, and orphan girls proved incorrigibly wicked. Young
people have been pressed forward into the church too soon ; church-
members have refused to give up caste ; day-schools that promised well
have been given up ; and new converts have been forcibly carried back
into hopeless heathenism. Thus they have fallen into the same mistakes
of inexperience, as have been committed by others and met withliaAC
similar difficulties. But their work has been well based and though yet
in "the day of small things" has made solid progress.

At the present time, when the oldest station has not been established
twenty years, the Basel Society possesses in western India, thirteen prin-
cipal stations, and twenty out-stations. At these localities the more direct
40 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

missionary work is carried on by twenty-eight missionaries, of Avhom seven-

teen are married ; and by sixty-three cateehists. At each of the chief
stations there is a christian congregation gathered from the natives of the
place and of its neighbourhood ; the church-members or communicants
amounting to 750, and the christian community inchiding 1578 individuals.
The chief schools are vernacular boys' schools of which nearly fifty are :

maintained, instructing sixteen hundred scholars. The boys' boarding

schools, three in number, contain sixty-three boys : and the girls' boarding
schools, one hundred and fifty-one girls. All these schools have christian
masters. Ninety-six boys are studying English in two English schools.
Industrial schools are maintained at Tellicherry and Mangalore, for the
instruction of christian lads in agricultiu^e, weaving and other employ-
ments suilable to their station in life. In the school at Mangalore are
also taught watch and clock making, the construction of musical boxes,
electro-plating, the weaving of shawls and handkerchiefs, book-binding
and printing. Two printing-presses have for many years been main-
tained at ^langalore and Tellicherry : the former for the Canarese and
Tulu books : the latter for Maleali. The former press was a lithographic

press, but has recently exchanged the lithograph for types. Last but not
least, there is a Theological class at Mangalore for training christian
teachers and preachers for the service of the mission. From this institu-

tion, nine young men were sent forth into the mission in January, 1852.

A seminary for the training of school-masters is to be added when cir-

cumstances allow. Such is the amount of agency zealously applied by

the missionaries of the Society for the spread of Christianity in the
provinces which they occupy ; and such are some of the results with

which their labours have been followed.

For the sake of greater distinctness, a few words may be added concern-

ing the differences observable in the labom's of particular localities. The

Basle missions are carried on in three separate districts and are therefore
divided into three distinct groupes : \\z. the purely Canarese mission in

the DflARWAR district : the mixed Canarese and Tulu mission in north

Canara, the head-quarters of which are at Mangalore : and the Malealim

mission in Malabar, at Cannanore, Tellicherry and Cahcut. The station
among the Nilgiri hills must be reckoned separately :
it being not only

the Sanatarium of the Society, but a distinct mission for the local
hill

tribes.
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 41

1. FIRST GROUP. MISSIONS AROUND DHARWAR.

The most northerly of these missions form a group by themselves in
the country above the ghauts. They lie on the table-land stretching
from the Mysore north and north-west into the Mahratta country, and
are situated in the district of Dharwar, formerly a portion of the Beeja-
pore province, and subject to the Peishvva of Poonah. Though called the
Mahratta country, the language spoken is pure Canai'ese, but immediately
to the north, in the district of Belgaum, the boundary betAveen the two
tongues is passed and the Mahratta begins. The first mission Avas esta-
blished at the town of Dharwar in 1837 ; a second was fixed in 1839 at
Hoobly, a town Avith 50,000 people. Two years after, tAvo additional
stations were commenced at Bettigherry and Malasamudra. The last and
fifth station was established at Gruledgiidda in 1851. All these missions
have been steadily maintained from the first and continue to the present
time. The native population amongst Avhom they are planted resemble
the Canarese of the Mysore, and have a similar hold upon the Hindu
religion and the laws of caste. It was long therefore before the gospel
began to tell upon them, and draw its converts from the very localities in
which it Avas proclaimed. For several years the only Christians in the
church at Dharwar were Tamils, connected Avith the native army : Avho
by their weakness, and love of caste, gave tlieir missionary the same
trouble and grief, which the numerous christians of their nation have
given to others elsewhere. The missionaries hoAvever established numerous
schools and travelled extensively through their district, as Avell as among
the towns and villages of Bellary and Belgaum. The effects of their
instruction gradually appeared in the respect paid to the gospel, the fre-

quent acknowledgments of its excellence and truth, and in the people's

growing distrust of the idols Avhich they had hitherto worshipped. Dur-
ing the last three years, in numerous cases converts of some standing in
the community have openly embraced Christianity. Individuals from

the goldsmiths' and coppersmiths' castes, with others of similar position

and intelligence, have been baptized at Dharwar, Hoobly and Guledgudda :

and the hope is confidently indulged that these churches will noAv grow
in strength, receiving annually large additions from the heathen commu,
nity around them.

THE LINGAITS.
Throughout the southern Mahratta country there is extensively spread

a flourishing sect of Hindus, termed Lingaits. They belong chiefly to

 ;

4S THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

the trading and manufacturing classes of the community, who are by far
the most inteUigent and independent of the people, and have learned in
some measure to think and act for themselves. The Lingaits, like other

sects of the kind in other parts of India, have given up their reverence
for the common idolatry of the country, and secretly adhere to a higher

system of religion, which teaches among its prime doctrines the unity of
God, and that all men are of one caste. Numerous verses are current
among them to the effect that : He who worships wood and stone as God,
shall fall into the lowest hell. On this ground in their own assemblies
they eat together, though belonging in public to different castes that are
forbidden to do so. The whole body are under the dominion of four
high priests, whose insolence and avarice do not differ greatly from those
of the brahmins, whose system they have in a measure supplanted. They
are instructed also by a large number of priests or gurus, who profess to
expound their doctrines from the Linga shastras. They do not however
all think alike. Whether from conviction or the love of power, indivi-
duals among the priests occasionally form separate schools amongst the
adherents of the doctrine. The most important of these schools is termed
the Nudi sect, and its followers are distinguished as Nudi Lingaits.
Their system is laid down in a collection of books which are called Guru-
Nudi. This guru, who was probably acquainted not only with the litera-
tm'c of the Lingaits, but also with Vedantism and the Koran, seems to have
founded his school about three hundred years ago. He is said to have
wintten his works under a large overhanging rock, called the umbrella
rock, on the frontier of the Nizam's dominions, near which he lived for
one and twenty years. His system contains a mixture of brahminical,
Linga it, Vedantic and Mahomedan doctrine, and is distinguished by a
belief in the resurrection of the body. These sects greatly resemble the
Kortta Bhojas of Bengal, and the sect wliich was founded by Sundara
Das in Orissa.

Belonging to the most intelligent classes of the community, accustomed

to varieties in religious belief, and separated in a measure from the debas-
ing superstitions of the ancient idolatry, it is evident that the adherents
of sects like these are much more open to the gospel, and are natiu^ally
much better prepared to appreciate its ennobling doctrines, than the
idolaterswho never think at all. Accordingly it is among them, especi-
ally among the Nudi Lingaits, that the German Missionaries in Dharwar

and the London Missionaries at Belgaum find that Christianity is making

the most rapid progress. They have travelled constantly among them
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 43

have scattered widely their christian books and portions of the Bible :

have met with great numbers of sincere enquirers, and latterly have
received several converts. Their intercourse with this interesting class
of Hindus has sometimes exhibited features almost bordering on romance.
On one occasion, a Lingait priest, with two hundred of his followers
came to visit Mr. Albreclit at Dharwar. The visit occurred on a Sunday
morning, and the whole company attended public worship, behaving in
the most proper and orderly manner. They Ijrought with them a number
of Christian Ijooks which they had previously received, and assured the
missionary not only that they constantly studied them, but were con-
vinced that they were true, while their own books were false. They even
asserted also their full belief in the Lord Jesus and called themselves

his disciples. A year or two after, Mr. Wiirth of Hoobly, travelling

through the country, came upon, another band of these disciples with
their guru. They had never seen a missionary but had received a large
number of Canarese tracts, one or two theological treatises, and a Cana-
rese New Testament. These also professed their faith in the Lord's
divinity and quoted passages to prove it. It was from just such a band
of free thinking disciples of the old guru Sundara Diis, that the first con-
verts were gathered into the christian church in Orissa. It may be
remembered too by those acquainted with modern missionary history,
that when the guru saw that his disciples were leaving him for the missi-
onaries he gave himself out as an incarnation of Chi^ist. Singularly enough
one of these Lingait gurus fell into the same error. He had got the idea
that he was an incarnation of the Lord Jesus, ordained to bring these idol-
aters to the true God. Such pretensions however have been treated as they
deserved. Many of the Lingaits continued to visit the missionaries ; and at

length in the year eighteen hundred and forty-eight, four were baptized.
One of these was a priest and from the influence he possessed proved very
zealous and useful in bringing his former disciples and companions to the
missionary. In the same year, three young men, Lingaits, two of whom
were priests, came in to Dharwar from a village a hundred miles distant.

They had received some tracts at second-hand and were greatly struck
with their contents. A young christian came into their village, read
over the books with them, and induced them to go with him into a temple
at some distance that they might worship God together in secret. By
degrees as they continued to study these books, they obtained a clear
knowledge of the gospel and seemed thoroughly to be converted men.
They were soon after baptized. Similar baptisms of Lingaits have also
r O
 :

44 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

taken place at Belgauni. It was in consequence of the decided progress

of tlie mission by tliese baptisms that the Basle vSociety resolved to
retain the station at Bettigherry, and fomid a new one at Gnledgudda.
It must not be supposed that, from the facilities presented to the gospel
by these sects, its progi'css will be unattended with trouble, or that
the missionaries have only to receive new converts. Amongst those who
are acquainted with its truths and are convinced of its excellence, thou-
sands will be delayed in a public profession by the fear of man, their
attachment to their family, the influence of the priest, and their love of

the world. Not unft'equently have such men mourned in the hour of
death, that they had not possessed the courage to proclaim themselves
christians. In one case a Lingait priest died in great trouble, full of
self-accusations, because he had not confessed the Saviour's name and
been baptized. " Alas ! that I have made delays ! I have no faith in
idols, yet I am no christian : and now I must die !" He then got up on
his knees, repeated the Lord's prayer, sank down, and expired. Another
guru on his death-bed declared his conviction that the gospel was true
and desired his disciples to embrace it. Apart from the influences derived ,

from family and home, there is in India one strong hinderance to the
profession of the gospel by men who are convinced of its truth. There
is throughout the Hindu mind a broad separation between belief and prac-
tice. phenomenon has been witnessed in all parts of India
This striking
in ancient as well as in modern times. It affected the ancient schools of
philosophy; it influences the progress of Christianity. A Hindu can
apparently without difficulty adopt a course of conduct, entirely opposed
to the couA-ictions of his judgment or the feehngs of his heart. He has
no desire to be a martyr. It cannot then be wondered at, that many who
believe the gospel, keep their faith to themselves.

In other cases, however, the gospel meets -with strong opposition.

" Why do you always preach Christ ?" the people wiU say. " Tell us
that there is one God, and that idols are nothing, and we will agree with
you." As in ancient times so now, the peculiar doctrine of salvation
exclusively by grace, by gift not by merit, is a great stumbhng block.
The cross is an ' offence' now as it was then. It is singular too, say the
missionaries, that sometimes when the Saviour's name is uttered, the
most dreadful rage is exhibited hj individuals, who with bitter animosity
pom- forth the most blasphemous speeches against his character and
doctrine. Nor are all Lingaits disposed to hear the truth, or sincere in
their enquiry after a true religion. j\Iany oppose its progress and con-
 ;

THE OICIIMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 45

test its arguments. One instance of ingenious malice, by wliicli preaching

was hindered in a silent but most efficient manner, ^ve cannot forbear to
mention. A bigotted Lingait priest, finding a missionary preaching in a
village, caused the pepper in a shop close by to be stirred up, and was
mightily pleased when the fits of coughing which followed, drove both the
missionary and his congregation from the spot.
The deepest ignorance and most perverted views of morality present
another obstacle to divine truth. One illustration will sufiice. Mr.
Miiller once appealing to a man's conscience, with respect to the re-
wards of good and evil, was answered by the following story : A cer-

tain butcher bought a cow, tied her by a rope, and was about to
bring her home, when on a sudden she broke loose and ran away. In
running after her he met a man, who in his whole life time never told a
lie, and on his asking him, whether he had seen his cow, he was told by
him, that if he followed this road he was sure to get her. On went the butch-
er ; not far ofi" he met another man, who in his life time never told the
truth, and putting the same question to him he was told, that he was quite
in the ^Tong road, and that he must go to the left if he wished to find his
cow. After this, both these men died, they were called before the judgment
seat of God (Yumana) and the final sentence was that the latter,
because he had saved the life of the coio by telling a lie, was rewarded
with being born twenty times a king : while the other, who by telling the

truth would have caused her destruction, was condemned for twenty life-

times to be gnawed by worms. Confounded and perverted ideas Uke

these are constantly met with, and though they are absurd enough to
confute themselves, yet the poor people applaud and adopt them with
superstitious fondness.

COLONY AT MALASAMCJDRA.
In connection with the Canarese mission in the Dharwar collectorate
the Basel Society tried an experiment of a peculiar kind with a 'view to
smooth the way for the passage of enquiring Hindus into the christian
church. Believing that persecution from their family and caste-mates is
one of the greatest hinderances which enquirers meet, and that the forma-
tion of a village where such may for a time reside, would supply a new
society and furnish new associations into which they might at once enter
in eighteen hundred and forty-one, the Dharwar missionaries founded
a christian colony at Malasamudra. The original cause of the esta-
46 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

blisliment of the colony was, their desire to turn to good account a tem-
porary religious excitementamong a class of people who call themselves
Kalagnanis from believing in a prophetic Purana, termed Kalagnana or
knowledge of the times. In this extraordinary book which may be about
t^^•o hundred years old, great changes regarding the prevailing sects Brah-
mans and Lingaits are prophesied. Teachers of the true rehgion are
described as coming from the west : and the fall of the great city of
Scringapatam is announced as a sign that these prophecies are about to
be fulfilled. Stu'red up by these predictions, some of the leaders of the
Kalagnana sect applied to the London Missionaries at Belgaum for coun-

sel and assistance. Ha\'ing failed in convincing them of their sincerity,

they addressed themselves in 1839 to the Basle missionaries at Dharwar,

and requested them to come and teach them the way of truth ; assuring
them that there were thousands of people of the same mind, who desired
most earnestly to be instructed in the doctrines of the true reli-

gion. It was evident from the first, that the wishes of these people
were not altogether free fi'om worldly considerations; but the mis-
sionaries felt it their duty to take the matter up. Several visits were
accordingly paid to the Kalagnanis ; and the brethren at Dharwar and
Hubli were now and then much encom^aged by manifestations of an appa-
rently sincere desire after truth on their part. At last, Mr. Frey who
was stationed at Hubli, determined on going amongst them, and staid
for several months at Bentiu', one of their principal villages, instructing all

who would come. INIatters came to a decision in the latter part of the

year 1840, when only twenty people appeared steadfast. These as-
sured ]\Ir. Frey that they would follow him to the asylum which he pro-
mised to establish for them and mcasiu'es were adopted to commence it.
;

Early in 1811, the Government granted the mission a piece of waste

land, including sixteen acres of stony ground for building, and about a
hundred for cultivation, on the same conditions on which Hindu cultiva-

tors receive such waste lands: and Mr. Frey, with the consent of the

Home Committee, commenced building a mission house and a few native

huts. When, however, the settlement was so far advanced that colonists
could be admitted, Mr. Frey and his brethren were sadly disappointed by
tlicir inconstancy. All who had promised to come refused to give up caste

and their former connections. The movement of the Kalagnani gradually

subsided, as they found themselves persecuted by their own people, and
the whole plan, as far as they were concerned, fell to the ground. The
experiment added another to the long list of proofs already existing that
 :

THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 47

a broad line separates the christian community from the Hindus ; that
he who passes it^ even as an enquirer, is a marked man ; and that even
the smallest approach towards christian convictions is resented publicly
and privately as a breach of caste rules. It costs as much therefore to
enquire as to decide. Nothing apparently Avill alter such a state of things
but the entire abolition of the caste system. That consummation is

hastened by every violent disruption of its bonds ; and such must our
converts for a time be content to bear, assured that their own sufferings
make the way more easy for their successors. Failing in its special
object, the Malasamudra colony has proved a useful location for the few
christian converts which the mission has gathered in from the heathen.
There is hope that it will share in the success which the_other stations of
the Dharwar Mission have recently begun to enjoy.

SECOND GROUP OF MISSIONS : MANGALORE.

The second distinct gronp of stations and converts in the Basle

Evangelical mission is found in and around Mangalore. This town was
the first location of the mission on its establishment in ISS^; it has
always possessed the largest staff of missionaries, and has in several
respects been made the head-quarters of the mission. The labours of
the brethren however are not aU alike; the chief difference being the
same as is found over all India between those of to^^Ti and country sta-

tions. Mangalore has a large and important mission in the toTMi itself
but there are two country stations in connection with it, at Mulki and
Honore, on the sea coast, and distant, we believe, respectively fifteen and
forty miles from that to\^Ti. Of the latter stations we will speak first.

The narrow strip of land on the west coast of India in north Canara is

inhabited by several varieties and castes of people. They are to a great

extent Hindu, and the brahmins exercise the same sway over them as

they do over the Tamils of Tanjore. Two castes are specially abundant,

the Billavas and Bants ; they are both low and poor, and amongst them
the mission has obtained a large number of converts. The Billavas are

cultivators of the palmyra tree from which they make toddy : in name
they resemble the Yiravas of Travancore; in habits and employment
they are like the Shanars of Tinnevelly. The Bants, called also Vokilme,
are the farmer-caste, and live by cultivating the soil : they are a rude,

boisterous people and rather difficult to manage. The fishermen also

have given converts to the mission, but they are much addicted to driiilv-
48 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

ing and less ready to hear the gospel. These people, with others like

them, evidently constitute a portion of the aboriginal tribes of India :

they speak not the pure Canarese language, but a separate tongue the
TuLU : and though subject to the brahmins, who are numerous in some
spots, especially at Uddapi, their religious notions are in many respects
distinguished from those of their priestly masters. Like the Shanars and
Yiravas, these castes retain the aboriginal worship of Hindustan, the
worship of demons : and like them, from a variety of causes, are peculiarly
open to the instructions of the christian church. Of the peculiarities of
demon- worship we shall now speak but briefly, as the subject will be

fully discussed in the lecture on the Shanar missions.

The belief in demons is very deeply rooted in the hearts of the
Tulu people, and many of them defend it with great warmth. They
believe that there are a great many demons who, in by-gone times, were
mighty men upon this earth but have left it as spirits and are now in the
presence of God. They assert according to their ancient legends, that
the demons asked God for food, and He advised them to get it from the
Tulu people. If these give them food, which consists in the offerings
of rice, fowls, pigs, toddy and water, according to the commandment
of God, the demons pray for their worshippers, bless them in their house
and business, heal their diseases, protect them from the influence of evil
spiritsand bad men, punish those who hurt them and can even be intreated
to torment and kill their enemies. For this reason the demons which
are supposed to have taken up their abode in a house, are called together
every evening by the sound of a drum, as they may have left during the

day the house committed to their care. But if these demons do not get

their food, they are believed to visit men and cattle Avith disease and even
death. When misfortune or illness occurs, it is ascribed to the demons.

The priest is immediately consulted. He first looks at the stars, as the

brahmins do ; or according to their oavu fashion, puts a winnowing fan upon
fresh boiled rice, pronouncing at the same time some magic formula, as

the sticking on or not of the rice to the fan is considered ominous. He

then names one of the demons or some deity as the cause of the evil.

Upon this revelation, sacrifices are immediately brought to the offended

deity, either in secret or in the presence of many others, and if a god is

the cause of the misfortune, money and feasts for the brahmins are pro-
mised. In their public sacrifices, the priest and another worshipper of
demons pretend to be possessed by the spirit, which is to be appeased by
the offierings. There are demons who are supposed to be the guardian
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 49

not only of houses and families, but of whole villages ; for these a great
feast is celebrated at least once a year, at which all the inhabitants of the
village present their offerings ; and people come from a distance to offer
such gifts as they may have vowed to the demons, when in danger. Thus
are they kept in constant fear and slavery.
Absurd as it may seem, the people hold to this worship with great
tenacity. They offer a variety of reasons in its defence : and endeavour
to shew that they have no ground for accepting the gospel in its stead.
" We too worship God. Daily we invoke him, saying : Narayan our
Lord, thou art our preserver, give us our daily food. We do whatsoever
God puts into our mind. He causes us to do both good and evil."
" God has sent these demons, therefore we are obliged to serve them, or
they will kill us, or torment us in various ways. They are servants of
the Great God, whom we must do our best to please, as we try to keep
on good terms with the officers of the East India Company." " If the
demons were nothing, how could they work miracles, kill men suddenly
or heal their diseases in a moment." " We must serve both God and
the demons. Our forefathers have done so and prospered. We should
die if we forsook this worship." " The demons are kind masters when ;

we fall sick, we make or promise offerings to them, and they make us

whole. When we wish to revenge ourselves, we may ask them to vex
our enemies and they will fulfil our prayer." " What can we know of
these things, we are blockheads. Who of us has seen heaven and heU,
who knows what will happen to-morrow ?" " As soon as God will appear
to us in bodily form, we shall believe in him." " How can we meditate
on such sublime subjects; we are wholly occupied with care for our food."

These arguments appear weak, and easy to be answered ; but they have
acquired great strength among the people, and prove a strong obstacle to
the acceptance of a better faith. The missionaries do not generally spend
much time in refuting these errors, but rather try to effect an entrance
into their hearts by appealing to their consciences, by con^dnciug them
of their sins and directing them to Christ. Coming as a religion of gentle-

ness and mercy, as a religion suited to the poor and degraded, and finding-
less hinderance from caste prejudices among them than among the Hindus,
the truth of the Bible has met with great success among these classes of
the people. Including Mangalore, there are three principal mission
stations among them : and the churches number two hundred and twenty
communicants, in a community of five hundred and sixty individuals.
Twenty years ago not one of these was a Christian. Mulki is the most
50 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

important of the village stations. It was founded^ and for several years

managed, by Mr, Amraann, one of the most energetic and persevering

missionaries in the Tulu district. It has two outstations attached, at

Uchila and Gndde, and its missionary is in constant intercourse with the
people at Cap, Pertur, Uddapi and other places near, in which the Bant
and Billava castes abound. The gospel has entered the door which Pro-
vidence opened for it, and its preachers have now only to work steadily
in this garden of the Lord, reaping the fruit of souls converted by his
grace. It will readily be imagined that congregations newly gathered
from the degradation of Hindu idolatry and of demon worship exliibit

great weakness of moral principle, even where that principle does exist.
Such " little ones" have been numbered among the churches in all ages,

and the defects which prevail in their practice now, are precisely those
which form the burden of the apostolic epistles when Christianity was
new. The intellectual incapacity of the lower castes is also much against

their rapid progress. They do improve and will improve still more, but
at the outset it is found that they comprehend -with difficulty the great

truths of the gospel. Long and repeated instruction is necessary.

When examined on what they have heard, they often say : We have it in
our heart, but it will not come into our mouth. There is considerable
truth in what a woman once said to one of the missionaries, Avho com-
plained of her dulness in learning the word of God :
'
If you pour water
into a sieve it aU runs out, but still the sieve is made clean.'

The mission in the town of INIangalore, like others similarly circum-

stanced, has to deal with both the upper and lower classes of the popu-
lation. From the latter it has drawn a very large number of its members,
including of course a few of the ubiquitous Tamils ; but the higher classes
have not been forgotten. Several years ago an English school was estab-
lished, which was attended by many of the younger members of influential
native families : while constant discussions have taken place with the
mercantile and priestly castes, and the gospel been preached throughout the
town. By these means several individuals both from among the brahmins
and the trading classes have been drawn into the church. In December,
1843, three young men, who had long known the gospel and had nursed
their con\dctions of it in secret, resolved to profess it openly. They were
all brahmins. Two of them, Bhagavantrao Kamsika and Mukundrao
Kamsika, were Concan brahmins, in poor circumstances, who after

receiving an education in the English school had obtained employment

in the printing office. The third, Anandariio Kaundinya was a Sarasvata
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 61

brahmin, and son-in-law of the Moonsift', or native Judge in one of the

law courts. On making their decision known, a great uproar took place.

Instigated by their relatives, a mob broke into the mission house and tried
to carry the converts away by force ; but they were defeated aud driven
back. Perjury was liberally resorted to by the relatives of Ananda, who
declared that hismind was deranged from severe illness. A pig was cut
up and thro^vn into the tank of the Musalman mosque, in order to rouse
the Mahommedans against the mission as well as the Hindus, but all
was in vain. The magistrate of the district succeeded in preserving
public order : though an appeal was sent to the Madras Government,
the young men Avere allowed to choose for themselves ; and were soon
baptized as christians. The converts have consistently maintained the
profession then made. The two Concan brahmins passed through the
Theological class at Mangalore and have long been employed as catechists
in the mission, where they are known as Christian and Jacob Kamsika.
Ananda, who received at his baptism the name of Hermann, went to
Eiu'ope with Mr. Moeghng ; received an education in the Basle Seminary,
and recently returned to India as an ordained missionary, the Rev. Her-
mann Kaundinya. He is now engaged as one of the Tutors in the
Catechist Seminary at Mangalore.

THIRD GROUP. THE MA'LEAUM MISSIONS.

The missions planted by the Basle Society in the province of Malabar
most prosperous. They are carried on in the
are in several respects the
important towns of Cannanore, Tellicherry and Calicut ; and have out-
stations at Anjerkandi, Chombala and Palgaut. The Moplahs abound in

this district, and notwithstanding their fanaticism, which occasionally

bringsthem even under the lash of the Government, christian truth is
making its way, and sometimes olitains converts even from these bigoted
Mahommedans. Throughout the district the population is much scat-
tered : it is also very poor : the fishermen and slave castes are very low
and ignorant. But " to the poor the gospel is preached," and while the
proud brahmins reject its loving message, the lowly accept it and are
saved. The village of Anjerkandi, one of the earliest stations of the

mission, inhabited by a large number of the despised Puleyars, has been

entirely christianized. The fishing villages of Tahy and Chirakal also

contain many christian families. An entrance has recently been made

into one of the strongholds of idolatry, the town of Taliparambu, and in

H 2
 :

52 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

spite of the influence of brahminism^ a mission station is in full oper-

ation \ntliin its borders. The missionaries of the district are men of
great experience, and have been assisted by a large number of able cate-

cliists. The native christian population of this pro\ince now includes

nearly eight hundred individuals, of whom five hundred are commu-

nicants: yet the first station, Cannanore, was established only in 1841.
The language of the people is Malealim and differs entirely from both
the Canarese and Tulu, which are employed in the other branches of
the mission.
The experiment made in the Dharwar district to draw the heathen to

the gospel, by establishing a colony for their residence, was in a measure

repeated in ]\Ialabar. Near Calicut, are found persons of a very low
caste, common tlirough North Travancore : they are called Ncnjadis and
in the general community, rank even below bought slaves. They live

only in the jungle, like wild animals ; sleep in the branches of trees, and
at most make only the poorest hut for themselves. They are looked upon
with the greatest contempt by other branches of the community. If a
brahmin comes in their way, they must move off at least sixteen paces

and never must they dare to touch any one of a superior caste. Mr.
Conolly, the Collector of Calicut, formed a plan for drawing some of
this degraded class within the bounds of civilized humanity. He set

apart some ground for them^ built them houses, and gave them fields to

cidtivate. The government after a time relinquished this effort, and the
missionaries, at Mr. Conolly^s request and by the aid of his liberality,
took it up. They visited the little colony: encouraged the people;
endeavoured by kindness to draw them from beggary to habits of indus-
try ;
gave them a schoolmaster for their resident adviser, and established
a school for their children. They had much to try their patience : the

idleness of their proteges was so inveterate. If they had a little store

of food in hand, notliing would induce them to work, even when the ripe

rice-harvest only required reaping. They thought however they discerned

signs of improvement, and persevered. At length after some trial two
or three were baptized. The Musalmans however three years ago, were
observed very busy in their neighbourhood, and apparently had set their

heart upon proselyting this little colony entire. Suddenly the whole of
the people left, except the three baptized, and were received into the
INIoplah community. Processions, fireworks and feasts loudly proclaimed
the joy and triumph of Islam. Such is another illustration of what has
been called the hot-house system of missions.
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 53

A NATIVE CHRISTIAN LITURGY.

Till recently the Basle missionaries were allowed^ in respect both to modes
of worship and of church discipline, to act as each thought best ; exhorted
however by their committee to adapt the practice of their several Euro-
pean churches to the immediate circumstances of their native converts.
In pursuing this admirable plan, the Society was guided by the convic-
tion that it would be neither expedient nor just, to transfer, without
alteration, the arrangements of the Evangelical Churches of Germany
and Switzerland to the soil of India. Believing, however, from the great
increase of converts, that the time had come when the practice of the
mission might be rendered somewhat uniform, the Director of the mission,
the Rev. Principal Josenhans, during his recent visit to Western India
to examine the stations of the Society with his own eyes, directed a
Commission, formed of the wisest and oldest missionaries, to compile a
Liturgy and Code of Regulations, which should be as suitable to the
circumstances of their churches, as their experience could suggest. Tliis

Commission has, we believe, completed its task, and submitted the result

to the Committee at Basle for their approval.

The principles, upon Avhich the Home Society acted in founding their
Indian Mission, and have continued to act since its commencement, seem
to us so good, and so worthy of imitation by others, that we quote entire
the passage from their reports, in which those principles are detailed.
"The name of Evangelical Missionary Society is sufficiently expressive
of the principles to which the Committee adheres, with regard to doctrinal
and ecclesiastical differences. They have hitherto maintained against
considerable obloquy, that the chief end of the Protestant Missionary
ought to be this : to promulgate among the heathen, the pure doctrine of
the gospel unalloyed by the pecidiarities of the modem distinctions which
have arisen between the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and other parties of Pro-
testantism ; that the differences in the creeds of our Protestant church
are rather to be deplored as the fruit of human weakness, than to be
boasted of, as infallible Shibboleths of divine truth ; that our confessions
of faith bear marks of their age and of human imperfection : but the
Word of God alone abideth for ever.
" As to church government, the question whether a church ought to
be ruled by bishops, or consistories, or synods, may appear of great
importance among Europeans, not so among heathen converts of the
present age. You may set up the appearance of the one or the other
54 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

form of churcli polity, yet it will exist but in name. The personal influ-

ence of an active missionary will and must be every thing among his

convert churches for a long time, and the future history of those churches,
which are now in their infancy, will not exhibit the same features which
are presented by the history of our European churches, but develop
themselves under other circumstances in a different manner.'^
On this the missionaries add :

"These are the principles of om^ Committee, and we have hitherto

found them as good in practice, as they are sound in theory. We do not
all of us belong to the same church in Europe, but we rejoice heartily

in the brotherly communion which, by the grace of God, we have with

each other here in partibus infidelimn. We have not been taught the
same catechism, and have not learned the same version of the system of
divine truth, but we find, that both among the heathen and among our
converts and infant churches, all of us teach the same gospel, proclaim-

ing the utter depravity and helplessness of fallen man, the holiness and
love of God, the great salvation established by Jesus Christ."

GENERAL LABOURS OF THE MISSION.

Of the general labours of the mission, it is impossible to speak much
in this brief review. It will suffice merely to point them out. The Basle
missionaries, like their brethren in other parts of India, have paid consi-

derable attention to schools. Of these they have maintained three kinds.

For the special benefit of the christian community, they have kept up
boarding-schools both for boys and girls. Native Christian children, living
in their neighbom'hood, were admitted to their instructions. Formerly
all such children were boarded at the expense of the Society but of late, :

boys whose parents could support them, were returned to their homes,
and only orphans retained upon the school books. The girls however are
fed and clothed as before : female education not being sufficiently at a
premium to allow the bribe of such support to be withdrawn from the
motives by which it is sustained. The education given in these schools

is but elementary; but it is accompanied throughout with christian

associations and christian example, and as in other missions has been
blessed to the increase of intelligent, moral and truly christian converts,
especially the females, in the native churches. At present the three boys'

schools contain sixty-three boarders : and the three girls' schools, one
hundred and fifty-one girls. Another school at Dharwar has recently
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 55

been given up. The vernacular schools for the heathen are also elemen-
tary : but they have been extensively employed in the several stations.
There are now about forty such schools with twelve hundred scholars.
They were formerly more numerous : but such schools always fluctuate.
Many circumstances influence their usefulness : they are easily set
going, and as easily given up. The English schools of the mission are only
two in number ; of these the school at Mangalore has been twice almost
destroyed. On the first occasion, the missionaries resolved to admit low
caste boys as well as brahmins and nairs. The second time, the ]Musal-

man boys left in a body, because they would not read the Bible there.
The same battle has been fought in all parts of India, with the same
result. The missionaries maintained their ground, and the scholars soon
fomid that it was to their own interest to retm-n and be content. Each
school has about fifty scholars. Both at Tellicherry and Mangalore,
there are Industrial schools attached to the boarding schools for boys.
In both, the boarders spend part of their time in learning, partly in phy-
sical labour. They dig, sow and weave : they practise typography and
book-binding. The school at Mangalore now enjoys the service of a

watchmaker and typographic printer. The German weaver instructs

many of the people in the wea\ing of shawls, turbans and handker-

chiefs. The book-binding gives to the mission an annual profit of three

hundred rupees. No mission can spread itself without the services of

well trained native catechists : and the Basle missionaries with this con-

viction have for years maintained a Catechist school with a view to secure
such labourers for their extensive mission. In order also to render the

school efficient they have given to it some of their best and most expe-
rienced missionaries. In 1852 nine catechists went forth into the mission;
and fourteen entered the new class established at that time. The course
of instruction extends over five years, and in addition to the usual theo-
logical studies, includes a careful study of the Canarese language. Our
readers may smile when they hear that from a natural partiality for their
native tongue, the missionaries also teach their students German.

LITERARY LABOURS.

The mission has from the first devoted much attention to the press,

and for several years two printing establishments have been in efficient

operation. Both were originally lithographic : but two years ago a

printer came from Basle \ai\\ a fount of Canarese types for the press at
 ;:

56 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

Mangalore : and changed the character of the establishment. The press

at Mangalore has been occupied with the Tulu and Canarese books of
the mission : the press at Tellicherry has been confined almost entirely
to the Malealim. Among the productions of the latter are a Malealim
grammar : Earth's Bible Stories ; Church History ;
part of the Pilgrim's
Progress ; a Harmony of the Gospels ; various Christian tracts and
portions of the Bible. Among those of the former are tracts on Caste,
on the Hindu gods ; Canarese Proverbs ; Henry and his Bearer ; the Pil-
grim's Progress ; Barth's Bible Stories ; a Canarese hymn book and
the like.
Biblical translation owes much to the Basle Missionaries. Mr.
Weigie for a considerable time gave his chief time to the revision of the
Canarese Bible. This object he carried out for the Madras Bible So-
ciety, in connection with the missionaries at Bangalore and Bellary. By
their joint labours the whole book has been comj)leted and put into circu-

lation. This labour was founded upon the translations of earlier years
in other cases they have originated translations of their own. The Tulu
churches are entirely indebted to Mr. Ammann of Mulki for the trans-
lation of the New Testament into their language. This work was all

printed at the jSlangalore press. Dr. Gundert has devoted much atten-
tion to a revision of the Malealim translation : and has already printed
at Tellicherry the latter half of the New Testament. Lastly, Mr. Biihler
has given to the mountaineers of the Nilgiri hills the first book in their

own language, the Gospel of Luke. The '

Badaga Luke' was printed at

Mangalore. Besides these christian publications, the missionaries have

been printing for a considerable time numerous selections from the
classical Canarese literature. The object of this little library, called

'Bibliotheca Carnataca,' is to furnish the missionaries, their catechists

and scholars with complete materials for mastering the language, and for
meeting idolatry on its own ground. The scheme has been carried on at

the expense of one of the most liberal friends of missions in South India
and several works have already issued from \\\e Mangalore press.

itinerancies.

The missionaries of the Basle Society, in addition to other labours,

have maintained an extensive system of itinerancies, throughout the

districts in which they reside. Not confining their preaching to the
immediate neighbourhood of their homes, they have endeavoured to
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 57

spread gospel knowledge widely in the towns and villages near them.
Each one of their annual reports contains interesting facts met with in
their journeys : and pleasant is it indeed to follow them through the
country villages, dealing with all classes of the community and discus-
sing the great things which concern the salvation of souls. Thus the
reader sees Mr. Albrecht gathering the Lingaits of Dharwar : while Mr.
Ammann assails demon-worship among the lowlands near the sea. Thus
Mr. Hebich is pelted with stones among the hills of the Coorgs, and Mr.
Moerike makes his home in Badaga huts, that he may bring the Badagas
to Christ. Among the fruits of such labour, imperfect in itself, but an
important means of future usefulness, is the spread of Christian truth,
the proclamation of the gospel as the one exclusive plan of salvation,
among the population at large. The Basle missionaries accordingly
report that the knowledge of the distinctive doctrines of that gospel is

very extensively possessed by the people in their districts. Hence a con-

viction widely prevails that idolatry is foolish and must go down ; the
people attend the great festivals, more to see the crowd and to buy goods,
than to worship heartily and in faith. In this way the Yellama jattra
near Belgaum, and the Ilumpee festival near Bellary, are much reduced
in numbers : and the cars cannot be drawn out and home. The moment
a missionary stands up to preach, the people say " Ah, the padri is come,
he will tell us that we are sinners, that we must repent and believe in

the Saviour Jesus Christ." '^

Why do you always preach Jesus Christ,
says another. Only say that God is one, and that idols are nothing and
we agree."
On one occasion a missionary from Mangalore, travelling tlu'ough the
country to preach the gospel, was invited by the Rajah of Vittla to pay
him a visit. He was most hospitably entertained for several days, and
enjoyed many opportunities of conversing on religious questions with the
Rajah himself, and with the numerous courtiers and attendants by wdiom
he was surrounded. During one of these conversations the Rajah
expressed particular anxiety on two things. He wished to know first,

whether there was any medicine in the world to cure all diseases and
prevent death secondly, whether the art of changing metals into gold
:

was known in Em-ope. On this text, the fear of death and the desire of

wealth, the missionary preached unto him Jesus. All the Rajah's people,
in his absence, expressed their conviction that idolatry and caste were
the inventions of men : and declared at the same time their own inten-

tion to seek final freedom from trouble, not hj works of merit, but by
I
 ;

58 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

the attainment of spiritual 'wisdom.' Examples of sucli convictions

can be readily multiplied from the Mission Reports. They shew the
same results from public preaching as are being witnessed o^er all India
wherever the same exertions have been made.

MISSIONARY EXPENDITURE,

There are one or two an'angements in the missionary economy of the

Basle Society which differ from the practice of other Societies. For
instance^ it is a rule, made by the Home Committee, and re-affirmed by
the missionaries themselves, that every missionary and mission family shall
receive only a subsistence allowance, instead of a fixed salary. And in

order to reduce expenditure as much as possible unmarried missionaries

are expected to reside with others, receiving a very small pittance beyond
the food which they eat. We believe also that they cannot marry with-
out the consent of their committee being first obtained. In this way it

happens that annually, twenty-five missionaries and sixteen missionaries'

wives are maintained for the small sum of twenty-three thousand rupees.
House-rent is not included in this calculation : their dwelling-houses
belong to the Society, and the missionaries live rent-free. Building and
repaii's cost six thousand rupees more. The missionaries' journeys,
moonshees, and postage are also all separately paid for. One result of

this plan is ; that the missionaries are able to save nothing. Those there-
fore who have children are left without means for sending their cliildren
to Europe ; or for educating them either in Europe or in India. It was
once thought that India was the best place for their children ; but the
most experienced of their number entertain a perfectly opposite opinion

an opinion entertained by all medical men and

; confirmed by the practice
of the whole European community, who from North India at least send
their cliildren to England by hundi'cds every year. The whole question
has been remitted for final settlement to the Committee at Basel. They
have received it in the kindest way, and are anxious to make such arrange-
ments for the reception and education of the missionaries' families, as

shall give perfect satisfaction to their brethren. For bretlu-en, who have
given up every thing but their daily support, the Committee can scarcely
do less. In England and America, Societies exist for aiding the educa-
tion of missionaries' children : and the Basel Society might benefit by
some such Institution, either separate from, or as a branch of, itself.
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. 59

A very large portion of the funds of this mission is obtained from chris-
tians in this country. The missionaries draw about forty-five thousand
rupees from Germany and receive from ten to twelve thousand rupees
;

in India. One year they received as much as eighteen thousand rupees.

'

This proof of the great liberality of the English christians in India to a

German mission deserves special mention. It shows the great sympathy
which is felt for their labours ; and the hearty confidence with which the
missionaries are regarded. The individual donations which their subscrip-
tion lists exhibit are perfectly amazing. Subscriptions of one hundred
rupees are quite common : but those of two hundred, three hundred and
five hundred also occur. Such assistance has been eminently useful
to the mission from its very commencement, and without it the operations
of the Society in India would necessarily be greatly curtailed.

MISSION IN THE NILGIRI HILLS.

It only remains to give a brief account of the Basle Mission in the

Nilgiri Hills. This beautiful cluster of hills lies on the southern border
of Mysore, and forms a part of the great block of mountains in which
the Ghaut ranges on the east and west coasts of India are fused into
each other. The mighty convulsions by which they were produced, have
left here the broadest and deepest marks. Several distinct ranges, of
varied formation, have been throA\Ti up within a small space ; of these the
Koondas on the west and the Nilgiris on the east are the most con-
spicuous. The Koondas are the most majestic the Nilgiris the most :

beautiful. The pass of Konoor, by which the traveller descends the

latter into the eastern plains, is one of the most lovely vallies in all

South India. Upon its beetling crags and deep dense woods ; on the light
green jungle, and the gushing streams, amongst which the road winds
for sixteen miles, the worn out dweller on the plains gazes his fill and
turns away only to look again.
These hills are peopled by various sections of the aborigines of India,
who and habits differ entirely from the Hindus of
in language, religion

the plains. They include 12,000 Badagas or Burgers 400 Todawars :

;

500 Kotas, and 300 Irulas. The Irula tribe inhabit the feverish jungle
which surrounds the base of the hills, and are in consequence a weak
and sickly race. The Kotas occupy the eastern side of the Nilgiris, and
from them the European sanatarium of Kotagherry is named. They
have only seven villages. They cultivate the ground, have large herds
fCO THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

of cattle, and are the blacksmiths, potters and musicians of the country.
They are more energetic than other hill men, but are the most filthy and
abject of all. The Badagas are the most numerous and influential. They
are scattered widely o^^er the hills and their \dllages amount to several
hundreds in number. They are divided into four Nadus or districts,
and are ruled by cliiefs termed Gaudas. They live in a most patriarchal
manner : all the branches of a family reside together under the same
roof, under the rule of the head. The houses therefore are of immense
size, like the tent of an influential Arab Sheikh ; and often a few such
houses constitute a populous village. The whole people are closely con^

nectcd by caste and intermarriages : and form a compact mass almost

impenetrable to foreign influence. Poor and low as they are, they have
no less than nine grades of caste among them : and submit, like the

Hindus of the plains, to the guiding tyranny of its rules. The idolatry

of such a people can of course be only of the lowest kind : having its

roots in the demon worship of India : but the brahmins have considerable
influence, and the Badagas reverence IMahalinga and Gunga-ma. They
are greatly enslaved by superstitious fear of demons and sorcerers who
work in their name ; amongst whom the ]Mullu-kurumbas on the slopes
of the hills are most dreaded. It may be mentioned that all these hill

tribes speak a rude kind of Canarese : and esteem the Tamil language,
which they do not laiow, the language of true ci\ilization.

Three large villages of Badagas, comprising about twelve hundred peo-

ple, lie together in the very heart of the Nilgiris, in a peculiar basin, the
name of which is Kaity. It is situated four miles to the east of Oota-

camund, the European settlement. It is a beautiful spot, entirely sur-

rounded by swelling hills, and liaAdng on its northern front, the full
sweep of the mountain side of Dodabette the highest of the Nilgiri range/
It is watered by several gushing rills and the bright crimson rhodo- :

dendron, the wild raspberry and blackberry, field marigolds, lupins, and

numerous species of fern, both by their sight and sweet smell, call away
the thoughts of English visitors to the land where they first beheld them.
In this valley, with a design to benefit the poor ignorant Badagas, the
Jate INIr. Casamajor fixed his seat, on retiring from the Madras Civil

Service. He buijt a beautiful house, having a Badaga village close

behind. He obtained fu'st German missionaries

one, then another of the

to ^dsit his people and fairly set on foot a mission

: among them. Every
day he received their sick and gave them medicines with his own hand,
Every day he sat in his Badaga school, teaching the little hill boys the
 THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION. '61

first elements of the gospel of Christ. He began also to translate the

Gospel of Luke into their barbarous tongue. But it pleased God to

take him away early : and he lived not to see his efforts meet with any
success. By his Avill he left that house and property to the mission ; a
gift equal in value to Rs. 30^000 : desiring that the whole establishment
might be maintained after his decease.

The Mission was properly commenced in 1816 by the Rev. G. Weigle,

who Avas then visiting the Nilgiri Hills for his health, and was completing
his revision of the Canarese Bible. It was intended to serve a double
purpose, viz. both as a station for the local mountaineers, and as a
sanatarium for the numerous missionaries stationed in Malabar and
Canara. In the latter respect, it has proved of great utility to the mis-
sion generally : w-hile the former object has been also consistently kept
in view. Mr. Weigle was soon joined by other labourers, and in a
few years the settled staff at Kaity consisted of three missionaries, Messrs.
Biililer, Metz and Moerike, who had made the Badaga language their spe-
cial study. In carrying out their plans, the missionaries soon found that
little opportunity existed for public preaching, and that they could best
reach their ignorant charge by domestic \dsits and conversation. They
have therefore maintained a constant system of itinerancy, and it is

believed that' but few of the natives on the hills have never heard the
gospel fi'om the lips of these indefatigable wanderers. They also establish-
ed some schools ; the scholars of which varied greatly in number with the
fears or fickle disposition of their parents, or with the orders called forth
by the policy of the heads of the tribe. To acts of kindness the poor are
especially open : and the missionaries soon found that by gifts of medicine
and attention to the sick, they had an access to the Badagas superior to
every thing else. In one year they vaccinated no less than seven hundred
children.
Hitherto they have received no converts, who have made a decided
profession. ]\Iany have heard with attention, and many have expressed
an interest in the truth. The name of Jesus has been uttered in prayer
among their mountain torrents : and the New Testament daily worshipped
as diA-ine. By some the Sa\dour has been included among the number of
their gods ; by others he is feared as an enemy of their idols. The mis-
sionaries aware of these things, continue to A'isit and converse with the
people, making their dim light clearer, and striving to remove their
dense ignorance of every thing truly spiritual. They have recently added
to their means of usefulness the translation of the Badaga Luke, begim
 !

;6S THE GERMAN EVANGELICAL MISSION.

by Mr. Casamajor and finished by Mr. Buliler. They still visit the idol
festivals and at the Badaga funerals, which multitudes are accustomed
:

to attend, the missionaries are frequently present. So much is tliis the

case, and so great is the increase of sound views, that the cry has recently
been raised :
'
You have ruined our country why do you come
: to all our

festivals : stay at home V They have sown -widely the seed of the king-

dom who : can doubt that the harvest will at length be reaped.

The mission which has been now briefly described is not carried on
by English missionaries, under a Government to which they naturally
belong, and in a society of which they are born members. It is a mis-

sion established and maintained by foreigners for the welfare of the

subjects of a foreign government. But to labours like theirs, what
English christian will not extend a hearty welcome, and pray for a
hearty blessing. Fellow-behevers in the great truth of salvation only by
Jesus Christ, they have become fellow-workers with us in seeking the
conversion of Hindustan. Thrice blessed be their purpose : thrice blessed

their holy toil ! Cut off even more than others from home and father-
land, may they feel the sacrifice a thousand-fold made up by Him, for
whom it is made. May their work be light, and their hands be strong.
May their converts increase, and give them purest joy. May they soon
find their sphere of labour brought entirely into the glorious kingdom of
Jesus Christ
 ;

LECTURE SECOND.

ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS

FROM MADRAS TO MADURA.

THE TAMIL COUNTRY.

The country occupied by the real Tamil people is the plain which lies

between the ghauts and the sea in the south-east part of the Presidency.
It joins the Telugu land on the north ; the river Kistna^ between Nellore
and Cuddapahj forming the boundary between them ; and extends from
that line southwards to Tinnevelly. This plain is nearly five hmidred
iniles long and at its widest part, from Tranquebar to the foot of the
Nilgiris, has a breadth of two hundred miles. Its soil is mostly dry, but
several fine rivers, issuing from the ghauts run across it, of which the
largest is the river Cavery. The coimtry is watered twice a year. The
north-east monsoon, blowing down the Bay of Bengal, brings large
supplies of rain. The south-west monsoon, coming from the Indian Ocean in
May, strikes the ghauts on the west coast and the high land of JNIysore
and the rain thence produced, falling among the mountains, fills the rivers
which run off towards the eastern coast : and thus the Tamil comitry re-

ceives large supplies of water for the second time without a drop of rain

directly falling on it. Tliis great plain contains some fine districts. The
district of Chinglepvit, in wliich Madras is situated ; as also Ai'cot and
Chittoor, lie on its northern border. The districts of Salem and Coim-
batoor lie along the ghauts, just under the Mysore province and the
Nilgiris. Both are rocky districts and abound in various kinds of
minerals. The province of Tanjore, between Coimbatoor and the sea is
the most fertile of the whole. Its numerous rivers secure for the rich

soil a larger supply of moisture than other provinces obtain : while again
the value of this supply has been much increased by the canals and
aqueducts which the Government has formed for spreading it over the
widest surface. South of Tanjore and Trichinopoly, is the hilly district
of Dindigul, and south of that again is Madm-a. Between them and the
sea is Ramnad with the island and temple of Rameswaram. Tlie Tamil
 ; '

64 ON THE TAIMIL MISSIONS.

countn^ is in general flat, and in some parts appears sandy ; but in many
places it is pierced by detached and lofty hills, which give a most pleasing
variety to the sceneiy. In this way appear the hill and fort of Gingee
near which is a petrified forest ; the Cheveroi Hills of the Salem district
the granite hills of Mahavalipuram, out of which the Seven Pagodas are
cut; and the nolile rock at Trichinopoly, with the French and Fakir
rocks in its neighboiu-hood. Thus also have been formed the majestic
hills on which the fort of Dindigul is erected, and those which surround
the ancient city of Madura. Most of these hills I have seen and climbed
with that peculiar pleasure, which is derived only from the contrast of a
many years' residence on a perfectly flat and common-place soil.

THE TAMIL PEOPLE.

The people of this gi-eat Tamil plain arc in most respects like other
Hindus. They dress pretty much like the people of Bengal, except that

all respectable natives wear a chapkhan or long-skirted coat above the

dhoti or body-dress, and a turban of rather singular shape. The women
are fond of coloured dresses, which they wear rather short ; and often
leave the head uncovered out-of-doors ; a thing never done in Upper
India. The workmen exhibit in some places the same ingenuity and
skill wliich are found in North India. The goldsmiths of Trichinopoly,
with their curious chains, their filagree work, bracelets and pens; the
makers of pith-temples, mosques and figures ; the caners in ebony ; the
painters on talc ; and the polishers of opal and marble, furnish illustra-

tions of this fact. The people generally are divided into castes, as
Hindus are in North India, but one great peculiarity distinguishes them
from the Hindus of the north : namely, the existence of an immense
class of Parias or out-castes. There are low castes in Bengal ; as for
instance the Doms, the Chandals of Backergunje, the Haris of Bm-dwan,
and the Bauris of Midnapore ; these are however limited in number, and
constitute compact castes of themselves. But the Parias of Madras are

much more numerous, and from the consequent efforts made by respecta-
ble men to maintain the superioiity of their own families, are much
more despised and trodden down. The Sudra again, who is a nobody in
Bengal, because the members of all castes form the bulk of the popula-
tion, in Madras, as being a Hindu by birth, becomes, in contrast to the

Paria, a gentleman and man of rank. This distinction between the races
is carried very far throughout the Presidency : and wc might be sure
 ;

ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 65

even a-priori that it would have an mfluence upon the christian church.
Woe to the poor man who is born a Paria ! However he may rise in
wealth or learning, there is degradation in store for him all his days.
The Parias form in many parts a tliird or fourth of the population.
Another peculiarity in the population, utterly unknown in North
India, is the distinction into right-hand and left-hand castes. This dis-
tinction appears to have had entu^ely a political origin. It arose seem-
ingly from a deep-rooted quarrel between the five castes of artizans and
the brahmins. The goldsmiths, carpenters, blacksmiths, stonemasons
and braziers, affirm that they are equal, if not superior, to the brahmins,

and have full right to appoint their own priests : that the brahmins are
usurpers, and did not exercise their present amount of authority in ancient
days. A deadly feud exist between the two parties : and the brahmins
in revenge declare, that these five castes with a few others are not proper
descendants of Hindus at all, that they are of doubtful origin, left-handed
castes ; and that other Hindus, including the poor Paria, are right-hand
or genuine. The disputes of the two have been sometimes broughtby
petitions even into the Madras Council Chamber, but the Government
has refused to interfere.

THE TAMIL LANGUAGE.

The population of all castes speak Tamil. This language like the people,
possesses peculiarities unknown to the tongues of the Bengal Presidency.
It is evidently not of Sanskrit origin, like Bengali and Oriya : but is one
of the indigenous tongues of India, and merely possesses Sanskrit words
thro^Ti in upon the top of it, which words are unknown to all but the
educated classes.It has a most complete and extensive literature of its

own, distinct from the Hindu Shastres; amongst which are celebrated
books of poetry, of moral sayings, of philosophy and also of history. It is

worthy of note that the older these books are, the more thoroughly free
do they appear from any admixture of Sanskrit. It is e\ident from such
facts that the Tamils were a civilized people, before the brahmins and
sudras under Agastya Muni fell upon, and subdued them. Those who
have studied the question best, consider that all the languages of South
India, the Telugu, Canarese, INIalealim, and Tamil are of Tartar origin
and that a very close affinity exists between them and the Mongolian
tongues, both in actual words and in the inflexions of nouns and verljs.

It has also been shewn by Dr. MuUer in his Bengali Grammar, that
K
 ;

66 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS,

these parts of Bengali and Onya wliich arc not Sanskrit have the same
affinity Avith the Tartar tongues. The Khond language is said to exhibit
the best specimen of a Tartar tongue in the whole country. Thus the study
of Indian languages enables us partially to trace the origin of the aborigines,
whom the brahmins and sudras have enslaved, but who once roamed as
lords over the soil of India. A portion of their numbers are still to be
found in the lowest castes, or in the hilly jungles : traces of their original
language also exist in the tongues spoken to this day ; and where they
liave continued to be the largest proportion of the population, their
language also has been less corrupted by foreign mixtures. The Tamil
is the oldest of the South Indian languages : it contains all the roots of the
Canarese and I\Ialeali tongues, besides others which they do not possess
neither do they possess such an extensive indigenous literatm-e as the old
Tamil has.

THE DANISH MISSION.

The first Protestant mission to India was commenced among the Tamil
people. It was established by Ziegenbalg and Plutscho at Tranquebar
in 1706; now a Imndi'cd and fifty years ago. When these servants of
God reached India, nothing was known of the Hindu system, of Hindu
caste, or the peculiar difficulties by which such missions would be met.
But they gradually discovered them, and found too that the influence of
their countrymen was also quite opposed to their own plans. They soon
learned the Tamil and Portuguese languages, and began to prepare some
small books for schools. One of their earliest letters contains mention of a
plan for buying children for their boarding school : as ' they reckon the
training of childi-en to be of the greatest consequence.' They also think

it necessary to lay some charitable foundations for the support of such

heathens as by embracing the Christian religion are expelled from their
possessions and for a time need help. These plans required considerable
sums of money and contain the germ of a system, which was partially
:

continued during all the century. They next obtained from the Gover-
nor an order directed to all the Protestant inhabitants to send their slaves
to be instructed, in order that they might siibsequently be baptized. They
then built their first church on the outskirts of the nati^ e town, and
just on the sea beach. Their first baptism of Tamil heathen took place
Sept. 5, 1707, when nine were baptized. I have read the entry in the
church-book, having obtained a sight of the old registers, or a copy of
them, during my visit to Tranquebar.
 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 67

Tliree years after their arrival Ziegciibalg and Plutsclio were followed
by INIr. (inmdler, a missionary of the same spirit as themselves ; he
labonred in the mission for eleven years with great zeal. A printing
press and types, a printer and a physician, were also added to their esta-
blishment which they endeavoured to render complete. On returning to
Europe for a time, Ziegenl)alg found useful employment in directing the
attention of English and Continental christians towards the infant
mission. The royal families both of Denmark and England treated him
M'ith high honour, and gave him substantial aid for his labours. He
lived but a short time after his return, and was soon followed to the grave
by his colleague Grundler. They both lie buried in the large mission
church, opened two years before Ziegenbalg's death : the one on the
north, and the other on the south side of the commimion table. Small slabs
of marble in the walls above bear brief inscriptions to their memory. The
antiquated building still exists unaltered. Their tablets and grave-stones ;

their old pulpit with its huge sounding board ; the antique seats and con-
tracted vestry remain standing to the present day. Long may it abide
in testimony to that grace which made them such bm-ning and shining
lights in the days of dense darkness ! Before their removal the New Testa-
ment had long been and the Old Testament was printed to
in circulation,
the Book of Ruth. Extensive itinerancies had been made through the vil-
lages around Tranquebar : many tracts and scriptures distributed ; many
children instructed : and great opposition and fear excited among the Ro-
man Catholics especially the priests. Two large congregations had also
been gathered, which were taught in the Tamil and Portuguese languages
respectively.

The mission thus founded, was ably continued. At short intervals of

three, five, and eight years, small detachments of missionaries arrived to
take the places of those who died, or strengthen the hands and enlarge
the usefulness of those avIio survived. The most aljle missionary, a^Iio

immediately succeeded Grundler and Ziegenbalg was Dr. Schultze. He

Avas a distinguished linguist, Avho had learned several Eiu-opean languages
before his arrival : and soon made himself master of the Tamil tongue.
He completed the translation of the Tamil Old Testament begun by
Ziegenbalg, and having laboured eight years in building up the chm'ch at
Tranquebar, was invited by the Christian Knowledge Society to found a
mission in INIadras. There he completed the second Indian translation of
the Bible, that into Telugu though as we have seen, it was never turned
;

to account. His colleague ]Mr. Dahl, devoted his chief attention to the

K 2
 ;

68 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

Portuguebe congregation^ and continued his ministerial charge over them

for twenty-seven years. What a vast amount of quiet, persevering effort,

of patience and of trial must have been included in his toil, and in that of
another colleague Mr. Bosse, who laboiu-ed for twenty-one years in the

same sphere. Their A'cry names are almost unknown, but the record of
their service is with their Master who seeth in secret. At the same time
with them, and after the departure of Dr. Schultze to ISIadras, the
Tamil church had for its pastors, two very valuable missionaries, Mr.
Pressier and Mr. Walther. The latter was an able scholar, and finding
that the Roman Catholic priests, especially Father Beschi, were spreading
extensively false reports concerning the mission, he drew up in reply, for

the use of the converts, a work which he entitled Ecclesiastical History

in Tamil. This book contains a masterly account of the rise and progress
of the Christian Church ;
gives full and clear descriptions of the origin

and conduct of the Jesuit j\Iission in India, and thoroughly refutes the
many calumnies Avhich the priests had circidated concerning the mission.
It proved a powerful aid to the catechists and native converts : and was
so unanswerable, that from the time it appeared, Father Beschi, the most
able of the Jesuit writers then linng, ceased to mention the Protestant
mission in liis Avorks and argue against its so-called errors.

In the year 1 733, the missionaries took the important step of ordaining
one of their native catechists to the work of the ministry. The person
upon whom their choice fell Avas named A^vron. He had been from the
first a pupil in one of their schools, had been appointed schoolmaster
then assistant catechist ; and had finally become one of the three chief
catechists in the Tranquebar mission. He was thirty-five years of age
and had seen much experience. On his ordination, he was appointed to
the charge of several congregations scattered in the neighbourhood of
Tranquebar, but too distant for the people to attend the regular services
in the mission church. He proved himself consistent and faithful : and
upon his death another catechist, who had been his colleague for years,

was ordained in his place.

The town of Tranquebar stands upon the sea coast, and has upon the
land side, close to it, the great proA-ince of Tanjorc. The toAvn of Tanjore

is distant irom it only fifty miles ; other important to^ras, like Combaco-
num and Mayaveram, are even at a less distance. During all last century,
Tranquebar was under the Danish Government and Tanjore was ruled by
a native prince. The missionaries had full access to the natives through-

out their own territory, but found it difficult to do any thing in Tanjore.
 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 69

Enquirers often came from thence, and the Raja himself at one time sent
spies to bring reports concerning their rehgion and their phms. The %^
gospel found entrance first into Tanjore through the means of a native
military officer. His name was Ea'jnaiken. Brought up a Roman
Catholic he had been initiated into some of the outward forms of Chris-
tianity, but had never been taught its divineword and the depth of reli-
gious truth which that word contains. But God's good providence threw
in his way a copy of the Gospels, and so delighted was he with the book,
that, fearful lest the owner should take it away before he could understand
all, he began to copy the whole out on palm leaves. Meeting with a man,
who had been to Tranquebar, Rajnaiken enquired how more of these

books could be obtained. The cunning fellow replied that he Avould get
them for him; and Rajnaiken most gladly purchased several that the
other had received as gifts. He soon found out the cheat, and went
straight to the missionaries himself : from whom he received clear instruc-
tion in that religion towards which the Spirit of God was drawing his

heart so powerfully. Upon his baptism, the most violent opposition was
raised by the Jesuits and the members of his family : the latter hoAvever

by degrees all joined him, and were received into the church at Tran-
quebar. Rajnaiken, immediately began a course of usefulness : and in
order to increase it, he determined to leave the army and devote his life

to preaching the gospel. He was settled, with his brother, in Tanjore ;

and was the means under God of bringing many in that province from
the darkness of heathenism and Romanism to gospel light. The enmity
of the Jesuits followed him unceasingly, but he remained firm. On one
occasion his father was murdered before his eyes ; and his brother nearly
killed. On another occasion he was seized and beaten, and left for dead
upon the ground. But the Lord preserved his life and usefulness to a
good old age : and took him to rest after a faithful and remarkable mis-
sionary career of forty-four years.
The most prosperous period of the Tranquebar mission seems to have
been the period of its first Jubilee, about the year 1756. Eight mission-
aries were then present ; of whom three had been labouring nearly twenty
years, and were men of great ability, respected by all aroimd, cliristian
and heathen. Swartz was at the time one of the junior brethren, lia^dng
been at Tranquebar but six years. The whole number baptized during this
first fifty years of the mission, amounts to about eleven thousand. The
numbers added in different years greatly vary; sometimes they amount-
ed to 300; 400; 550; 600 ; and in one year to 738. Deducting the chil-
 :

70 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

(Iren, the lists shew a large increase of adults : thus in 1747, three hundred
were added from Hinduism, and eighty-eight fi^om Popery and Mahomc-
danism. These numbers do not convey any great satisfaction to the mind,
when we remember the principles with which the missionaries had set out,

many of these so-called converts were slaves : others were people of low
caste, who had nothing to lose and every thing to gain by being numbered
among christians others had been attracted by the pensions and charities
:

freely bestowed upon widows and the poor many had been children in:

their boarding schools. All enjoyed an improper freedom in respect to old

customs and caste, which modern missionaries have justly endeavoured
to put down. Often the missionaries found themselves deceived and saw
apostates going back, whom only loaves and fishes had dra"\vn to their side.

Strong too Avere the prejudices still kept up between the higher and
lower castes, the Sudras and the Parias. So strong were they, that the
missionaries dared not to ordain to the ministry any but high caste men
although, as they confessed, on the retirement of Aaron, Ra'jnaiken, their
zealous suffering Paria cateehist, had from his sterling worth a claim to
such office superior to all others. Me may on these accounts not feel a
complete satisfaction in contemplating this large number of converts
during the first half century of the mission. But we must remember on
the other hand, the many proofs which the missionaries had of the
genuineness of piety in some of their converts ; the calm and happy
death, following the consistent life ; and the patience under persecution to
which many were at that time exposed. With these tilings before them,
these servants of God, supported but feebly from the churches in Europe
and li\dng in India in trouljlous times, could not but thank God and
take courage.
The first off-shoot from the Tranquebar mission was established at

]\Iadras by Dr. Sehultze, at the instance of the Christian Knowledge

Society in England. Its men were all supplied fr'om Halle or from
the Tranquebar station ; but then' salaries and other expenses of the
mission Avere paid by the Society. Dr. Sehultze laboured at Madras for
fifteen years with fidelity and success. He founded schools, established
a congregation and built a small church. The locality of his mission

has been entirely changed in the course of years ; but it long had small
endowments of land, where the people lived rent-ft^ee and benefited by
the same system of alms-giving which the mother mission had begun.
Dr. Sehultze's congregation gi-adually increased in numbers, receiving
continual addition from the Roman Catholic and Paria classes. It soon
 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 71

lost liowever the benefit of liis superintendence. In 1713 ill-health

compelled him to return to Halle, and he retired from his mission work
altogether : but the Tamil churches for many years enjoyed, in their
completed Bible, the friuts of his Indian studies. Another missionary,
Mr. Fabricius, arrived before his departiu-e : and shortly after another,

Mr. Breithaupt. These faithful servants of God laboured together in

word and doctrine, and bore the burden of that increasing mission for
nearly forty years. They were companions in the Lord's toil during
life ; and they died almost at the same time.
A third mission was established shortly after by the same English
society betweenMadras and Tranquebar at Cuddalore. Both the
Madras and Cuddalore missions were on English territory and to a cer- ;

tain extent were secured from the ravages of repeated war. Tranquebar
was e\en safer ; because the Danes kept themselves out of the political
troubles of South India altogether. The former station, owing to the
English wars did not always enjoy peace, but suffered greatly from the
confusion of the times. Both had landed endowments, both cared much
for their widows and poor both therefore increased in numbers and always
;

increased most in the years of the greatest scarcity. During the wai',

Madras was taken possession of by the French, under Labourdonnais, who

immediately converted the church into a magazine, and otherwise injured
the mission premises. Mr. Fabricius retired to Pulicat, but the native

christians remained and lived in comparative quiet. On its restoration to

the English a circumstance occurred, which had an important influence on

the mission generally and on Mr. Fabricius' s o^Ya fortimcs. The Jesuit

priests had acted throughout the war as spies for the French : and when the
latter were driven away, the Government to punish the priests, confiscated

their chm-ch at Vepery, and banished them from then" territories. The
church was then given over, with all its land and houses, to the Protestant
missionaries, who at once removed tlieii" mission thither. Vepery lies out
of Macfras ; that is, beyond the walls of the native town altogether : and
in carrying thither a detachment of native christians and taking up their

own residence with them, the missionaries exposed themselves to visita-

tions fr"om bands of soldiers and marauders, from which they woidd have
been fr-ee within the walls themselves. Thus it happened that, ten years

later, when Lally besieged Madras, though unable to get into the Fort, part

of his native forces plundered the Vepery mission in the suburbs. They en-
tered the mission houses, ransacked boxes and drawers, destroyed papers
and books, and plundered property amounting to several thousand rupees.
73 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

entrusted to ]\Ir. Fabricius by various parties. Such evils happened occa-

sionally : in the main the mission increased and prospered steadily year
by year : so did also the mission at Cuddalore. The great confusion of

the times kept the latter back^ but it continued to grow till 1758_, when
the town was surrendered to Count Lally : the mission was deserted and
Mr. Kiernander was compelled to leave the place altogether. On the re-

storation of peace in the same year^, the missionaries, mtli one exception,
all returned to their stations : Mr. Hutteman taking jNIr. Kiernander's
place at Cuddalore, Fabricius and Breithaupt returning to Madras; and
the Tranquebar mission continuing as before.
Thenceforth the three missions ran forward together, conducted by simi-
lar men ; who were born in the same country, were educated
in the same

place, and adopted similar The Tranquebar station was blessed

plans.

with missionaries who were both able in their management and long-hved.
Mr. AYeidebrock, who died in 1 766 is spoken of in the highest terms by
heathen and christian He lived there nearly thirty years. Mr. KohlhotT
!

senior, the first of the name, laboured fifty-three years : Mr. Zeglin,

forty years ; Mr. Klein, forty-five years ; each steadily pm-suing in his
own sphere, either the Tamil or Portuguese, the particular duty assigned
to his charge. To these succeeded three others, the last of the residents

at the head-station : Dr. John, who came out in 1770, and lived forty-
three years ; Dr. Rottler, who began with Tranquebar, was transferred to
Madras, and died in 1836, after a service of sixty years : and lastly Dr.
Caemmerer, who arrived in 1790 and died after forty- seven years' labour.

Their labours towards the end of the century were not of a very burden-
some character. Stations in their neighbourhood, which had been off'-shoots
of the mission had then missionaries of their owi so that their care was :

required only for the churches in Tranquebar and the districts imme-
diately around it. Their work was confined chiefly to the instruction of
the congregations and the superintendence of the catechists. Of schools

they had very few and those Avere very poor. Indeed throughout the his-

tory of the Tranquebar mission, the education of the converts' children

had been greatly neglected. It was only towards the beginning of the
present centmy that Dr. John, con\inced of then* importance, began to

establish schools of a better kind : but the eflbrt came too late and was
soon retracted. The missions at Cuddalore and Madras were carried
on in the same quiet way certain evils, coimected wdth caste among the
;

converts and with their pecuniary support, increasing in strength and

becominsT too influential for the missiquaries to check them. An un-
 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 73

happy occurrence took place at Madras. After tlie death of his col-
league, ]\Ir. Brcithaupt, Fabricius remained alone. He was a man of
easy disposition, and therefore rather unfit to have the management
of the extensive money-matterSj which the care of the mission involv-
ed. Of the large funds in his hands, some belonged to the Mission
Press, or arose from its land endowments : some had been borrowed in
times of scarcity and not repaid ; and some belonged to private parties.
With a view to tm'n these funds to the best accoimt, considerable sums
not immediately required for current expenses were lent out : a large
sum for instance Avas lent to the Nawab's son-in-law at a hio-h
interest. Things went on prosperously for several years ; but after the
loss of several thousand rupees by the ravages of Lally's followers, clouds
and difficulties began to surround Fabricius. By the repudiation of
his claims on the part of several debtors ; by the defalcations of one
of his catecliists, and by other calamities, the crisis at length came. A
vindictive native threw him into prison, where he remaind fifteen months,
overwhelmed mtli disgrace. He was of course compelled to resign his
connection with the mission ; and shortly after died at the age of eighty-

one. Mr. Gericke, who had till then resided at Cuddalore and Negapatam,
took charge of the Vepery station. This distinguished missionary, the
personal friend of Swartz, presided over the congregation for twelve years.
He instructed and governed it with great wisdom, and in many ways
greatly advanced its prosperity. The native christians declare to this day
that his were the palmy days of the mission. To all external appearance
it greatly fiourished. He had ample funds at his command for the mis-
sion agents, both catechists and schoolmasters : and to the poor his
liberality was unbounded. His however were not confined to
laljours

Madras. He travelled extensively throughout the Tamil country, every-

where employing his great talents and influence in building up the church
of Christ. His missionary career extended to nearly forty years.
It is time to speak with some detail, of the two youngest branches of
the Tranqucbar misson, the stations at Trichinopoly andTANjoRE. The
celebrated missionary Swartz founded them both: and both were l)ut

the natural extension of the efforts steadily continued at the first station,

Tranqucbar. After a residence at Tranqucbar of fourteen years, Swartz

proceeded to Trichinopoly, then beset by the English troops, among
whom he had some warmly attached friends ; having fomid in that place a
fresh opening for usefulness. In 1 766, after the siege of Madura, whither
also he had accompanied the army, Trichinopoly fell into the liands of
74 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

the English, and Swartz took up his residence there. He built a house
and school in the Fort ; erected a church ; and ere long was appointed^
with a salary, chaplain to the English soldiers. He speedily founded
a native church. In the first year, he baptized twenty persons ; in the
second year, tAventy : in the sixth year, five hundred ; the year following,
two hundred in ten years, altogether 1,238.
: At the end of ten years, he
gave over the mission to an excellent and consistent missionary, Mr.
Pohle, Avho conducted it faithfully till his death in 1816, a period of forty

years. Swartz himself proceeded to Tanjore, with the view of found-

ing a new mission. After some delay he succeeded in commencing it

under favourable circumstances. I need not detail the history of this

eminent servant of God, whose praise is in all the churches. He needs
no commendation of mine : and it only remains for me to indicate two or
three things which, it appears to me, had considerable influence upon his
missionary success. His religious character was evidently of the highest
order, and was the means of producing extraordinary confidence in him
in native minds. His freedom from covetousness and from selfish aims,

attracted all eyes. He was too a man of distinguished ability, of

soundest judgment and wonderful prudence. But apart from his extra-

ordinary private worth, his p^^blic position contributed to render his

name great with the native population, ever anxious to secure a
patron and a friend. His great influence with the English Government,
who on several occasions expressed their high confidence in him : his

successful embassy to the lawless chieftain Hyder Ali ; his office as a

member of the Tanjore Council of Government ; his education of the

young prince Serfogee; the influence he exerted on the Madras Govern-

ment respecting his re- appointment to the throne, and the expulsion of
the usm'per, his uncle : the deference which the Raja paid him, when he
remonstrated about his oppression of the peasants, and the immediate
cure of that evil ; and his occasional administration of justice in the
Tanjore Court ; all invested him with a political and public importance
to which his brethren could lay no claim. The liberality he habitually
exercised ; his thorough knowledge of the Tamil language, and his ability

to converse also in Persian and Mahrati : his celibacy too ; and his posi-

tion as a sincere and consistent religious teacher, were superadded, and

raised his influence to a still higher degree. He made sincere converts,

but it would have been strange, if such elements in his character and
position had not tended with great power to draw many natives to him, to
profess a belief in the christian religion as a means of rising in the
 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 75

world. Who can Avoiidcr that in the course of twenty years, he shoukl
have haptizcd two thousand persons, of whom he says two-thirds were
of the higher castes : when he allowed the Sudra and Paria
especially

converts to occupy different sides of his church. The marvel would have
been, that such men should not come at all.
One fact becomes at once patent, at the time of his death viz. the ex- ;

tent of money that he was able to command for missionary purposes.

The Tanjore mission received while he lived several gifts of land, in-
cluding a large village ; and at his death he left for its use no less than
85,000 sicca rupees. A few years later his friend Gericke bequeathed to
the Vepery mission in Madras, 67,000 sicca rupees. Thus, reckoning the
money at its proper value at that time, we find that these missionaries

alone left to the two missions over Avhicli they presided, a sum of money
equal to £20,000. In life they had supported from these funds a large num-
ber of catechists, school masters and school children and, at Vepery at least,
:

Mr. Gericke supported a large number of poor christians. To the same

purpose the money was left on their decease, and the missions enjoy it to
tliis day. Tlie other missions had endowments also. That at Cuddalore
had lands which at this time bring in about a thousand rupees a year. It
is difficult to find out Avhere all this money came from ; our missionary
histories have apparently not yet reached the bottom of the question. The
stations constantly received gifts jfrom individuals in the country, and
especially legacies : but w bile their expenses must have been annually large,
the supplies from Europe were but small ; and a missionary's salary, in

addition to a free house, was for a long time £50 a year, with a donation
of ten or twenty pounds more ; increased at least to ^650 ; thus making a
total of nevermore than £100 a year. In the case of Vepery, the Mission
Press was a source of profit. However they arose, these large funds though
they added to, and sustained, the agencies of the mission, could not
restore its spiritual life. Before the close of the century, the churches
at Tranquebar, Cuddalore and Madras had begun to fade ; and when
Swartz and Gericke were dead, those of Tanjore and Trichinopoly fol-

lowed them. A missionary or two remained at each place. Dr. John and
Dr. Coemmerer continued at Tranquebar. Pohle and Kohlhoff presided
over the church of Tanjore. Dr. Rottler was at Vepery. No younger
missionaries followed them to take their place as they grew old. The
Evangelical Church at Halle, whence the strength of the South Indian
Mission had been drawn, itself decayed and at last expired. Some of
the later missionaries brought neology with them : and thus the mis-.

L 2
76 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

sions lingered on and on till each of the old men was dead. Three of
them survived till 1837 : and one of them, Caspar KohlhofiF, died only

in 1844. The total number of missionaries that had joined these sever-
al stations during the first hundred years of their history, is just above
fifty : and their converts amount to more than fifty thousand. Whatever
deficiencies there were, we must remember that the Lutheran mission-
aries were the very first to occupy the land : the first to find out what
Hinduism really is : the first to oppose caste : the first to exhibit the

peculiar character of Hindu converts; the first to meet the difficul-

ties by which the work of Christ in India is beset. To the men then we
must render high honour ; as we admire the fidelity, consistency and perse-
verance with which they carried on their labours. They hved not in the days
of missionary reports and platform speeches. No magazines chronicled
their difficulties or sought sympathy on their behalf. Scarcely a man of

them ever returned to Europe. They came to India young; in India

they lived, m India they died. They Hved amidst wars and raids,

amidst plunder and confusion : they lived in an age of gross irreligion,

and they fought their part manfully and to the last. Peace be to their
ashes : honour to their memory !

The conduct of their mission and its long experience, convey to mo-
dern missionaries several lessons of great value. The attractions of in-
fluence and wealth increased the number of their converts. The mis-
sionaries being few in number, and latterly becoming fewer still in pro-
portion to the demand for them, these converts were of course commit-
ted much to the care of catechists : especially as they were scattered in
several places around the cliief seats of the missions. With the strong
prejudice which exists in South India between the castemen and those of
no-caste, it was difficult even for the missionaries, and much more so
for the catechists, to maintain among the converts the Bible doctrine of
man's equahty with man in respect to blood and race. That the mis-
sionaries did try to carry out the doctrine we know ; but that the oppo-
site doctrine did influence them, we also see in the case of Rajnaiken,
who, though a more distinguished christian than his brethren, could
not because of his origin, be ordained to the christian ministry. With
the introduction into the church, of men actuated by worldly motives,

and with the increase of wealthy Sudras (as in Tanjore) holding impor-
tant Government situations, the evils of caste-prejudice mightily increas-

ed. The influence of the missionaries was wholly carried away by it,

and proved unable to stem the torrent of spiritual pride which was
 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. / /

sweeping before it all the unity and even purity of the chureh. The
dissensions of the Corinthians at the Lord's table were renewed in South
India. The Sudra with the gold ring, the embroidered dress, and Cash-
mere turban, puffed up with pride of birth, was invited to sit in the high
'
places of the churcli, while the poor christian Paria was bidden to stand
in the doorway, taking care that he should by no means touch with his

unclean body the garments of his holy superior. Such was the lament-
able end of the first mission to India in its first stage. I have dwelt
upon it long in order to put in a clearer light the present condition of
the Tamil church. From this origin it sprang : out of these evils it

emerged ; and with these evils amongst others its missionaries arc fight-
ing to the present hour.

THE MODERN TAMIL MISSIONS.

The history of modern missionary efforts in this portion of the Ma-
dras Presidency needs only to be briefly sketched. These efforts have been
put forth only since the commencement of the present century, and are
therefore comparatively recent. Just as the light of the Tranquebar mis-
sions was fading away, the era of modern missions in England and
America began. Attention was soon drawn and that most naturally to
the country where they had so long been carried on. The first arrival

of a stranger among the Tamil missions was that of Mr. Loveless, of

the London Missionary Society, at Madras in 1805. As an interloper in
the East India Company's territories, he would not have been allowed to
preach to the natives, especially in those days of terror and fear of rebel-
lion. Dr. Kerr therefore, the excellent chaplain of Madras, procured
for him the mastership of the Madras Asylum by which he might pro-
cure an honourable livelihood, and prove useful to the community in
general. After a while, Mr. Loveless erected a chapel in Black Town
for the benefit of the East Indian population, then greatly neglected.
By his gentle manners and unobtrusive goodness, he acquired great influ-

ence among them, and is remembered with affection to the present day.

It was only after the charter of 1814, that missionaries were allowed
to leave England for the Company's territories almost without restric-
tion : but that charter once passed, the face of Indian missions rapidly
changed. The Church Missionary Society began a mission in Madras
under Mr. Rhenius in 1816, which was located in Black Town. Mr. Knill
and others of the London Society joined Mr. Loveless ; and commenced
 ;

'
78 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

Tamil se^^ ices at Vcpery and Persewaukum. The Wesleyan mission-

aries also entered the Black Town and Royapetta and founded new
:

missions both for Europeans and natives. Branches of these missions

soon spread beyond Madras : and before the last Charter was granted in
1833, five stations had been established in the Tamil country, in addition
to the old missions of former years, and to the stations also newly found-
ed in the Telugu and Canarese territories. The progress of the Tamil
missions was therefore but slow and gradual. Since the Charter of 1833,
and therefore within the last twenty years, numerous additions have been
made to all these missions. Several new Societies have entered the field
and many entirely new districts have been occupied. Within the same
period, the old and decayed missions have been all revived.
At the present time the Tamil missions occupy a most important posi-
tion. In the districts named above, no less than 67 missionaries are
engaged either in the charge of christian churches or in preaching the
gospel to the heathen. The catechists are 130 in number; and the native
chm'ches, include 16,130 individuals, of whom 4036 are communicants.
The Vernacular schools contain 7100 boys and 2100 girls. The English
schools contain 2840 scholars. The stations in Avhicli these missions are

carried on occupy various localities, but are distributed chiefly into three
groups ; in the town of Madras and its neighbourhood, in the province
of Tanjore, and in the district of Madura. Two isolated missions of
some importance have gradually risen up at Coimbatoor and Salem, in
the districts lying just under the ghauts on the borders of the Mysore.
These two missions are distinguished by their admirable schools, intended
both for christian and heathen scholars.
The town of Madras presents an aspect very different from that of Cal-
cutta. In Calcutta the native population is concentrated in a solid mass
of streets and houses, about six miles long and one^mile broad. The na-
tive town is therefore compact and well defined, the river Hooghly and the
Circular Road furnishing it ^vitll distinct boundaries. The suburbs also

are similarly compact. But in Madras the native population is scattered

over a wide surface, and appears in numerous separate districts. The

part most densely peopled is the Black To^ni, probably the oldest of all

the native settlements which make up jNIadras. It is situated close to

the sea, having the suburb of Rayapm'am at its north end, and the Eort
and Esplanade on the south side. It is a mile square, and is laid out
with great regularity : the streets of the more respectable classes, the
native merchants, being particularly clean and neat. One pecidiar fea-
 ;

ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 79

turc of tlic Madras houses contributes much to this neatness, the erec-
tion of the j-jio/ or covered verandah, which is pLaced directly on the
road-side, and appears to occupy the whole front of the space in which
the house stands. The 2nol does not appear in the brick houses of north

India : though in the larger ones, there is provided a seat at the entrance
for the door-keeper and his \isitors. A small river running along the
west side of the Black Town, quite cuts it off from the extensive suburbs
especially as there is also reserved to it a broad plain, where cattle are
penned, sheep are fed, or rice is cultivated. Crossing this stream and
plain by one of the numerous bridges, the visitor finds to the west and
south-west, the important suburbs of Vepery and Pursewaukum, covering
a large space of ground and containing a large population. South of the
Fort runs the Mount Road leading to St. Thomas's : having on each side
for some distance the best European shops. Between the Mount Road
and Vepery is another populous suburb Chintadripettah, with a large
bazar. Farther south are Royapettah and St. Thome. The European
population, with the English churches, are scattered over this immense
space of ground, greatly to the discomfort of visitors, who are quite lost
in the bewildering similarity of winding roads, twin bridges, avenues and
lanes.

The different missionary stations occupy the best spots in Madras and
its suburbs ; and several establishments have been founded in important
villages and towns in the neighbom-hood. As is proper for the chief town
of the presidency, the residence of the heads of the government and of
the mercantile community, the number of stations and missionaries is

large : nor have they failed under the blessing of God to reap substantial

fruit from The number of missionaries is thii'ty-two, supposing

their toil.

all present and the stations amount to fourteen. The native churches
:

include 700 communicants, in a community of 2,600 converts. As in

Calcutta, the English missionary schools flourish more than in the
country : they contain about 1,600 scholars. The vernacular boys' schools
also contain 1,600 scholars; and the girls' day schools, 1,400 girls. The
Auxiharies to the Bible and Tract Societies are in a flourishing condition.
The former has almost a larger sphere for its labours than any other
auxiliary in India, owing to the great number of Tamil christians. The
latter also excels many societies in possessing a very extensive variety of

vernacular tracts, suitable not only to the Hindu and IMuhammedan

population, but also to the Roman Catholics.

The Black Town has received a larger share of missionary effort than
80 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

any other portion of Madras : such effort having continued almost un-
broken from the time of Schultz to the present day. The Church Mis-
sionary Society has under its charge five hundred converts and several
vernacular schools. The mission occupies pretty much the site of
Schultz's station in the division termed John Pereira's in addition to ;

another location of the society near Dr. Kerr's church. The London
INIissionary Society, in addition to its English chapel and the Free school
attached thereto, maintains an English institution for native scholars. On
the southern face of the Black Town also, the Free Chm'ch Mission has
its well known institution both for male and female scholars and students :

besides a branch school on the Mount Road in the subm"b of Triplicane.

On the sea-beach, the Established Church of Scotland has a similar insti-
tution, with a branch school at Egmore. These three societies have no
less than 1,400 scholars and students in their institutions, in which as in
Calcutta and Bombay, a thorougli Christian education is imparted in the
English language. Their day-schools for Hindu and Muhammedan
females contain more than 700 girls, many of whom belong to respect-
able families : they are far superior to any thing of the kind to be seen in
Calcutta. In the Black To^vn the Wcsleyan Missionary Society has its

principal English chapel : and there is a small native mission connected

with it. Here also the American Board has its valuable press.

The suburb of Vepery stands next in importance not only in relation

to the amount of its population, but also to the missionary labour
expended upon it. The old Yepery Mission, founded by Fabricius and
subsequently watched over by Gericke and Dr. Rottler, is still continued

by the Propagation Society: while the Leipsic Lutheran Mission has

founded a separate station for a large body of native christians who
sprang fi'om the Vepery jSIission, but disconnected themselves from it a

few years' ago. In Vepery also and Pursewaukum, the London Mis-
sionary Society has its large native church, several vernacular schools,

and the well known Gu-ls' Boarding school under the charge of Mrs.
Porter.
In Chintadripettah, lying between Vepery and the Mount Road, the
American Board has its principal native mission, including a well-taught

English school and several Tamil schools both for boys and girls. Far-
ther south in Royapettah is the native mission of the Wesleyan Society,
including a native congregation of a hundred and fifty persons and also
several schools. The most southern mission is that of the Propagation

Society at St. Thome, under the charge of Mr. Brotherton.

 THE TAMTL MISSIONS. 8l

Every christian heart must greatly rejoice to witness the large amount
of missionary effort exerted upon the native population in and round
Madras, at these several stations ; and to see the cordial manner in which
the missionaries of different societies co-operate with each other. Many
of them are labourers of long experience and great aliility, who have
grown grey in the Lord's service, and have spent their best years in

promoting its interests. The history of their several labours, since the
stations were established, is one of great interest : but deserves far more
space than these few pages can allow : especially in view of the ignorance,

blind bigotry, and opposition with Avhich they have been met.

TANJOKE AND MADURA.

The next group of missions embraces the stations established in the

province of Tanjore, about a hundred and eighty miles south of Madras.
The province extends chiefly from east to west, and comes down to the

sea-coast. Three missionary societies are located here, all of which are
comparatively recent, though the missions they have taken up are the
oldest in the country.
The Leipsic liutheran Mission has received charge of the churches and
stations originally established by Ziegenbalg and his successors. Their
first missionary, the Rev. H. Cordes, arrived in 1840, and was subsequent-
ly followed by several brethren. Their special sphere of labour embraces
the two mission stations in Tranquebar itself, the station at Poreiar
outside the towm ; and new stations at ]\Iayaveram and Pochikottah ; all

lying at the eastern end of the province. The native christians in these
placesamount to more than two thousand.
The Propagation Society entered first upon the two old stations at
Tanjore and Trichinopoly, founded for the Christian Knowledge Society
by Swartz but as the missionaries increased in number, new missions
:

were opened at Combaconum, Boodaloor, Canendagoody and other

places, which had been outstations of the older missions or become the
residence of the converts. All the congregations were found in a most
low and formal state, Avith but little spiritual life among tliem; and
greatly enslaved by caste prejudices which divided into perfectly distiDct
sections those who professed to be one in Christ. Measures w^ere how-
ever taken to secure more efficient missionary instruction and superin-
tendence : to raise the character of native agents, and to give a regular
training to the young. The caste question also was taken up, and
M
82 THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

attempts were made to reduce its influence and correct its evils. It is
satisfactory to know that everywhere improvement is visible, especially

in the spirit and character prevailing in the new stations, founded upon
better principles and with more watchfulness over special evils than the

original ones. The greatest difliculties have been encountered among

the more respectable converts of the older missions, who are unwilling to

give up what they consider inalienable rights. These missions include

more than five thousand christians in eight principal stations, with
several schools, and a seminary for training native catechists in the

neighbourhood of Tanjore. The Wesleyan Missionary Society has

also two native missions in the Tanjore province at jVIanargoody and
Negapatam.
The thuxl group of Tamil missions has been established in the districts

of Madura and Dindigul, lying between Tanjore and Tinnevelly. These

missions belong to one single society, the American Board, and have
been established and maintained on a regular system. The society has

taken up the Madm'a district, determined to occupy it and it alone, until

its missionary work therein is completely finished. The head-quarters of

the mission are in the city of Madura, the former residence of Robert de
Nobili and his celebrated Jesuit companions : and all the other stations,

eight in number, lie round the city at greater or less distances, none being
very far. The missionaries are thus always able to communicate with

each other in times of emergency, and do not become hypochondriac from

Ion"- liAdng alone. All the missions are admirably placed. Madura, with
its ruined palace, the residence of the powerful Telugu kings ; its great

temple and choultry ; its numerous and influential brahmans, its well-

built streets and large population, is the location of three missionaries, of

whom one is a physician. Dindigul, with its mighty rock and large
compact town, is the residence of two missionaries. At Pasumahe, just
out of IMadura, is the Mission Seminary, where the society is endeavour-
ing to raise up both catechists and school- masters for the service of the
mission. All these and the other stations of the society have village
congregations attached to them, wliich occupy a large share of a mis-
sionary's attention, and by which the gospel is making progress among
the people generally. These congregations have undergone considerable
change since the mission was established. At first many people gathered
round them after the example of the Tanjore cln-istians, from very in-
ferior motives. They came anxious to have the counsel of a European
friend; to secure a means of livelihood; dissatisfied with theii- o^vn gods;
 THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 83

wanting- to be instructed, without any idea of what the gospel is. Of

these many subsequently left. Perhaps the headman of a tillage died,
and without him the christians were unable to withstand the opposition
of their neighbom's. Or perhaps a catechist was dismissed for conform-
ing to the rules of caste, and in revenge took the people with him : or
perhaps the rules against caste, or other means of discipline, were
enforced among the people to their dissatisfaction, and with a view to
punish the missionary (as they sometimes do in Bengal) they stopped away
,

from church, took away their children from school, and gave up Chris-
tianity altogether. Yet good has been done ; and as the people have
come to learn what the missionaries teach and what they mean to do, more
steady congregations have gradually gathered around them, and a larger
number of sincere, stable converts been admitted into their commimion.
The same change has come over their schools. At first they established
schools for all classes, Hindus and Musalmans. But as they enforced

their discipline there also, and refused to recognise caste customs in the
seats of their scholars, many left : the schools have by degrees been
changed into schools for the especial instruction of the christian child-

ren of their own people. These missions, have in many ways, received
tokens of the blessing of God; and amidst general prosperity, have ob-
served in individual cases proofs of the exercise of his grace. Amongst
such instances the following possesses points of peculiar interest.
There was an old Guru or priest, a few miles from Madura, a man of
great influence amongst the people, who was consulted on all occasions
of difficulty and regarded as the oracle of the country round. Clothes
on which he had breathed or his hand been placed, were taken to the

sick that they might recover : and mantras and charms were repeated
by him in order to cure them. He was looked on by all the people as
a man of great power, and to maintain his dignity and authority among
them always had a silver wand carried before him. Amongst others
he had heard of the missionaries in the district and was accustomed for

years to read christian books which they had distributed. Indeed he

had quite a small library, kept as usual in an earthen jar, but the words
of truth had made no impression on his mind. One day, when walking
in the bazar, he heard a catechist reading a passage from the Gospel of
Luke. It struck him most powerfully. " What is that you read V he
instantly asked; "read it again." The catechist read it. "What a
wonderful thing," exclaimed the gm-u, " where do you find it ?" " It
is written in Luke, a clnnstian book, a portion of our Bible." " Why,
M 2
 :

84 THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

I have got Luke and have read it but I never saw this statement, kind-
;

ly read it again." The next day he sent for the catechist and requested
him to read the wonderful passage once more. From that hour he re-
ceived the gospel without reserve : experienced the greatest joy in his
belief, and continued happy till his death. His religion however was
not acceptable to his friends and disciples : his sons were perfectly aghast
when he told them of his change of faith, and did all they could to in-

duce him to give it What up. " a pity/' said one, " that so much learning
should make a man mad." They reproached him, and persecuted him
continually. Often when he was on the way to the missionary, they
would fetch him back and compel him to forego his ^'isits. But he per-
severed, bore all the opposition with great patience, and looked forward
with confidence to a secure repose in heaven. He lived thus for five

years : his death was hastened by a chronic complaint, produced by some

drug which he had taken in former days from a sannyasi that he might
be able to fly ! He earnestly begged of his sons that he might be buried
instead of burned : they complied with his request, and arrangements
were subsequently made for putting a monument upon the grave.

A HILL MISSION.

On the western border of the Madura district lies a splendid range of

Hills, the Pulneys, as large and as high as the Nilgerries. The eastern
face is in one part a precipitous wall three thousand feet in height : and
in other portions immense clefts exist by which the cuiious descend into
a huge cave. These hills throw ofi^ numerous spurs towards the east

several ranges occur close to the foot of the Pulney Hills, t^vo of which
inclose a picturesque valley, called the valley of Dindigul. Detached
hills also stand out in the very centre of the plain : as the Secundra
Mali, near Madura : and the Rock on which the Dindigul Fort is erect-

ed. All these hills have been occupied as posts in war, and lia^^e played
an important part not only in the history of the East India Company,
but in the struggles of the different dynasties of the country, especially
the Brahmins and Jains. Among the low spurs at the eastern border
of these Pulney hills, the Society for Propagating the Gospel has a mission
among a poor but simple people, remains of the aborigines. No ob-
stacles to the gospel exist among them greater than their intense igno-
rance ; and Mr. Coyle, their missionary, has received much encourage-
ment in his efforts to instruct and enlighten them. They are quite sim-
 THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 85

pie and even patriarchal in their manners : and like things to be done
with great form and ceremony. They are also great talkers, and at their

meetings whether social or religions, one and another will rise to make
their little speech. As an illnstration of their manners, the following fact
may be mentioned. One day Mr. Bower of Taujore was preaching to
them on the goodness of God's providence; and shewing how he orders
all things well to his own people, who love him and pray to him. In the
midst of the sermon a man stood np and requested permission to ask a
question. The permission being granted, he said :
" If God does rule

over all as you say, and govern every thing for our good, how was it that

my house was burnt dow» three nights ago to my great loss ?" Mr.
Bower was thinking how to answer him, when Abraham, a shrewd old
leader among them, requested permission to ask the man a question in

return: " Friend, he said, did you say your prayers that night?" The
man looked down, then up, and confessed that he had not prayed that
night as he ought to have done. " Well then ;" replied his interrogator,
" how could you expect to enjoy God's protection under such circum-
stances."

CASTE IN THE NATIVE CHURCHES.

I will conclude this notice of the Tamil missions, by a few obsena-

tions on a subject of peculiar interest, namely, caste among the native

christians. On this vital question to an immense extent depend the

stability and purity of the churches in South India : and no estimate of
their religious character, from which tliis element is omitted, can be of
any worth. It has been often spoken of, written of, and discussed, but
it still forms a difficulty to every pastor, and requires to be watched with
a most vigilant eye. It is more to be found in connection with the

Tamil christians than any others : and it is, because I thiidi that the true
key to the present condition of the Tamil churches is to be found in
their past history and especially in the later history of the Tranquebar
missions, that I have dwelt upon it at so much at length. Several cir-
cumstances must be remembered before the growth and subsequent great
influence of the caste spirit among the converts can be truly under-
stood.
1st. There exists in the Tamil population a very large proportion
of a Paria or 710-caste class, a people who are greatly despised by
all other castes ; and though having distinctions among themselves, are
 ;

86 THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

yet at an immeasurable distance from the Sudras and Brahmins. This

is the root of the evil from which all the rest has sprung.
2nd. Throughout the Tamil country, the Roman Catholic converts,

also called Christians and numbering many thousands of individuals,

preserved among themselves the same distinctions of caste rank, -which
prevailed in the Hindu community. They did so from the very first
they did so all last century, and they continue to do so to the present
day.
3rd. The Tamil churches at their commencement contained a large

element of nominal Christianity, from the fact that slaves and others,
with poor knowledge and no character, were -baptized as Christians.
4th. The large bounty bestowed upon the poor added to the class

of nominal professors especially at a later period in all the Tanjore and

Vepery Missions.
5th. The small number of missionaries appointed to instruct these

large and scattered christian communities, demanded an unusual amount

of native superintendence and management. This was a great disad-
vantage, inasmuch as the highest purity of principle and the most vigorous
arm were requii'ed to watch the evih beginning to arise.
6th. The increase of wealthy Sudra christians especially in the Tan-
jore kingdom tended to separate the different classes of christians still
more the worldly motives for which they changed their religion, prevent-
:

ing them from also changing the views they had previously entertained
of their essential superiority to the Paria classes in blood and race.
7th. The moderation and gentleness with which the case was met,
when first noticed, permitted the e\il spirit to grow and increase.

Though it was ever condemned, yet at the great stations, Tranquebar,

Tanjore, and Vepery, no special measures were taken to put a stop to it.

When the modern era of missions in South India began, the new
missionaries, wherever they settled, soon fomid themselves visited by
native christians, the converts of the older missions or their descendants.
They were found all over the Presidency : at Mangalore and Cannanore
on the west coast at Bellary, Dharwar and Secundrabad at Bangalore,
: :

Cuddapah, and Vizagapatam great numbers were connected with the army,
:

and are so still. After a time, the missionary discovered in almost every

case, that caste rules and customs were being observed by the native
christians among themselves, though they might wish to conceal them
or explain away their real force. The case, however, was taken up in
novel fashion : these new missionaries anxiously endeavom-cd to check the
 THE TAMIL MISSIONS. 87

evil and took measures for that end, not believing (as they were assured)
that it would at length die out of itself. Mr. lihenius and Mr. Haubroe
both missionaries of the Church of England, were the first to take up
the matter in earnest : and strove hard to effect a change in the views and
practice of their christians : but the opposition was very great. The
Vepery christians brought an action against Mr. Haubroe for interfer-

ing (as they said) with their customs : and many signed a covenant,
binding each man to pay a fine of twelve rupees who should either at-

tend his preaching or send a child to his schools. Dr. Rottler, Mr. Hau-
broe' s colleague, and others advocated moderation —moderation : hoping
that the evil would eventually cure itself: though it was evident that
moderation had been tried long enough, and that the disease under such
treatment was threatening to destroy the life of the Tamil church alto-
gether. The christians, where there was the greatest moderation, were,
in respect to caste, the worst of all. That fears respecting such a lament-
able result were not groundless, will be seen from a contemplation of
some of the forms which the evil has assumed. Caste from its very
natm'e, its origin, and the Hindu authorities by which it is expounded
and enforced, declares both implicitly and explicitly, superiority in blood
and origin of one class of men over another. It declares that Brahmins
were created higher than Sudras ; and Sudras higher than Farias : and
to prevent their amalgamation, forbids intercommunion either by mar-
riages or by common meals. This is the basis of the distinction, and the
mode in which it is enforced among the Hindus down to the present
hom*. It refers to and includes social distinctions ; but its origin, nature
and authority are essentially religious. Among the native converts in
the Madras Presidency in the worst days, it appeared in this way. The
Sudra christians refused to sit on the same side of the church with the
Parias. They would not drinlc at the Lord's supper ivith them or after

them. They would not in common life eat their food, or drink their
water. They would contract no marriages with their families, however
wealthy or respectable they might become. They rather married into
heathen families of their own caste, than among christians of a lower
caste. A Sudra catechist would not enter a Paria house : nor could a
Paria catechist preach to a congregation containing Sudras. At their
weddings and feasts, the christians retained the processions, drummings
and other old customs of heathen origin, in which their heathen friends
and castemates took a part. They had changed the name of their religion,

and the object of their worship, but they were still worshippers of them-
 THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

selves ; and they set aside the beauty, the love and the gentleness of the
gospel for their own heathen laws. It may be asked, did these ehris-

tians apply to their missionary, a foreigner by birth, the same rules

wdiich they applied to their fellow-converts. They did apply them ; and
consistently regarded him as an outcast, a Paria, in all things except

his instructions. They would not invite him to eat with them nor :

could he invite any of them in return. In some cases christians have

refused their missionary permission to draw water from their well. Illus-
trations of these facts, well known in the Presidency, are as follows.

One of these Sudra christians wished to be ordained in the Church of

England; and when Bishop Spencer spoke to him on the subject of caste,
he asserted that he maintained nothing more than the ci\dl distinctions
which prevail between the higher and lower classes of society. To test
the assertion, the Bishop replied : You must aUow that I am in a social

position higher than you, and especially, as a Bishop, am your ecclesias-

tical superior : come and dine with me, there can be nothing derogatory
to your character in dining with your Bishop. Consistency forbade
him to refuse the invitation : but when the day arrived, he complained of
illness and went into the country. For a long time the Bishop refused
to ordain him, though eventually he did so. To the brother of this gentle-

man, a missionary once used the following argument caste :

" If your
men of different origin from your own, you
rules forbid intercourse with
cannot eat with Englishmen even of the most illustrious name. You
could not eat with Luther, or Calvin or Baxter." " No he said ; he !

could not." "More than own Saviour,

all; if the Lord Jesus, your
w^ere to come down from heaven, as he once came, born among the Jews,

you could not consistently eat with him !" He frankly confessed that
he could not : so superior in his estimation w^as his vile caste to that of
even our blessed Master The same argument has been used with many
!

other caste christians, and always with the same reply.

If SUCH be the conclusion to which caste principles consistently lead, can
argument be needed to prove the mighty evil they must do to the Lord's
church or to m'ge on aU pastors the necessity of rooting them out. Later
:

missionaries in founding new missions have almost invariably begun on

better principles than their predecessors. But great watchfulness has been
required to see that the caste-spirit, always ready to spring up, made no
head in the church. In some places, as at Chittoor, Bangalore, Cud-
dapah and Calicut, the attempt to free the church from the evil, has

broken it up altogether : while in many others, it has produced continual

 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS. oy

disturbance. I heard several facts illustrative of its working in the

Madura circle of missions. In the boys' boarding school, where all ate

together, it was found that the Sudra boys kept to particular plates, in
order to avoid eating from those, which had been touched Ijy the Paria
scholars. The Paria boys entered into the dining room by different

doors from those which the Sudras used. The Paria and Pullar boys
were made to sleep on one side of the room by themselves. When the
missionaries mixed up both the boys and the plates, the school was clear-
ed. Subsequently when their parents found that the missionaries con-
tinued firm, they allowed them to go back. Again some of the catechists
would not go to Paria villages. One of them openly begged a mission-
ary not to enter his house; alleging that as he was of high caste, it

would cost him a considerable sum to get it purified ! Worst of all, it

was found that the Sudra catechists told the Parias not to become
Christians. Before the missionaries they pretended to invite them ; be-
hind his back they threatened them with pains and penalties, if they
agreed to do so. What a horrible state of things among missionary
churches ! All this has long since been put away from the American
Mission. Various tests were employed, such as eating in common, by which
the agents were proved : all caste catechists, school masters and church
members were dismissed : and since then, the Lord has blessed the
preaching of his word with great success.
Several years ago the Bishop of Calcutta, after visiting the Tanjore
Mission, and observing the low condition to which its churches had sunk,
determined to put down the caste observances there. His earnest letter

tended much to arouse the attention of missionaries generally to the

important subject : though numbers of the native christians refused to
submit to the tests which he suggested, and refuse to obey his injunctions
to this hour. More recently the Madras Missionary Conference and the
Presidency missionaries generally, having taken the case into considera-
tion, also agreed to act unitedly against it : and they are now endeavour-
ing to enforce throughout their missions that glorious principle of the
gospel ; that " God is no respecter of persons ; but that he hath made
all nations of men of one blood." The fact that such a united effort

should have been required only fom' years ago, exhibits clearly the extent
of the injury which the caste-spirit has produced, the influence it con-
tinues to exert, and the tenacity with which the clu'istian population
hold to the system they have proposed to abandon. With truth may
it indeed be asserted, that these efforts have not been made in vain. An
N
^6 ON THE TAMIL MISSIONS.

improvement in the Tamil churches has been seen every where. In

almost all missions, the various native agents, who are equal in social
rank, are accustomed to eat together and associate on equal terms. The
Lutheran missionaries at Tranquebar, who did not sign the Conference
circular, though (as they assm'cd me) they did not disagree Avith its

principles, have recently laid down the rule, that no one shall in future

be appointed to the office of Catechist, unless he abandons caste-customs.

The number of the caste-christians in Tanjore and Trichinopoly, who
have refused obedience to their Bishop's mandate, is not increasing but
rather losing ground. And if all missionaries remain watcliful and faith-
ful, there is strong reason to believe, that the more open manifestations
of the caste- spirit will ere long entii'ely disappear. Much remains to be
effected, before the chui'ches give up the more private influences of the
old leaven, and retain nothing but the ordinary distinctions of social life

among them. One can scarcely hope that the proud spii'it will be easHy
eradicated : or that the missions will be thus thoroughly purified, so
long as the large Paria caste exists all around them. I sympathise with

our brethren greatly on this account, and feel that we in North India
may be truly thankful, that the difficulty scarcely touches us at all. It

seems to me that the only radical cure for so tenacious and deep-seated a
disease is a ver?/, very high elevation of the intelligence and the christian
character of the Tamil converts. —May that be sought for, and speedily
bestowed by the Almighty Spirit of God.
 LECTURE THIRD.

ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS

IN

TINNEVELLY AND SOUTH TRAVANCORE.

Of all the Protestant Missions, which have been established in India,

the mission in Tinnevelly has been more extensively spoken of, and is

better known by name among christians in general than any other, nnless
it be the mission in Krishnaghnr. And many are the circumstances

which justify the notice it has received, and the interest it has
excited in the church at large. The gi'eat fact that in Tinnevelly there
are thousands of native christians is quite true ; but in regard to other
points : such as, what sort of christians they are ; -nhy they became
christians in such large numbers ; and how the gospel is really progress-

ing among them, not a few mistakes are prevalent, which it may be well
to correct. During my recent visit to Madras I spent nearly a month
among these missions and the kindred missions of South Travancore in
their immediate neighbourhood. I saw much of the country and of the
people ; preached by an interpreter in several of the churches ; examined
many of the schools, and had numerous conversations with tlie resident
missionaries upon various topics connected Avith their work. It was
these two missions that I particularly wished to see, and my lengthened
stay in their various stations has given me perhaps a deeper im;)ression
respecting them, than I received concerning any others. To miderstand a
mission thoroughly, we should know something of its locality ; the people
among whom it is carried on ; their former condition and history ; their
habits of life; the history of missionary effort among them; and its
present character and fruits. I shall endeavour to notice aU these sub-
jects in the following sketch.

M 9
 :

93 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHAXARS.

THE SHA'NAR COUNTRY.

TiNNEVELLY and Travancore are the two provinces which lie at the
very southern extremity of Hindustan. They are separated from each
other by a range of ghauts running from north to south Ijctween them
like a huge back-bone. These mountains are in many parts high and

precipitous^ covered Avith jungle^ and very dangerous to health. Their

highest part is to the north, where they spring from the Nilgherry hills :

the Pulney hills on the west of ]Madura here form a part of the range.
As they advance to the southward they become lower, and passes easily

ascended have been formed right across them. At length five ghauts appear
standing alone, one after the other : the level ground runs forward quite
flat for six miles, diminishing in width, and at last ends in a low reef of
black rocks at Cape Comorin. Tinnevelly thus lies between the ghauts and
the eastern sea; Travancore, between the same ghauts and the Indian
Ocean. The province of Tinnevelly, called by the natives Pandy, is about a
hundred and fifty miles long ; and in its upper part is seventy broad. It

is a dry country, watered like Tanjore and the other eastern provinces of
the Madras Presidency by rain at the end of the year and by the full rivers

in May. Shut up on the west by these high and majestic ghauts, and
lying only eight degrees from the equator, its climate is very hot, especi-

ally in April and ]May, the summer season. In many parts, broad barren
plains spread out for miles and miles, covered with low bushes and grass,
varied here and there by the graceftil umbrella tree; and containing

extensive swamps. Along the east coast, the sub-soil is chiefly sandstone,

and being impregnated (like all the country from Orissa to Cape Como-

rin)with iron which is rusted by the an-, naturally produces wide spread

ti-acts of loose red sand. There are three such tracts of special note in
Tinnevelly, called Tieris ; of which two cover no less than forty square

miles each. Except in the centre, they are covered with forests of palms.

No roads are formed through these red deserts ; foot-prints are every

where visible ; there are no standard marks to point one way more than
another, and except by day, or during the clear bright night, it is next

to impossible to travel across them to any direct spot. Almost all mis-

sionaries of long standing in Tinnevelly have at one time or other lost

themselves in the sandfields and wandered about a whole night in the

dense darkness. I crossed all three, and lost my way on two occasions.

The north part of Tinnevelly is more suited for tillage than the south :

and there is found the black soil, so favourable to the growth of cotton

of this district Tuticorin is the chief port. The great feature which dis-
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHi»^NA'RS. 93

tingiiishcs all central and southern Tinnevelly, especially near the sea,

from other parts of the country, is the abundant growth of the Palm
TREE : exactly resembling the Ta'l, or fan-palm of Bengal. Wherever
the traveller's eye turns he sees scarcely any thing but palm trees. In
some places they closely cover such immense tracts as to become forests,

containing many thousand trees. In others they are fewer in number

and only appear as copses or topes. The red sand-fields are in great

part covered by the palm forests. " God hath made every thing beau-
tiful in its season.'^ Even these sand-fields of Tinnevelly, that nourish

only palm trees, feed thousands of human beings, to whom the trees
farnish almost entire support. As I passed over their bare surface, I

could not but think of their wondrous use, as well as admire their strange
beauty and their intense solitude.
South Travancore, though adjoining Tinnevelly, possesses altogether

a different soil and climate. It contains fine undulations and broad fertile

plains. The mountains with their numerous streams and gushing w^ater-

falls furnish ample supplies of w ater : in all the low grounds between the

liills and the sea, rice is raised in abundance ; on the slopes and higher
localities gro-o^s the hardy palm. The w^et and dry crops, of rice and
corn, form a large item in the revenue returns, and more than a hundred
thousand persons are employed in the pepper cultivation alone. Nothing
but injustice, oppression and tyranny in the authorities, producing dis-

trust and chicanery in the poor, prevent the people of this favoured

extremity of India, from becoming as to worldly circumstances both rich

and prosperous.
The difference between the two districts is produced chiefly by the
different monsoons that prevail. Travancore enjoys the south-west
monsoon, which blows with clouds and rain from the Indian Ocean, in
the hottest months of the year. The climate is thus greatly modified
and the heat tempered by the cool sea-breeze. At that same season,
Tinnevelly is burning under a vertical sun, the ghauts like a wall inter-

cepting the heavy rain clouds that pour their precious burdens upon
Travancore, and preventing them from visiting also the neighbouring
province. These rains on the west coast are much heavier than those
of the Madras monsoon in October ; more soil has consequently been
washed from the hills : heat, water and fertile earth, the three chief ele-
ments of vegetable groAvth, are present in abundance, and if it were
not for MAN, the country would flourish greatly.
Tinnevelly and Travancore meet beyond the last ghaut, and the
94 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS.

traveller can walk on level ground from one province into the other.
Beside the passes between the last five ghauts, this level ground is six

miles long and southward ends in the sea at Cape Comortn. I visited

the Cape, when travelling among the out-stations of the Nagercoil

mission, and was much struck by its numerous peculiarities. Near the
shore is a fine group of palm trees ; and close beside them stands a Hindu
temple. On the very shore itself is a well-cut choultry, consisting of a cor-
niced roof resting on twelve canned pillars, all built of stone. Directly in
front of this choultry is the low black rock, which constitutes the last point
of solid land in Hindustan. On the east side of the temple, there lies on the
shore, a large mass oi purple sand, which on examination, proves to be a
collection of minute garnets, broken out of the granite rock of south
India, in which it abounds, and strangely washed together in one spot.
Close to the black rock is another curiosity ; a mass of sand, each grain
of which is as large as the ordinary grains of raw rice, whence it is called

rice-sand. There is a singidar legend told about its origin that may be
thought interesting. It is told in various ways; but the following
account is most common. It is said that the youngest daughter of the

king of Pandy, named KaniA Komori, was sought in marriage by a

foreign giant named Vaniisaram. She accepted his suit, and agreed to
marry him, on one condition which she hoped he could never fulfil;

namely, that he should, on the wedding-day, give the guests to eat, r^ce

which had been sown, grown, cut, Avinnowed, and cooked upon that very
day. Much to her astonishment, the ugly monster performed the task.

Greatly enraged, she cursed the rice, which became stones; she cursed
the chaff, which became sand : she broke down a bridge which the giant
had built there for his convenience, and finally slew the giant himself.

the shanAr people.

The people who inhabit Tinnevelly and the southern part of Travancore

belong, with few exceptions, to a single tribe and call themselves ShAnArs.
In locality, they immediately follow the Hindu Tamils of Tanjore and
Madura, fill up all the south part of the Eastern continent, and, going

round Cape Comorin, extend for thirty miles up Travancore. They are
then followed by the Ilavas, a people similar to themselves. The whole
tribe seems to number upwards of half a million of souls. In Tinnevelly
they form about half the entire population of all castes, reckoned at
800,000 : and in South Travancore they are set down in the Government
 ;

ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS. 95

census at a hundred thousand. The Ilavas number 180,000 people.

Their legends declare that they came last from Ceylon, which lies imme-
diately opposite to Tinnevelly; and Rabon, Avhom the Hindus esteem
an unholy giant, they look on as their divine king. On his birth-day is
held their greatest annual festival. Their language is a rough, unedu-
cated Tamil, without any mixture of Sanskrit, and fm'nishes a strong
proof, cognate with others, that these Shanars are another portion of the

great aboriginal Tartar race, which first overran the soil of India.
They live in a singular manner. Where no rice or corn whatever is to
be had, they subsist entirely upon the palm tree, whose latent riches long
experience has taught them to develop. Where the soil is favourable to rice
cultivation, or any kind of vegetables or fruit can be purchased, the produce
of the palm forms only a part of their living. Of these two plans the latter
is most common on the Travancore side. The people obtain their food from
the palm in this way. The flower of the tree is contained in a large sheath,
which when cut and pressed, furnishes a considerable quantity of fresh sweet
juice. If newly cut and attended to every day, the juice is deposited daily

but if left for a couple of days, the juice thickens and the vessels in wliich it

lies become hard and cease to secrete it. This palm-juice is the life of
the Slianar population : and in order to get it regularly they are com-
pelled to pass their life in painful and incessant toil. From forty to

sixty trees are required to feed one family. The Shanar peasant furnishes
himself with a large pot and several small ones, a staff with a cross at
the top, and a pair of wooden pincers. Arriving at his tope of trees, he
puts the large vessel on the ground, and hangs a small j)ot and the pincers
to his waist. He next slips a small band round one of his feet : plants
his stick against the tree, and, clasping the trunk with both arms, begins

to cUmb. He first places one foot on the head of the stick : this is his
start : he then slips both feet into the band, which prevents them from
going apart, and clasping the trunk alternately with his arms and his
bound feet, climbs speedily to the top. He there cuts the bud of the
tree or plucks off" a small strip ; squeezes the juice into his little pot,
presses it gently with his wooden pincers and comes down again. Pour-
ing the contents of his pot into the large vessel, he climbs another tree,
and another and another, until he has gone over his fifty trees. By this
time, in the favourable seasons of the year, he has collected a large
quantity of palm juice and returns home. In the evening, he goes the
same round : and thus climbs full a hundred times a day. In the dry
seasons, he must climb each tree three times a day ; but he never does it
96 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHA'NA'RS.

less than twice. INIost Shanurs take about fifty trees but some climb
as many as sixty. Surely few people in the world can be reckoned more
hardworking than they.
The juice taken home, the peasant's wife boils it continuously over a

slow fire : the watery part is gradually evaporated, and a lump of coarse
black-looking sugar is left behind. That sugar is the food of the people :

Avitli the very poor it is their wealth : and often is it put into the plate at
the Communion table as an offering to the Lord. The following singular
fact cannot be forgotten here. Though holding in their hands, on the
largest scale, the means of making spirits, the Shanars, as a people, do
not allow their palm-juice to ferment : they are hence not at all a
drunken race. The I lavas, on the other hand, their neighbours in
Travancore, who live on the cocoanut, always ferment palm-juice and do
drink to excess.
Such is the common life of those Shanars who stand on a level with
the poorer classes of the labouring population : whose days are spent in
excessive toil which yields them little more than their necessary food.

They are distinguished among their tribe as Paniaris or climbers. All

however are not so hardly situated. Some among them, constituting a

better class, are Nadans or land-holders ;

possessing small estates of tlieii'

own. Such persons of course employ others to climb their trees :

or if

that be unnecesary, hire out their land for rent, payable in money or
palm- sugar. Others, again have improved their circumstances by trade,
especially among the christians ; and it is always observed that the first

thing done by a man, who is rising in the world, is to hire others to

climb his trees. The Paniaris or climbers are of course the poorest
of all.

THE SHANAR RELIGION DEVIL WORSHIP.*

In religion the Shanars are to a very small extent Hindus. They are

of course not Hindus in caste ; since they arc not by birth and origin,

members of the Hindu community though : in respect to their social posi-

tion they occupy a higher place than the Parias. But they do pay some
honour to several of the Hindu gods, of whom two or three

* admirable account of the Slianars and their worship, with that of the
An
progress of the gospel among them, has been pubhshed in a little pamphlet, entitled
The Tinevelhj Shanars, by the Eev. E. Caldwell ; one of the most able mission-
aries in South India.
 —

ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'RS. 97

resemble their own deities ; and especially attend the great annual festi-

vals at Trichendur and Alvar-Tinnevelly. Their own indigenous religion

is of an entirely different kind. Of a Supreme God, creator and ruler
of all, they have no idea whatever. In their oaths, they sometimes speak of
the Lord, but the term conveys no meaning. During several years
however the heathen Shanars have become extensively acquainted with
the notion of God, tlirough the conversations and discourses of mission-
sionaries, catechists, and christians in general. Nor as heathen do they
know any thing of a future state. They have no belief in transmigration

(as all Hindus in North India have) : nor in the immortality of the soul.
They have no notion of a judgment and no sense of responsibility to a

superior being.
The distinguishing feature of their religion is the direct worship or
DEVILS ; that is, not merely of gods and idols, reckoned as such by
christians, according to the statement of the Apostle Paul ; but they
worship beings who to them are actual bona fide devils. These de^dls are
in their ideas connected with men, now dead, as if the disembodied spirit
of the dead man had remained alive to do all kinds of mischief. The
character of these devils is believed invariably to be full of malignity,
and hatred towards mankind. The people never appeal to them for

blessings and gifts, they never attribute to them feelings of gentleness or

compassion : they believe them only capable of doing harm. — How true
a representation of those whom the Bible describes by that name !

These devils are believed to be of the same castes and classes, as all the
dead whom they represent. There are male and female devils : high-
caste and low-caste devils : brahmin and sudra and paria de\dls : devils
of Hindu origin and also foreign devils. In one viUage, an English
officer, named Pole, was worshipped as such. They are supposed to
reside in dark and foul abodes : in umbrageous trees, in uninhabited
wastes ; in dark and gloomy shades in forests : : in ruined houses : wherever
in fact circumstances tend to inspire fear. All evil is believed to arise
from their agency. It is they from whom spring losses in trade, failures
in agriculture, and accidents to life and limb. They blast the rice crop,
or the standing corn : they dry the juices of the palm on sultry days ; or
withhold the rain of heaven from the parched earth. They bring disease
on men and cattle ; or overthrow the forests by heavy storms. They
frighten the timid in the dark night; the howling noises and shrill
screams, heard in darkness among the trees on windy nights, are their
voices : and it is they who revel in the awful hurricane. Sometimes also
o
08 ON THE illSSION'S AMONG THE SHiVNA'RS.

it is believed they possess men. If a man is affected with simstroke,

some de^dl has entered him : if another's head swims, the same cause is

assigned. Hysterics, staring eyes, and epilepsy, of com^se, are attributed

to their possessions. To drive such a devil away, various methods are
employed. Sometimes a dose of medicine suffices. Sometimes a severe
beating with a shoe or a broom is administered : or a plentiftd supply of
low abuse ; sometimes sacrifices are resorted to.

To these devils no temples are built. The most general form of

building made in their honour is that of a pyramid of mud, plaistered
and whitewashed, having the figure of a devil in front. Immense multi-
tudes of these pyramids are found all over the Shanar country. A better
kind of house is a small thatched shed, open in front ; in which the people
deposit some half dozen idols or devils, and various gifts of small value.

Many of these figui'cs are representations of Bhodrokali, a form of terror

among the Hindus. Others are formed with buffalo heads : most are
females, and are represented in the very act of devouring children. These
superior houses are for de^ ils of brahmin extraction or for the different
forms of Kali. All these erections, whether of the better or more
common kind, are termed pe-coils i. e. devil-temples. In the whole
system there is not a single idea of beauty, or of mercy to a sinner's soul.
The service presented to the demons is of two kinds, devil-dancing
and DEVIL SACRIFICES. The former is suggested by some ominous occur-
rence, and usually leads to the latter. When the former is required, the

people assemble near one of the pyramids or devil-sheds, and after enjoy-
ing for a time the usual energetic beating of drums, proceed to sacrifice
an animal, as a fowl, or sheep or goat, according to the peculiar taste of

the devil to be honoured. Some one, usually though not exclusively a

professional performer, then comes forward to dance. He puts on his

feet a pair of tinlding bangles ; -oTaps round him a cloth covered with
figures of devils; sets free his long black hair; takes in his hand a
jingling staff; and to the sound of drums and horns and the deep tones
of the devil-bow, slowly begins to dance. After a time he will stop,
drink off a large portion of the kid's blood just offered in sacrifice, and
then, animated with fresh enthusiasm, his eyes staring, his long hair
streaming in the wind, whirl round and round with mad excitement. To
increase this excitement he will cut himself with the sacrificial knife ; or
lash himself with a formidable whip, until the proper pitch of frantic
earnestness is obtained. After dancing some time, to the great joy of
the spectators, who express their satisfaction by horrid yells, he sits down
 ,

ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'RS. '

99

and is now consulted by the people as inspired. Questions are put to

him, as to what devil has possessed a certain woman in the village with

fever, or has blown down a cow-house, or frightened a child. The few

vague murmurs that he may ntter in reply, or the signs that he may
make, are interpreted as sure indications of the cause of such evils.

Generally he will mention by name some notorious person, recently

dead, as the cause of the disasters : and declare that to appease him, a
fowl or kid must be offered in the usual way. On a set day, the appointed

sacrifices are presented. A number of cooking vessels are brought to

the pyramid ; there the fowl or kid is slaughtered, and with rice and the

usual accompaniments is cooked and eaten on the spot. All who choose
to come are permitted to share in the ceremonies and in the feast that

concludes them. Missionaries have seldom been able to obtain a sight

of these ceremonies, especially of the dancing. The people are ashamed
of it : they hide their shame however under the avowal that their devils
cannot cope with Europeans. A missionary was once building his house,
exactly where a devil pyramid used to stand, in a place which Avas by the
heathen still thought to be a resort of his. Soon after heavy rain fell,

and the unfinished walls were somewhat injured. This was reported to
be the devil's doing : but the missionary persevered. The rains again

damaged it, as they will do in the rainy season : but he went on and in
due time completely finished the house as he had intended. The heathen
then reported that the devil, disgusted with the missionary's obstinacy,
had left the neighbom-hood. Strange and absm'd as these tilings may
seem to us, the poor Shanars have believed them thoroughly, have be-
lieved them for hundreds of years. There is reason indeed to believe that
this is the primitive worship of all the aborigines and has existed in India
since the day they entered the land. What a proof does it fui'nish that, as

nothing is too hard for the Lord ; so there is no folly, no superstition,

too low and too degraded for the settled belief of man.
Asa consequence of such a religious belief, it will be readily understood
that the Shanars do not stand very high in a moral point of view. Hav-
ing scarcely any sense of responsibility, they do not hesitate to follow the
way of evil when open before them. Hence among them, as amongst
other Hindus, there exist open, habitual, and shameless lying ; vice and
immorality of all degrees ; fawning to the great, oppression of the poor ;

total disregard of truth and honour : no kindness to the brute creation

and no compassion towards their fellow-men. The Shanars are a simpler
people than the brahmins, and their lying is therefore not so smooth, so
o 2
 :

100 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHA'NARS.

iiccomplislicd and so clever. Their knowledge too and their intelligence

are not eqnal to those of the hij^her castes still it is true " they are all
:

gone out of the way : there is none that doeth good, no not one."
Their simple village life and the absence of caste among them, although
they are treated by others as a separate caste, render them more open to
the gospel than many other tribes in Hindustan. When they once feel the
power of the gospel, they find few obstacles to a public profession of it

and the readiness of the people to act in a body tells even more in favour
of the gospel than against it : so that when a man of influence in a village

becomes a christian, he is almost certain to be followed by a number of

families from among his neighbours. This gregarious feeling and the
absence of caste bonds, will greatly explain the fact : that of this singular

people no less than 52,000 are now imder regular instruction in christian
congregations.

FIRST SUCCESS OF THE GOSPEL.

The introduction of Christianity among this remarkable people must

be regarded as a matter of deep interest. During the flourishing period of
the Tranquebar mission, nothing M'as done for the Shanars, then far away
from the missionaries' sphere of labour their very existence I presume was
:

imknown. Towards the end of the last century however, some christians
from Tranquebar, and then from Trichinopoly, found their way into
Tinnevelly and gathci'cd a nimiber of disciples in Palamcottah, its chief

town. About the year 1780, Swartz himself visited the place and baptized
a few from among the Uomanists. In 1785, he visited it again, and
finding that the congregation had increased to a hundred and sixty
persons, left with them two catechists and a school-master. One of the
cateehists, named Sattia-naden was an able teacher, a man of great
personal influence and a consistent faithful christian. Under his instruc-
tions, the little church at Palamcottah increased in numbers, knowledge
and strength : and such confidence did Swartz and the other missionaries
place in him, that he was at length ordained by them to the ministry of

that flock. Swartz gives him the highest character; declaring that for
humility and disinterestedness, for love to souls and desire to benefit
them, for great consistency and remarkable talent in teaching and preach"
ing, he never saw his equal among the natives of the country. In 1791 a
young and active missionary, Mr. Jaenicke, newly arrived fi'om Germany,
was appointed to the charge of this increasing station, and set about his
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHAnA'RS. 101

work with singular zeal ; as if his mind had been taught from above that

he could serve his generation for only a few short years. In discretion, in
activity, in a readiness to devote himself to the salvation of the heathen,
and, by repeated itinerancies, spread the knowledge of the gospel, he was
second to none of the missionaries that had yet preceded him. He took
up his residence at Palamcottah, and thenceforth Sattianaden and he,

with the catechists of the mission, undertook regular and extensive

journeys among the numerous and populous villages with which Tin-
nevelly abounds. Every where they were received with courtesy and
listened to with attention : an open door was set before them among the
Shanars, and on their return to Palamcottah on one particular occasion,
about thirty persons followed them determined to profess Christianity
openly. Mr. Jpenicke's report of his journey concludes with words, since

wonderfully verified :
" There is every reason to hope that at a future
period, Christianity will prevail in the Tinnevelly country."
The west of Tinnevelly is bounded, as we have seen, by a range of high
and precipitous mountains. At two places high up in these ghauts, named
Courtallum and Pavanasum, are magnificent water-falls, regarded as sacred
by the Hindus. In the hot weather these localities are perfectly healthy ;

and at the present day all the European residents in Tinnevelly wisely retire
to them for a few weeks, till the greatest heat is past. In the cold weather
however which immediately follows the north-east monsoon, it is danger-
ous to sleep two nights together in the hills ;
jungle fever following almost
to a certainty. Ignorant of this fact, Mr. Jsenicke in the course of his

journey with several Government ofl&cers went into the hills to Pavana-
sum, whose tlii'ee successive falls he discovered and described : but he
took the jungle fever and was immediately obliged to quit the province.
Returning to his labour he continued the same course for several years,
the fever continually breaking out, and he was compelled again to leave
the country. Returning once more with Gericke, the two missionaries
visited the whole of the numerous out-stations, opened a new chru'ch and
station at Ramnad and baptized a large number of converts. Shortly
after IVIr. Jsenicke sunk under his disease, after a brief but most useful
missionary life of twelve years. Men like him can ill be spared in a coun-
try such as this ; especially in those districts where peculiar facilities

exist for carrying out the gospel plan of inviting all sinners to the cross.

But the Lord seeth not as man seeth, and took his servant to rest in early

life. The work continued to prosper, and was soon consolidated by a

fiery persecution, carried on against the christians by the rebellious
102 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHA'NARS.

Polygars, who then overran the province. A peremptory order from

the Court of Directors,, on the intercession of the Christian Knowledge
Society, to allow the cliristians full liberty in professing the religion

which they had embraced, compelled the persecutors to cease and on :

Gericke's travelling shortly after through the district, he baptized no less

than thirteen hundred persons ; while the catechists added to the visible
church 2700 more. Published letters go far to shew that the people acted
from many inferior motives in making such a profession ; hoping, for in-

stance, for remission of revenue or for more favourable consideration from

the Government officers than the heathen could obtain. Be that as it may,
they were formed into congregations and placed under a regular system
of instruction and ^asitation. Such was the beginning of the present
Tinnevelly mission.
The Slianar mission in South Travancore was closely connected

with it, and sprang up about the same time. In 1805, a man from
a family in Mylady, a village about five miles from Cape Comorin,
went as a sanyasi to Chillumbrum, in the province of Tanjore. He
seems to have been a real enquirer after truth, and having heard of
the celebrated temple at that place, set out in hopes of finding the true
religion. He was, however, gi-eatly dissatisfied with all he saw, especially
with the brahmins (the most pertinacious beggars in south India) and
the numerous dancing gu'ls ; and felt convinced that true religion was
not to be found among them. On travelling homeward, he passed
through the town of Tanjore; and during a short rest there, one day
saw Mr. Kohlhofi" preaching in his chm'ch. He stood in the doorway
and listened. Mr. Kohlhoff" addressed a part of the sermon specially to

him as a sanyasi, and ui'ged him to beheve the gospel. The man at-

tracted many eyes, and was invited by the people to stay a week and
hear more of their religion. He was so satisfied that he stayed much
longer, read several books and was eventually baptized. He then re-
turned to his family in Mylady, and being unwilling to leave his native
place with them to settle in Tanjore, he begged hard that a missionary
might be sent to him. At that time Mr. Ringeltaube, who had arrived
at Tranquebar as a missionary of the London Missionary Society, was
looking out for a suitable sphere of labour : and deeming the man's
invitation to be a caU of providence, he agreed to visit the spot. The
congregations in Tinnevelly, founded by Sattianaden and Jsenicke, were
at that time -without European superintendence, and Mr. Kohlhoff" of
Tanjore, in whose charge they were left, himself a Lutheran missionary,
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHA'NA'RS. 103

invited Mr. Ringeltaube, a Lutheran also, to superintend tliem for a couple

of years : on this condition, that all the increase in Tinnevelly was to

belong to Tanjore and Mylady and Travancore to the London
all in
Society. Mr. Ringeltaube accordingly went down to Palamcottah stay- ;

ed for a time, and then took a survey of all the congregations, travelling
onwards till he came into Travancore. He fulfilled his singidar agree-

ment well, and when the two years were completed, confined himself
entirely to the Travancore mission. Col. Macaulay, then Resident
at the court of the Travancore Raja, greatly befriended him and pro-
moted the object of his mission to the best of his power. Mr. Ringeltaube
was an extraordinary man, very eccentric but wholly devoted to his
work. He cared little for the ordinary customs of civilized society : he
seldom or ever wore a coat, except when a friend gave him one on his

visits to Palamcottah or Uuilon. He wore a common straw hat, and

walked and wandered over Travancore, living in a common hut, but every
where preaching the gospel of Christ. He made an extraordinary im-
pression on the people, which remains to this day : indeed they believe
him to have been inspired. Amongst other things he had no regard for
money. The natives say that when he received his quarter's salary he
would pay his servants the expenses of the pre\TLOus three months and
then give the remainder to beggars. He never, it is said, changed a
rupee, but always gave it whole ; an exaggeration, no doubt, of the real
truth. He was a man of rather angry temper, and at times used to beat
his servants and the converts in general, unmercifully. On one occasion
when he went to Muthaloor, the first village mission in Tinnevelly, he
was accused by an old woman of cheating, because his eggs were not

paid for (probably through his servant^s misconduct :) and became per-
fectly enraged at what he reckoned their ingratitude and extortion. The
people declare that he cursed them and theirs ; that he especially cursed
the fowls ; and that in consequence of his curse, the Muthaloor fowls for
years laid fewer eggs than those in other places : by this time the curse
has expended With all these eccentricities he laboured hard for
itself.

the Lord : and commended the gospel to the people most extensively.
Thus he laboured for twelve years, and becoming hypochondriac and
unsettled, went away to Batavia in 1817. One or two of his chapels are
still standing as he built them, shaded by the cocoanut trees that he
planted around their walls. In Travancore he founded six stations and
left nine hundred christians baptized.
104 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS.

GROWTH OF THE SHANAR MISSIONS.

The period of Mr. Ringletaube's departure was tlie time of trial to all

these missions. The stations in Tinnevelly had received scarcely any

superintendence whatever since 1807 : and the christians had considerably
decreased in numbers. Had not Mr. Hough, the excellent chaplain of
Palamcottah, endeavoured to secm-e for them efficient instruction by means
of native teachers, they might have suffered still more. The Travancore
stations however were not deserted long. The London Missionary Society
in 1817 sent out a second missionary, Mr. Mead, who soon took up Mr.
Eingeltaube's labours and endeavoured to spread the gospel still wider
in the province. A singular circumstance occurred at the time, that was
not without its influence. Colonel Munro, then Resident in Travancore,
finding no agents to carry out his enlightened views of government,
recommended Mr. ]\Iead to take the office of Judge in the district where
he resided and he held
; it for two years until the disapproval of the Direc-
tors of the Society obliged him to relinquish the office. Mr. Mead had
honourably endeavoured to administer justice impartially, though his two
offices were not exactly compatible with each other : and even when he
resigned it, the natives did not consider that his political influence was
gone. As a consequence in a short time no less than three thousand
people placed themselves under instruction, in addition to Mr. Ringle-
taube's converts. Of coursemany of them subsequently went back;
when they found that Mr. Mead did not always decide the suits in their
favour ; or that he would not interfere at all. Their retirement however
was a benefit to the mission, as it rendered more definite the numbers of
the sincere. In 1818 Mr. Knill joined Mr. Mead from Madras, where
his health had failed ; and the two brethren found ample work in arrang-
ing their enquirers into congregations, selecting catechists or readers, and
otherwise providing for that agency by which the work of the gospel is

continuously maintained. At that time the head station was removed

from Mylady to Nagercoil, a beautiful spot in the very heart of the
mission. The station is so maintained to this day. It has behind and
on the west the high ghauts in several ranges, running out into the
plains and inclosing extensive valleys where outstations exist among
the very slaves of Travancore. To the east and southeast, its plain is

bounded by the last of the ghaut range. Southward the plain extends
for a few miles, till it reaches the sea. In the immediate neighbour-
hood of Nagercoil is the large native town of Kytar. Through the
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'RS. 105

aid of Colonel Munro a very large chapel was built at the new
station ; towards which the Rani- Regent, an enlightened princess, sub-
scribed most liberally. Boarding schools were also established for the
training of the young. On the departure of Mr. Knill, Mr. Mault
and Mr. Miller with two assistant missionaries joined the mission. Of
these Mr. Mault continues alive to this day, steadily and consistently
pursuing his work as a missionary of Christ's cross. He has now labour-
ed at Nagercoil for thirty-five years and has never been farther from his
station than a hundred miles. Much honoured by the natives, he has
lived to see the mission greatly prosper ; to admit later and better trained
converts into the places of the old ; and to guide his younger brethren
on their entrance into that sphere in which he cannot labour for ever.

At the same time christian friends in England, who had heard of the
opening for the gospel among the Shanars of Travancore, forwarded liberal
aid for the support of native catechists and school teachers. The mis-
sionaries were therefore enabled to enlarge their system of operations,

and provide better for the instruction of their congregations than they
had hitherto done. Village chapels were built ; schools organised ; teachers
of various classes appointed ; regular visitation commenced ; and the
whole sphere of labour divided into two districts having their head sta-
tions at Nagercoil and Neyoor. The met with by the mis-
difficulties

sionaries were very great. Though they were troubled by caste-feelings

much less than others, they had to meet obstacles of a different kind.
Their people were intensely ignorant, their minds thoroughly untrained,
their capacity of thought most narrow ; the agents were in many cases
men but little superior to the converts they instructed, because no better
were to be had. The stations were numerous, the people willing ; but the
missionaries were few. Around them stood the brahmins, the ruling class
in Travancore, possessed of political as well as religious authority, all
watching with jealous eyes the efforts of Europeans to elevate those on
whom themselves had for ages trampled in scorn. But the Lord helped
his servants with sufficient grace. For twenty years they laboured on
with steadfastness and zeal. Light increased and spread among the people.
The young grew up better instructed than their fathers who first received
the gospel. The small number of those who appeared truly converted
received the most satisfactory additions. In times of trial from the
heathen, the converts proved their fidelity in suffering, and died rejoicing
in their Redeemer. The missionaries as they saw these signs of true

improvement, thanked God and took courage.

106 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHil^NARS.

In 1838 a considerable addition was made to the agency of the mission

which resulted in greatly increasing its sphere of operations and their use-
fulness. Mr. Mead had been compelled to visit England on account of ill
healthy and so successfully pleaded the cause of the Shanars, that the Direc-
tors of the London Society resolved to reinforce the mission on a large scale.
Five missionaries left England with Mr. Mead : and on their arrival four

new stations were added to the two already existing, as the residence of a
missionary. Immediately after, two thousand persons placed themselves
under instruction in one year. Mrs. Mault's boarding school was en-
larged to 120 girls : and printing presses were established at Nagercoil,

Neyoor and Quilon. A seventh head- station has since been founded at
Santapuram.
It is impossible in this brief sketch to detail all the elements of the pro-

gress which these interesting missions have since exhibited : and which have
greatly encouraged both the missionaries who labour and the friends who
support their efforts. At the present time the London Mission in South
Travancore contains seven chief stations, and about two hundred and fifty

outstations ; superintended and instructed by eight missionaries, and

105 catechists. The native christians so-called number 17,600 persons;
amongst whom, owing to the high standard of admission into church
fellowship, only 700 are reckoned clim-ch members or communicants.
The boys in the Boarding Schools number 104 and the girls, 230 6000
; :

boys and 1000 girls are taught in day-schools. The three presses have
lately been brought together at Nagercoil ; in the hope that one well-

managed establishment will better provide for all the printing which the
mission needs. The various physical agencies required in such an extensive
mission have long since been completed, though their preparation has
cost both a large amount of time and anxiety, as well as a considerable

expenditm'C of money. The out-stations have their village chapels and

school-rooms. The head stations have the houses of resident mission-

aries ; large, well-built chapels ; and large school-houses for the boarding

schools. In some cases a christian village has risen up at the station :

in others, the christians are still mixed with the heathen population in

general. To these must be added the three printing offices at Neyoor,

Nagercoil and Quilon, tliat have already been mentioned. Of all the

Travancore stations, two of the prettiest and most compactly built are
Santapuram and James' Town. The former of these, " the city of peace,''
lies midway between Neyoor and Nagercoil, being about six miles from
each. It lies opposite a noble hill which stretches far into the well -tilled
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS. 107

rice plain. Its pretty parsonage ; its neat church, already too small for the
demands of the christian population ; its flourishing girls' school, con-
taining more than a hundred girls ; its lace establishment ; its almshouses
for poor widows ; its well planned village ; and huge well ; all reflect much
credit on the perseverance and energy of Mr. Lewis, the missionary by
whom it was founded. The station of James' Town, once rejoiced in

the euphonious title of Pichi-gudi-iruppu. ' the town of the beggars,*

It was then an out-station of Nagercoil ; but on its establishment as

the head of a district, it ceased to be poor, either in appearance or in
fact, and received from its missionary a new name. In addition to the
usual buUdings the station has been planted with a large number of
cocoanut trees. Among the out-stations of this district are the earliest
villages which embraced Christianity in the time of Mr, Ringeltaube.
My lady is one of them, Agates warum another : another in the district of
Santapuram is known by the singular name of Ananda-naden-gudi-iruppu.
I shall never forget the happy faces of the Shanar girls in the school at this
station, as they phed their merry spinning-wheels, and sang with glee,
" Oh ! that will be joyful, when we meet to part no more."
Little can the dwellers m English cities imagine how hard a trial it

is to a European missionary to spend year after year of his tropical life,

almost entirely surrounded by a native population. Who can wonder if

hypochondria, low spirits, and stagnation of mind and body spring from
the loneliness in which some are isolated. I was glad to perceive that
the missionaries in South Travancore, in order to counteract such evils,

were accustomed to hold frequent meetings at each other's stations : and

also that they had secured in the hills around them a pleasant place of
retirement for their sick members in the hottest season of the year. In
the ghauts, immediately to the north of Nagercoil, and distant about
fourteen miles, a few years back they discovered a series of water-falls.
These falls are situated about eight hundred feet above the plain. Close at
their feet is a platform of rock just large enough for a house, and having a
fine view of the falls. Here a neat little dwelling has been erected, sufii-

ciently large to contain two families ; and in the bm'ning season just
before the monsoon sets in, the invalids of the mission are able to retreat

to this retired spot, to enjoy its cooler air and the many natural beauties
with which its scenery abounds. The upper fall comes down between two
giant rocks, rounded and scored by the perpetual action of the mountain
torrent, while trees and creepers of immense size, fed by its waters, grace-
fully shade and overarch the silver stream to which their own life is due.

p 2
108 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHA'NARS.

From the platform the view obtained across the plain is one of the most
exhilarating kind. Up the valley the rice- fields stretch away for miles ;

studded every where with topes of palms : and where hills project, their

terraced slopes shew with what care and diligence the hand of man strives

to obtain the fruits God showers on this world's soil. When I saw it,

the people were every where reaping the golden rice harvest, but most of
them were Slaves.
The TiNNEVELLY mission was revived from its lethargy by Mr. Rhenius,
who with his colleague Mr. Schmid went down to Palamcottah as a
missionary of the Church Missionary Society in 1820. Mr. Hough
had endeavoured by the aid of Swartz's fund to carry on the missions of
the Christian Knowledge Society, but the Society in England could
not supply him either with men or more money. He then applied to
the Church Missionary Society; and as Mr. Rhenius and Mr. Schmid
were in Madras, prepared to enter on a new sphere, they were
directed to proceed to Tinnevelly. Besides giving some attention to
the older stations, they founded new ones for their own Society, and hav-
ing started upon the sound principle that no caste distinction should
be permitted in their churches and schools, they soon began to build
up around them congregations both numerous and sincere. People
came flocking to them for christian instruction in a way that had
never been seen before : large as the influx had been at times in the

province of Taujore. New stations were soon formed, as Dohnavur, to

which a third missionary, Mr. Schafter, was appointed ; and Suvisesha-
puram, placed under another, Mr. Muller. In 1829, there were 6,000
persons under instruction ; of whom however, acting more strictly than
their predecessors, Mr. Rhenius and his colleagues had baptized less

than 1,000. In that year, the Society for Propagating the gospel, which
had taken up all the missions in South India held by the Christian
Knowledge Society, sent to Tinnevelly theu- first missionary Mr. Rosen :

and thenceforth the two Societies advanced side by side, engaging in

theircommon work with common plans, and gradually increasing the
agency by which they endeavoured to carry it out. It is impossible in

this brief sketch to enumerate even the cliief incidents illustrative of the

history of the Tinnevelly mission. Time would fail to describe faith-

fully the zeal and earnestness of Mr. Rhenius and his brethren : the con-
troversy into which they were led with their Society, and Mr. Rhenius's
abrupt dismissal : the carrying on of two separate missions by the
parties ; the death of Rhenius and the gradual reunion of aU the congre-
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'RS. 109

gations to the Society again the establishment of new stations to the

:

west and south among the purely Shanar population, and their extension
to the north among others more wealthy and independent the proceed- :

ings of the Heathen Society formed at Trichendoor to put a stop to

chi'istianity ; and the persecutions which at length they incited against

the christians : the serious out-break which took place at Nalloor, (Mr.
Schafter's station :) the trials in the Courts ; the bitter feeling excited
by Mr. Lewin's attack on the missionaries and their converts : the in-
creased success of the mission following the failure of the persecutions ;

its continued spread to the north among the more independent people,
especially the Retties near Sawyerpuram ; the entire destruction of all

the heathen temples or devil pyramids in some of the older seats of

the mission, which have become altogether christianized :
—the great in-
crease of European agency of all kinds ; the growth of many christian

agencies and Societies among the native christians themselves for pre-

serving their faith in their own families and spreading it where it is un-
known :
—these things constitute some of the striking features of the
TinneveUy missions, which have received their chief impulse and reaped
their largest success during the last twenty years. At the present time
there are 35,000 christians in TinneveUy, of whom nearly 4,000 are com-
municants : 6,000 boys are under instruction in Vernacular schools : and
excellent Boarding schools are maintained for the young, containing 360
boys and 490 girls. These agencies are great in number and well con-
centrated.
If we now make a summary of the efforts made for the Shdndr popu-
lation in general by the two Church of England Societies in TinneveUy
and the London Missionary Society in Travancore, the result will appear
as follows. Of the whole Shanar tribe, half a million in number, about
one-tenth, or 52,000, are under christian instruction and have means
provided for securing to them regular instruction and worship : of this
large number 4,600 are communicants : 12,000 boys attend the Vernacu-
lar schools : and the Boarding schools contain 500 boys and 800 girls.

The number of chief stations is 25 : of European missionaries, 24 : and

of native catechists and preachers, 254. Sixty years ago, scarcely one
of these stations existed. A few natives only in Palamcottah were
christians. Thirty years ago, the work had fairly begun, it has been
continued with earnestness : new labourers have been added : and this
is the great result: 4,600 adult communicants: 12,000 boys in day

schools : 52,000 people under regular instruction. Of the number of

 110 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS.

devil temples, pyramids and idols destroyed in TinneveUy, I know no-

thing : but in South Travancore, Mr. Mead assured me, that after exten-
sive enquiry, it has been found that not less than 20,000 devil images
and pyramids have been destroyed while two Romish Churches with their
:

altars and images have also been made over to the London Mission.

Had time permitted I should have liked to describe some of the chris-
tian stations in Timievelly among this interesting people : to point out
the flourishing village with its rows of well-built houses ; its green milk
hedge ; its gardens of mangoe and plantain trees ; its extensive palm
topes ; its cocoanut and betelnut trees ; its roads lined with trees ; its fine

stone wells : its Court house for the village punchayat : its mission house
and schools : and best of all the weU-built Gothic Church, with its tall

tower, appearing through the green fohage and by its pealing bell sum-
moning the native christians morning and evening to the house of prayer.
Or I might tell of the printing presses which supply the christian young
with suitable maps and books of instruction : and then turn in contrast to
the dark, low shed with the hideous idols, devouring their offspring,
placed under the gloomy umbrella tree ; might mark the small attend-
ance on the annual festivals, the destruction of the de\il pyramids and
temples and then impressed with the mighty contrast, exclaim in the
;

language of the Bible " What hath God wrought !"

:

WHY THE SHANAR CONVERTS ARE SO NUMEROUS.

Having glanced at the history of the Shanar mission, it will be well to

consider certain practical questions suggested by the facts of that his-
tory. The first of these enquiries is: What peculiar circumstances
have caused so many persons to embrace Christianity in Tiunevelly and
Travancore, whereas the converts in other parts of India are so few ? The
great distinguishing fact which lies at the bottom of the case is, that the
Shanars, not being Hindus by birth, are only partially bound by the
laws of caste. They form a caste by themselves, and as they occupy all

together one great locality they can act almost as if they were not a
caste at all. If then a Shanar become a christian, he does not become
an out-caste from his people, and is not cut off from all intercourse with
liis fi-iends, as a Brahmin is in like circumstances. The penalty paid
for becoming a christian is in the case of the latter, the loss of every
thing : in that of the former, little or nothing. Another fact is, that they
are much accustomed to act together : and it is a general feeling in a family
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SH^NARS. Ill

that what two or three influential members resolve on, the rest also will

do. This has been proved in numberless cases in so reasonable a pro-

ceeding as giving up the devils for Christianity. These two things shew
the existence of facilities for leaving their own religion which are not com-
mon elsewhere in Hindustan. Why then did they embrace Christianity,
whereas they had not embraced Hindu idolatry. At the outset, in the

days of their ignorance, no doubt inferior motives prevailed very widely.

They hoped by becoming christians to get some immediate temporal
good, with scarcely any idea of spiritual profit. The missionaries fidly

acknowledge this. In Travancore for instance, Mr. Mead, I have said,

acted as judge, and numbers thought to get lawsuits decided in their

favour by adopting the judge's religion. Col. Munro about the same
time procured an order fi'om the Rani, allowing the christians, slaves
and all, to rest from labour on the Sabbath. Many tried to get the

benefit of that order, who would otherwise have been forced by the
government to labour on that day. In Tinnevelly persecutions broke
out against the first christians, in which Gericke and others interfered.

The Court of Directors sent out peremptory orders to have them stayed.
It was easy enough for other Shanars when they saw the new christians

possessing such powerful friends, to offer themselves also as candidates

for baptism, in hope of obtaining the same boon. AU this has passed

away : the people have in the course of years learnt the truth that mis-
sionaries are not mixed up with the government and do not exercise po-

litical influence. They do see however that the missionaries and their
catechists are thefriends oi the christians; their faithfol religious instruc-
tors ; their helpers in times of sickness, their advisers in difficulty : the
mediators in their numerous litigious quarrels. They know as well as

other poor people the value of such aid, and therefore feel a drawing to-
wards Christianity as hkely to befriend them. On the other hand, they
are dreadfully afraid of their demons : the sacrifices and fees to dancers
are expensive : and as it is generally believed that the demons, called
Pesdses in Tinnevelly as well as in Bengal, have no power over " the
servants of God," many are found to give up the one system for the
other. The christian knowledge also which the preaching of the mis-
sionaries and catechists has spread abroad, has shewn the heathen the
reasonable character of the religion and morality which Christianity
establishes : the system of worship, the social order Avhich prevail among
the converts, are also before them. They have learned also in contrast

the folly of their devil-worship, and they cease to defend it as a proceed-

 :;

112 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'RS.

ing which their judgment can approve. They will never from very
shame allow a missionary now-a-days to see their sacrifices and devil
dances : what wonder is it then that those who do care for religion at
all should prefer one which is so reasonable and which so many thousands
of their fellow- villagers have already embraced. They may have also the

general idea that as christians are no longer under the power of demons,
they will get better crops of rice and fruit : and be preserved from
danger. These are undoubtedly the kind of reasons for which the great
majority of the unintelligent converts have placed themselves under in-
struction. If it be said, that many of the motives are of an inferior
kind, the fact must be allowed : but it may be asked in reply, —Are
these the only christians who have done a right thing from inferior rea-
sons, where those of a higher character ought to have been foremost ?

The gospel is a system which confers a thousand benefits which only

experience discovers. It is indeed profitable for the life that now is
and if its temporal blessings attract the eye of the ignorant who prefer
sight to faith ; and who come to the missionary, not to be supported,
not to receive pensions and monthly doles, (for he has none such to
give ;) but to ask that they may be numbered among the christians,
and may attend the instruction of the christian teachers, who is there,
that with a clear conscience can forbid them. Especially who will for-
bid them, when the missionary understands their exact position, and
without deceiving himself as to their being at once converted and perfect
christians, takes them up where they are, and by careful instruction
endeavours to lead both them and their children to the true and saving
knowledge of the Lamb of God. The real value of the gospel as a truth
" able to save the soul," the majority have had subsequently to learn
those who experienced it before they came, and some such have become
converts, have been comparatively few.

WHAT KIND OF CHRISTIANS ARE THEY?

Few questions are more important than this, since a fair upright an-
swer will shew in few words the real value of the Shanar missions in
relation to the grand object for which missions are carried on. The
materials however for giving such an answer have been amply provided.
The missionaries in their annual reports enter into numerous details of

the spiritual state of their flocks ; and both Mr. Caldwell and Mr. Pettitt,

in their accounts of the Tinnevelly stations, deal with the matter in the
 ;

ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SIIA'NA'RS. 113

most straightforward terms. An impatient friend may ask : Do you

mean to say that all the 52,000 Shanars now called christians are con-

\' erted men ? Certainly not ; the wildest enthusiast never imagined
such a glorious fact : least of all has any one acquainted with the missions
endeavoured to make such an impression upon the minds of their friends.
The missionaries, who know the state of things thoroughly, tell us in their
re])orts, and I heard the same thing from their own lips on the spot, that

these converts are divided, in regard both to their knowledge of the

gospel, and their personal character, into three classes?
The first or lowest class includes a very large number of converts who
are still unbaptized. These persons are candidates for baptism ; who
desire to enter the christian community, but at present know little of
gospel truth. They learn the appointed catechisms attend ; public worship
and are required to live in general as members of the christian community.
But much cannot be expected from them as to spirituality of mind, or

consistency of conduct. The second class are those who have only been
baptized. They are reckoned as still under instruction ; Ijut it is gene-
rally seen that their conduct is influenced to a considerable extent by the
Cible law. They of course possess much more christian knowledge ; they
have made an open profession : gross sins are not allowed to pass among
them unreproved and ; as they have a character to maintain in the com-
munity, they occupy a much higher position as to morality than they did
among the heathen. A large proportion of this class are of course children.
The third class the smallest of all, contains the communiccmts, caWed in some
missions, the Cfmrch members. They number altogether 4,500 out of the
52,000, or about nine per cent, of the whole. These christians rank highest
both in knowledge and character. They are spoken of in the same terms
as are village converts in Bengal or the Mysore and they
: are treated in

the same way. All the missionaries watch carefully over the consistency
and lidelity of those who are admitted into this body. The standard of
admission is not the same in all cases. With some missionaries that
standard is high. In the London Mission for instance it is so raised
that the Chui'ch members form only four per cent, of the whole. Some
of the Tinnevelly missionaries, as INIr. Csemmerer, adopt I believe a simi-

lar standard : and administer a strict discipline. Good as many of their

communicants are, they are all seen to be weak, especially the more igno-
rant; traces appear in their conduct of their old habits, old superstitions
and old heathen rules. How could it well be otherwise, considering the

origin whence they sprang, and the inveteracy of habit everywhere. JMany
Q
114 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANARS.

of them live most consistent lives, and in contrast with their neigh-

bours adorn the gospel. Catechists, schoolmasters and others of age and
experience, appear generally as they onght to do the most consistent.

Young men and women from the boarding schools, who have learned
most, whose minds and hearts have been most cultivated, as a class, stand
out higher than others, and it is hoped, will as they grow older become
worthy leaders of the important community, to which they belong.
During my visit, I had the pleasiu-e of twice meeting Bible classes of
young women at Nagercoil and Edeyenkoody, who displayed a very clear
and complete knowledge of the Word of God. They were all trained in

the boarding schools, and though they have now left them and have fami-
lies of their own, they regularly attend these classes which are main-
tained specially for their benefit. All the girls' boarding schools that I
examined gave promise of like success.

Anecdotes illustrative of the character of these christians could easily

be multiplied. Zeal for others is not a distinguishing feature of native

piety, but it has been exemplified among them. I will mention a single

case, belonging to one of the newest stations. At Santapuram there

is a poor man, a PuUiar of the lowest caste, who since his admittance

into the Church has been very industrious in getting his own class to

3,ttend the means of grace. His wife and sister and another relative

have, through his means, all been brought into the Church and two others
have lately been baptized. His sister lately learned to read the New
Testament : she is the only Pullian female of adult age that ever did so

in Travancore. The man is like a father and priest among his people,

warning, instructing and comforting them : and is greatly esteemed eveiy

where. At the same station there is a poor man who has three times
fallen from palmyra trees. His chief peculiarity is that he has never

been known to tell a lie or to deceive. So implicitly is his word believed,

t;hat in cases of dispute it is common to hear people say ;

" If Giinamu-

deyan says it, I ^vill believe it:" or, "Whatever Gunamudeyan says,

I will abide by."

NATIVE AGENCY,
An interesting topic connected with these missions is the sijstem of

agency adopted by the missionaries for the instruction and discipline of

their multitudes of disciples of whom each missionary has on an average
;

two thousand. In these extensive missions, missionaries appear much

more as the directors and superintendents of several congregations than
pf one : and much more as pastqrs of christian flocks than direct preach-
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHA'NA'RS. 115

ers to the heathen. The influence of each one of them is thus spread
over a much wider surface, without being at all dissipated. The system
of management is very complete throughout all the missions ; and will, I

feel sure, under God's blessing, tend to establish the converts in sound
doctrine, and to apply the gospel widely and fully to the extensive district

where they toil. This system has been the growth of years ; and its

elements have been suggested by the experience of actual wants. It is

not invariably the same in form : individual missionaries making modifi-

cations of their own. All missionaries have a body of native catechists
under their direction, who are employed in the charge of the various
village congregations, connected with each head station. By some, all

the catechists of a district are gathered monthly for three or four days at
a time : by others they are gathered weekly on a particular day. On
these occasions the catechists give in systematic reports of the state of
the separate villages under their management. They report on the condi-
tion of the congregations and schools ; the attendance at public worship ;

the sermons they have preached ; the places they have visited ; the burials
they have performed ; the number of converts added ; the progress of
enquirers ; the number desirous of baptism ; the applicants for admission to
the communion : and so on. They also receive instruction ; the missionary
dictating a sermon to them, or reading regularly for their benefit through
a book of Scripture. In some stations, the catechists preach sermons
dictated to them by the missionary : in others they prepare sermons of
their own and submit them to the missionary's criticism. Both plans
haA^e the same oljject, that of providing proper instruction for the out-
stations. Similar reports are received from the schoolmasters. Again;
in most cases, the agents of the mission pass through different grades of
employment : as from assistant schoolmaster to that of schoolmaster.
Thence they may pass to the office of assistant catechist : then become
catechists : and finally may be ordained. This plan is found to work
well, as furnishing a stimulus to exertion and improvement. In the
Church Missionary Society, there are also superintending schoolmasters
and superintending catechists, who have charge of several divisions of a
district.

The work of the missionary in the complete and constant superin-

tendence of the separate districts of each mission is by no means light. It
embraces several distinct departments. First, a missionary is directly the
pastor and preacher of the station where he resides. He also teaches the
chief classes in the school of the station, especially in the boarding school

Q 2
116 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'RS.

and the Biljle class. He has to receive the reports of all his native agents ;

to meet their difficnlties ;

give them advice or by them send
; advice to the
people. He must also be prepared to see smaller or larger deputations
arriving from all parts of his district at any hour of the day, to ask his
assistance in settling quarrels, making up marriages, securing loans from
the benevolent societies, or treating special cases of sickness. He has
also to visit in turn the chief out-stations in the district : to examine
and teach the local schools ; preach in the village churches ; meet the
candidates for baptism ; and settle a thousand varieties of miscellaneous
business, which the people are certain to have on hand for his advice.

He must also be architect and builder, not only of the mission buildings,
but also superintendent of the village streets which spring up around his
dwelling. How well these things can be done by devoted and energetic
men, is pro^'ed by many examples spread over the whole province. Every
station bears witness to their skill : but the villages of Edeyenkoody and
Suviseshpuram : the establishment at Sawyerptu^am ; the beautiful gothic
churches, built of stone, at Suviseshpuram, Pannivelei and JNIegnanapu-
ram, display it in the strongest light. The districts to which they belong
are also some of the most interesting, for the numbers and character of
the converts, in all Tinnevelly.
All the Societies among the Shanars have paid much attention to the
raising of a thoroughly good native agency. Had they better materials,
the results would be better than they now are, though still they exhibit a
great advance on former days. Three Seminaries have been established
for this purpose, at Nagercoil ; at Palamcottah for the Church Missionary
Society ; and at Sawyerpuram for the Propagation Society. At each place
a large number of promising lads and young men are subjected to a course
of instruction, extending over several years and embracing the most im-
portant branches of education, with a view of being fitted for employment
in the mission. Special instructors have been appointed to these institu-
tions, and great pains are taken to secure the end for which they were
established. The longer they are maintained, the greater will be the
good influence which they exert throughout the Shanar Missions.

NATIVE LIBERALITY.
The last thing to be noticed in these missions is the practice early in-
troduced among them, of leading the converts to contribute to the gospel
which they ha^'e themselves received. In Bengal and other parts of
India though a beginning has been made, native churches have been back-
ward hi this matter. The plan was I believe first introduced into Tinne-
 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'RS. 117

velly by ]Mr. Rlienius, and was then adopted at Nagercoil. In all the
stations, contri])utions ai'C sought for various christian societies. There
are for instance the Bible Society and the Tract Society, both well sup-
ported by native subscriptions. In Tinnevelly in 1852 the christians
contributed Rs. 900 to the Bible Society. From Travancore, they re-
mitted Rs. 348. At Nagercoil and two neighbouring stations, the same
year the collections and purchases in the Tract Society amounted to Rs.
670. At some stations there is a Book Society ; at some a Do7'cas or a
Poor Fund. In the Nagercoil mission subscriptions are gathered as a
contribution to the Home Society, and for several years they have
amounted to a thousand rupees, enough for the support of twelve readers.

Throughout Tinnevelly there are societies to aid the building of village

churches. An immense number of such churches have been erected

by their aid. They subscribe also to the founding of villages as well as
societies, and are now endeavouring to establish endowments both by
gifts of money and planting lands. Most of the christians are poor,
particularly in the southern parts ;
yet even the poor give willingly.
Many that have no money, contril3ute lumps of sugar : their coin how-
ever is very small : the copper cash having a very minute value ; and
many of these appear in the collecting boxes. The catecliists and more
wealthy men give liberally : and that too without boasting. In special
cases many have frequently given a months' salary. One catechist
in the Propagation Society's Jubilee gave four month's salary ; and when
Mr. Csemmerer objected, thinking it too much, he said that he must give
it in thankfulness for what he had received from the mission and for the
education of his children in the knowledge of the gospel. The same
man on collection days has been known quietly to give his two boys two
rupees each to put into the box. Richer men do more. In Mr. Tucker's
district, where the Shauars are wealthy, some have frequently given five,
four, or three rupees at one time : and one man on several occasions has
given twenty-five. Let but the principle be understood and the habit
established ; and why may not the same be seen in other parts of India ?

Through the kind aid of the Rev. W. Clark of Palamcottah I have

obtained a carefully prepared statement of the sums of
ed by the Tinnevelly Christians to their different Christian Societies
money contribut- 'V
during the last four years. The statement is not quite complete : but it

proves the astonishing fact, that the christians of eleven stations, 21,000
in number, contributed during that period for the various benevolent
objects above mentioned, no less than seventeen thousand rupees. If we
reckon those of the seven other stations, containing 1 1,000 people, as
118 ON THE MISSIONS AMONG THE SHANA'R3.

liberal in an equal degree, it will exhibit the sum total given by the whole
Christian community in amounting to more than
the province, as
TWENTY-EIGHT THOUSAND rupees in those four years.
At nearly all the stations, numbers of widows were found by the
missionaries to be continually dependent on their charity. In one district,
that of Santapm-am, Mr. Lewis found a hundred and fourteen. Mr.
Rhenius many years ago secured for their benefit the establishment of a
Widows' and Orphans' Fund, at Palamcottah, intended especially for the
catechists and other agents of the mission. The same plan has been
acted on elsewhere. The societies have been formed on the principle of
an Assurance Company : monthly subscriptions are paid ; the fund is

lent out on interest : and the widows of subscribers receive pensions

in proportion to the amount subscribed. These societies have proved
exceedingly useful.
Another plan for the benefit of this poor class was devised by Mrs.
Mault of Nagercoil. Finding a number of distressed Avomen in the mis-
sion she thought of introducing among them the art of lace-making.
She procured materials from England, taught them, and sold their

work very advantageously. The women learned it immediately ; their

taper fingers being admirably suited for the delicate process. At

present there are no less than three establishments of this kind ; two
at Santapuram and Edeyenkoody, with the original one at Nagercoil from
which they sprang. Patterns, pins and thread are obtained from Eng-
land, but the pillows and bobbins are made on the spot. Instruction in
the art is reserved for poor but respectable widows, or the very best of
the school girls. To the latter it is quite a dowry : and great is the compe-
tition among the young men to secure as a bride one of the favoured few

who have acquired the skill. It is astonishing what beautiful work they
can turn out, and in what comfort they are supported. More than this,

the respectability and cleanliness of the employment react upon the mind
and character of those who pursue it : and tend to preserve their intelligence

and self-respect. Many of them are church members and consistent

christians. To many may be applied Cowper's beautiful lines on the

English cottager pursuing like employment. They are another specimen
of what the gospel, the despised gospel, is doing to elevate the character,
and control the principles of the christian poor : and though sceptics may
doubt, and infidels oppose, that gospel shall not be without its triumph*
even among the happy lace-makers of Nagercoil.
 ;

LECTURE FOURTH.

ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS

OF

NORTH TRAVANCORE.

When the Portuguese first landed on the long-sought shores of India^-^

amongst the strange sights that met their eye, there appeared a people, {

who declared themselves Christians in religion, led the wandering visitors

into their churches^ and laid before them numerous manuscript copies of .<

the Word of God. The fact of their existence had long previously been
published in Europe, but the na^dgators knew nothing about the matter
and soon turned their wonder into disgust when they discovered that these
Christians were heretics who knew nothing of his Holiness the Pope,
and were innocent of all belief in the blessings of image worship or the
saving efficacy of transubstantiation. The origin of this singular and
isolated body of christians is lost in the depths of antiquity. So early
,as the year 325, a Bishop from India was present at the first council of
Nice : and as the creed which the body have held in later times contains

neither image-worship, nor transubstantiation, nor Papal authority, nor

the sacraments of marriage, of extreme unction and confirmation^, it is

thereby proved to have had an origin earlier than the period when those
doctrines became settled errors in the western church. Cosmas, a cele-
brated Egyptian merchant, visited them in his voyage to India in 547
and describes their tenets as agreeing much with those of his own church
the Nestorian. He says too that at that time they were accustomed to
receive their bishops from Persia. Whether their church began by con-
versions of the natives of Malabar, or from a Colony of Syrian families,
who had settled there for trade, it is now impossible to say Avith exactness.
Most likely the latter notion is the more correct ; traditions respecting it

being clear and confirmed by collateral circumstances. One thing is quite

plain, that the christians in very early times received from Chandra
Perumal, king of Kerala or Malabar, high political privileges ; which were
 120 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS,

recorded upon tablets of copper, and were enjoyed undiminislied for many
centuries. The old copper plates still exist : and a few years ago were
carefully translated by Dr. Gundert, one of tlie German missionaries at
Tclliclierry. It appears from tlicm, and from the Kerala Utjmtti, the
great chronicle of the Malabar coast, that in ancient days there Avere four
communities of foreign merchants in Malabar, held in high repute'
namely, Jews, Manicheans, Nestorians and Arabs. The whole trade of
the west coast across the Indian ocean was in their hands and all were
:

treated by the Kerala kings, with a kindness, liberality and respect, which
foreigners do not always enjoy. The Jews appear to have been the oldest

settlers, and greAV important enough to receive high privileges from the
Raja : recorded also on similar plates. One of their number, Joseph Rab-
bon, was presented with a large estate at Cranganore, was made head of
his community, and appointed councillor and commercial manager to the
king. Next, one of the Manicheans Avas elevated to the Lordship of a
district and dignified vai\\ the title of " grand merchant of Kerala," His
people are now numbered among the Sudras. Subsequently the Nesto-
rians received a grant of land near Quilon with the rights of nobility : but
they were not so honoured as their predecessors. The Arabs followed,
obtaining less distinction still. All these classes are termed Mapillas, or
raoplahs ; i. e. people of high rank : being distinguished from one another as
Yihudi Mapillas, Nasrani and Suriani Mapillas, and Yavana Mapillas. The
: privileges Avliich the Syrian Christians received Avere very valuable. They
I
took precedence above the Niiirs, the highest caste of Sudras : they could
have enclosed porches to their houses ; and could even ride on elephants,
a dignity belonging only to the royal family. They Avere allowed
I freely to enter the courts of justice, to walk boldly along the high-
Avay with the best of the population, and to enjoy the free exercise of

i their religion. They were permitted also distinctly to extend their religion

I
by making proselytes ; and all their converts, of whatsoever caste, were
I
admitted to the same rights, the same social rank, as the first christians
enjoyed. Their Bishop had extensive authority in cIaoI as avcII as eccle-

siastical matters ; they Avere trained to the art of Avar : and at one time
endeavoured to seize the rule of the country. When the Portuguese
arrived, the Syrian Christians possessed upAvards of a hundred churches,
resided in many important villages and were carrying on considerable
trade. Their doctrines much resembled, and resemble still, those of the
Nestorian Churches in Mesopotamia : they however, reckon themselves
as belonging to the Syrian Church, so-called ; and to this day look for
 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS. 121

their bishop from Mosul or Mardiu where the Patriarch of that Church
resides. In tenets they were in some respects evangelical ; though their
ritual contained many forms and practices deemed erroneous by Protes-
tant Churches : such as, prayers to saints, baptismal regeneration and
prayers for the dead. They were, moreover, Avithout spiritual life and had
become greatly paganized. Their zeal for the conversion of the heathen
had long since cooled : and instead of rejoicing at the introduction of

degraded idolaters into the church of Christ, they feared for their own
respectability, and had become tenacious of their rank. They seem to have
been far more dead than their sister churches in Mesopotamia ; as much
so as the Armenian, Greek and Coptic churches were only a few years
ago. Their scriptures and liturgy were entirely in the old Syriac language,
and public worship was rendered totally unprofitable.

It was impossible for the Pope and his emissaries to leave the Malabar
christians alone or to refrain from efforts to introduce them into the Romish
system. For forty years, however, only measures of conciliation were em-
ployed with a view to secure an object so desirable. A college was estab-
lished to teach their young priests Syriac ; the missal was translated into
the same tongue and circulated every where. But the priests and people
refused to receive images in their churches : to believe in transubstantiation,
to follow processions in honour of the Virgin Mary ; or to compel their
priests to Hab in celibacy. In 1595, the celebrated Menezes was appoint-
ed to the Archbishopric of Goa, and he determined to crush their oppo-
sition with a strong hand. He visited their principal churches, and
when, in discussion with him as to the origin of their Church, the
Syrians appealed to their ancient records, he seized and burned those
valuable papers before their eyes. Multitudes of documents, including
doubtless many ancient copies of the scriptures, were thus wantonly
destroyed.The bishops of the Syrian church were seized and imprisoned ;

and a new bishop who arrived from Mosul was droAvned in Cochin
harbour. At length the Archbishop offered to submit the matter to a
Council to be assembled at Diamper ; and the Syrians agreed to the pro-
posal. Full of guile, he took care to pack the council with men suited
to his own views : he disputed loudly and dogmatically with them ; and
there being no priests whose learning could cope \Aath such a foe, he
speedily procured a vote, uniting the whole body
Church of Rome.to the
For fifty years this unrighteous system of oppression was carried on, ad-
ding another black page to the history of Popish persecutions ; and pour-
ing upon the earth fresh blood from the saints and martyrs, whose death
R
122 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

an angry God has promised to avenge. One can scarcely read these
awful tales without crying out in agony : Oh Lord, how long ?
The union to Rome remained unbroken for only a few years. Many
of the priests and people submitted in silence but with hatred ; deter-
mined to take the first opportunity of casting off the galling yoke now
placed upon their neck. A few Nestorian priests found their way into
their midst, and animated by their presence, many churches in recesses
among the mountains refused to follow the Romish ritual, and placed
themselves under the authority of a former bishop, who had escaped from
confinement. On his death they renewed their connection with the
patriarchate of Antioch and the intercourse recommenced has been main-
tained to the present day. In way the Syrian christians became
this

divided into two bodies : the Syrians who remained independent, uphold-
ing the doctrine, ritual and practice of the ancient Church and the :

Romo-Syrians who adhered to those of the Portuguese Catholics of Goa.

The former in all their struggles with the Papacy, appealed not to that

divine strength by which alone they could overcome : they asked not for
that grace which alone would have rendered their persecution a blessing.
They wielded no sword of the Spirit, and they won not the victory of
faith. God spared them yet for two hundred years but in spite of their ;

renewed independence, they improved nothing in doctrine, worship or

character. They seem rather to have become infected by the errors into

which their neighbours and brethren had fallen, and to have sunk deeper
into ignorance, formality and decay. In 1836 the Syrian christians
were reckoned as 120,000 in number : and the Romo- Syrians, 60,000.
The latter are now declared by the catholic authorities to be 158,000.

Their ecclesiastical system is this. Over the whole church presides a

bishop called Metran, who is appointed by the Patriarch of the Syrian
church at Mardin. The bishop appoints to the different churches
cattanars or priests, who perform the services of baptism and the
communion ; read the liturgy, celebrate marriages and bury the dead.
Attached to each church are a number of deacons, as a lower order of
clergy. Many of these deacons are mere boys who have been ordained :

solely for the fee which their ordination secures to the bishop. Their
churches are strange old buildings, with sloping roofs and gable ends :

unlike that of English churches, the chancel is both wider and higher
than the rest of the building. Inside the church there are figures of the

crucifixion : in the chancel are hung large pictures of similar subjects

in bright colours. In front of the altar a lamp is always burning.

 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS. 123

The service consists in reatliufi; the liturgy with its responses^ in the old

Syriac language : but the lesson for the day is read in the vernacular
Malealini. was with great pleasure that on the reading desk of several
It

of these Syrian churches I found the Syriac New Testament of the

British and Foreign Bible Society it has been in use for many years.
:

In the Romo-Syrian churches there is of course no such wise instructor

to give even one lesson each day. These latter churches retain much of

the old fashions of the primitive churches : but have superadded numbers
of Roman Catholic emblems. Crosses, pictures of the saints and of the

Virgin Mary, are very common : the outside is adorned with figures,

standing in niches, of the apostles and saints. The tomtom, fireworks,

and incessant firing of guns, attend the weddings and festival processions

of these people, as they do of the heathen. The service is still read in

the old Syriac language, and not in Latin : but the native cattanars /I
know nothing beyond the routine of their mass book. All the people are
excessively ignorant and their religion consists in nothing but forms.
Near Cochin are the head-quarters of the Romo-Syrian mission in the

island of Verapoli; where the vicar-general resides. Two seminaries

and a large establishment of priests are maintained there. From the
harbour of Cochin no less than seven of these Catholic churches are
visible. Pleasant indeed do their white walls and turrets appear, peeping
from the rich foliage by which they are surrounded : but the incessant
din of cannons, and the sight of niches for saints, dispel the illusions of
fancy, and exhibit them to the christian mind as embodiments of real

heathenism, remembrancers of dire acts of oppression, and illustrations of

that " other gospel" of antichrist which ruins souls for ever.
The country in which these Syrians are settled, is one of the richest in
Southern India. It lies partly in the dominions of the Cochin Raja and
partly in the northern districts of Travancore. In shape it is long and
narrow. From the sea on the west coast for a distance inland averag-
ing ten or twelve miles, it is pretty flat or marked only by gentle undu-
lations available for cultivation. Beyond low hills occur on
this tract

which flocks are pastured ; and at the back of all, runs the great chain of
ghauts between Travancore and Tinnevelly, covered with forests and
with dense jungle, in which the tiger, the cheeta and the wild elephant
abound. The inhabited part of Travancore, before reaching the highest
hills, is on the average twenty-four miles in breadth. Abundance of
water is supplied to it from the ghauts, and by the great monsoon in
June, Innumerable streams flow towards the sea, among the slopes and

R 2
 ;:

124 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

ou the level plain ; so I'requent are they find in parts so continuous, that

a great part of the country may be traversed by their means, as are the
Sunderbunds and soutliern districts of Bengal near Calcutta. At a short
distance from the sea shore a continuous stream of water, narrower or
broader in different places, runs along the Avhole coast. It is called the

Backwater, and is extensively used for transporting the inland produce

from north to south without the dangers of coast na\agation. Owing to
this abundant supply of water, the whole country is green all the year
round. In the low lands are raised extensive fields of rice : on slopes and
drier spots, fine crops of corn and other grain are reaped. In sandy parts
the cocoanuts grow in profusion : in the most southern districts are the
palm-topes already described. Pepper, and other spices cover the land
in the jungles the teak, the dark anjeli, and the ebony tree are very com-
mon : and give to the range of mountains their sombre and desolate
appearance. Wild flowers spread over the land in profusion ; the mangoe-
bird and others of variegated plumage adorn the leafy jungles ; the flying-
lizard and flying-squirrel are met with in the woods : the otter and
alligator possess the waters ; while among the reptiles may be found
every kind, from the little goldsnake that sleeps in the kitldeva flower to
the great boa constrictor that hides in the forest shade. There are
many points fi-om which the traveller, as he passes through this richly
endowed country, catches the most delightful prospects. One of the
most beautiful that I saw was from the astronomical observatory at
Trevandrum.
The population of Travan. ore according to the census of 1836, amounts
to 1,280,000. Of these 28,000 are brahmins. The Nairs, Sudras, and
other high castes number 450,000, one third of the whole. The Shanars
and Ilavas amount, as we have already seen, to 290,000. The Slaves are
128,000. The brahmins are very powerful and exercise more influence
on the government in this little state than on all the rulers of the rest of
India put together. They are divided into three classes ; the Nambouris
or native Maleali brahmins ; the Puti or Canara brahmins ; and the fo-

reign brahmins from other parts. Of these the Nambouris rank highest
of all. They and the Canara brahmins are ten thousand in number of :

the foreign brahmins, there are about eighteen thousand. The temples
throughout Travancore are almost all meanly built ; even the best of
them can make not the slightest pretensions to architectural beauty
although some bear a celebrated name. They are altogether about 4,000
in number : amongst them three hundred arc dedicated to Vishnu and
 0\ THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS. 125

Siva. They are all reckoned so holy that no Europeans are allowed to enter
them : or to build their churches within a consideralile distance of the
road along which their worshippers march in procession. The annual
festivals in Travancore are of course celebrated with great pomp and
spirit : especially the Wonum, at which the people observe a general
holiday, decorate their houses with flowers, and illuminate them at night.

One important feast, the Murajabam, is celebrated at Trevandrum only

once in six years. It lasts fifty-six days, and all the brahmin population
of the province, who join in its ceremonies, are hospitably entertained by
the government during that period. Again, for the special benefit of the
brahmin population, there have been established in various parts of the
province, Uttuparas, or public inns, where free meals are given to such of
the brahmins as choose to accept of them. These places are forty in
number : at one half of them, food is prepared twice a day : at the other
half, only once. And so numerous are the priestly applicants for the
royal bounty, that their maintenance costs the government no less than
i625,000 a year. The other religious institutions and temples swallow up
j£5 1,000 more; and thus the brahmins obtain from this petty state, with
a revenue of .€370,000, no less than £76,000, or one-fifth of the whole.
As another illustration of the strength of brahminism in Travancore
I may mention that it is the rule, when a new Raja ascends the throne,
to weigh him with golden weights. The process completed, the amount is
coined into very small gold coins, and distributed to all the brahmins, male
and female, young and old, that are found in Trevandrum on the auspici-
ous day. A story is current that the present Raja on his accession to
the throne was a thin man, and the brahmins fearful of losing their accus-
tomed douceur, purposely delayed the ceremony till he had attained a
respectable size.
Their sway, however, over their august monarch is not confined to this
undignified but profitable ceremony. They make a gain of every circum-
stance that occurs in his person or his family, and compel him to observe
all the private and public ceremonies of Hinduism with rigid punctuality.
On not a few occasions, does he walk barefoot on visits to the sea or to
the great temples, in token of his holy zeal for the faith to which he is

enslaved. The brahmins too lord it over Europeans as far as they can.
If a procession is moving towards a temple, or holy food being borne
along the streets, Europeans are ordered to get out of the way, tliat they
may not pollute it. The government is chiefly in their hands, and is as
full of corruption as it can well be. Being independent of the East India
 ;

126 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

Company, it contains very few Europeans. The Raja, his Dewan or chief
minister, the Judges of the supreme and inferior courts, are nearly all

natives and possess the whole authority. The Government of India

merely appoints a Resident, who is bound to give advice to the Raja in
all important cases, while the Raja is equally bound to follow it. The
native government maintains for itself a small body of troops called the
Nair Brigade, consisting of two battalions drawn from that caste, contain-

ing 1600 men ; they are disciplined and commanded by English officers.

The present Raja is in education and capacity of mind far ahead of his
predecessors : he speaks English well, is a great chemist, and is fond
of getting all the new inventions that he hears of. His Durbar hall
contains a great variety of English curiosities. In Trevandrum he,
several years ago, established an English school and placed it under the
care of a master of decided piety : it was at first a pay-school, but was at
length made quite free. Mr. Roberts, the master, after some time,
cautiously and with much prudence introduced the Bible into the school,
making the study of it quite voluntary. Many held back at the outset
but soon, as a matter of curiosity, some offered to enter the Bible class :

others joined ; and from that time till now, during several years, the Bible
lesson has been given without any objection. The school has prospered and
been useful : it might have become much more so, if those who hold
authority had extended to it that fostering care which it deserved at their
hands. It is under this native government that the greater part of the
Syrian churches reside, and it is with influences naturally springing
from an authority in which Hinduism possesses such a large share, that
the missions planted among them have had to contend.

The first effort of modern times to penetrate the ignorance in which

these Syrian christians were enveloped was made by the Rev. Dr. Kerr,
who at the desire of Lord W. Bentinck, then governor of Madras, pro-
ceeded into the Maleali country, and made minute enquiries concerning

them. He sought and obtained valuable information concerning the

history of their church, the doctrines believed, their system of worship,
and the persecutions to which the papists had subjected them. Dr.
Buchanan of Calcutta, a few months later, proceeded to the same spot,

on the appointment of Lord Wellesley, tomake similar enquiries, espe-

cially in reference to the use of the scriptures among them. The object
of both was, to see how far a union could be efl'ected between the Syrians
and the Church of England. Dr. Buchanan's sympathetic imagination
was greatly excited by the sight of this ancient people, and he wrote in his
 :;

ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS. 127

" Researches" a glowing account of them and of their wrongs. He found

among them 55 churches, acknowledging the patriarch of Antioch as their
liead, but otherwise forming an independent body of christians. Having
gained their confidence, he succeeded in procuring a number of valuable
manuscript copies of their Syriac version of the Eible ; and engaged (if
they woiild give them up to him) to return in their stead a hundredfold
printed copies of the same, from the Bible Society, for the use of their
churches and cattanars. From these, I believe, the first modern copies
of the version were published. The Metran or bishop of the church, at
the time, was a man well disposed towards the gospel, and quite ready
to allow the cu'culation of the scriptures among his people. Under his
sanction a Maleali translation of the scriptm'es also was commenced
but being badly executed came to nothing. Col. Macaulay, and after
him Col. Munro, both Residents at the court of Trevandrum, took a deep
interest in the revival of these churches ; and the result of their mea-
sures, and of the kind treatment of the Rani, was a great improvement
in the general spirit of the people, in their circumstances and pohtical con-
dition. They secured amongst other things a consideration and protection
which they had not enjoyed for years. Col. Munro endeavoured also to
heal their dissensions ; but his plans were frustrated until the death of
their bishop and the appointment of a successor when comparative peace
;

was restored. His next step was to apply to the Church Missionary
Society for agents who should give the Syrians the religious instruction j

which they so greatly needed. Accordingly Messrs. Norton and Bailey |

proceeded to Travancore in 1816, and in the following year Mr. Bailey !

opened the valuable mission at Cottayam. In 1819, three missionaries

had entered on that important station, Messrs. Bailey, Penn and Baker
they reported that no less 50,000 or 60,000 christians were immediately
accessible to them, and expressed it as their purpose unitedly to keep up
the most close and intimate intercourse with the Syrian bishop and his
cattanars, with a view to elevate and establish their religious views, and
thus ultimately elevate the people at large. The theory looked well, and
was carried out with patience and energy for many years. The mission-
aries found at Cottayam the college which had been established in 1815
by Col. Munro, and been liberally endowed by the Rani with lands and
grants of money, including Rs. 5,000 at the very outset. They joined
the college with hearty zeal and endeavoured so to organize its system
of instruction and government, as to render it an efficient training estab-

lishment for the Syrian clergy. In addition to the superintending mis-

 ;:

128 ox THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

sionary there were hvo Syriac professors (Malpans) : a Heljrew professor,

and teachers of Sanskrit, Latin and English. Between forty and fifty

students soon joined the institution : their ability seemed high, their
spirit and conduct excellent : their desire for learning not inferior to

what is found in English lads of the same age. The whole Syrian popu-
lation were reported as looking to the college as the eye of their body ;

and it was fondly hoped that, under God's blessing, in ten years fifty

or a hundred learned priests would be found, " in this venerable church,"

nourishing their own flocks and spreading the triumphs of the gosple
among them.
At the same time three Seminaries, on the plan of Free Grammar
schools, Avere projected for the three divisions of the Metran's diocese :

from which the more promising lads were to be advanced to the college.

Parochial schools were next established all over the district and in a few
years, there existed no less than 37 of them, containing 900 scholars. The
y\ missionaries also prepared religious tracts and elementary works in the
•'
Maleali language. A translation of the New Testament was soon requir-
ed ; and was commenced by Mr. Bailey, who devoted to it all tlie energy
and knowledge of his active and persevering mind. He translated also a
great part of the English Liturgy into the same language. A press to

print these works was soon found to be essentially necessary to the suc-

;
cess of these literary labours. But Mr. Bailey could not get one : he
was promised a fount of types from the Government Press at Madras,
but when they arrived they were found to be quite useless. Mr. Bailey
however was not a man to be put down l)y difficulties he began to cut the
:

matrices for types mth his own hand made his punches from them
: :

invented moulds ; cast a fount for himself ; and finished it off" for use.

He then made a piinting press, taking his model from some Cyclop?edia
finally he taught a lad in one of the schools to set up the types. Thus
it was, he brought out his first edition of the Maleali Testament. The
translation, the types, the printing, the press, were entirely the work of
his own laborious hand. The printing-office at Cottayam flourishes still

it has convenient rooms for composing, pressing and storing both mate-
rials and finished works. Numerous native compositors are employed

there ; it possesses ample supplies of beautiful type ; new type is cast

whenever needed ; the printing is performed with the efficient iron presses

so common now in India. But though the Columbian and Stanhope

presses are elegant in form, are instruments of great power, and complete
their work rapidly, to my mind, as I passed over the establishment, the
 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS. 1.29

most interesting object amongst all the printing apparatus, was the old
original press, with its huge wooden beams, now laid aside; a monu-
ment of patient industry and self-devoting zeal.
The officials of the Syrian church were at the outset well-affected to
the new order of things. They saw the great interest felt in the church
by English people : they saw also that the missionaries made no aggres-
sions upon their own rights and privileges : that they wished only to
revive the spirit of the people at large ; and being well disposed towards
the gospel, cordially promoted the plans which the missionaries had
° adopted ; especially as they found the secular and political interests of
the people were advanced through the powerful friends who had risen up
to protect them. The Metran of the day was Mar Dionysius, a man of
amiable deportment and religious tone of mind. He resided in the col-
lege, was associated with the missionaries in its management, and was
always consulted on every plan and measure intended to enlighten and
instruct the people. He was thus made not only head of the church but
of the mission likewise. He sympathized with the efforts of tlieir Eng-
lish friends and both he and the clergy about him expressed their grati-

tude for those efforts to the society which had originated them. Thus
things went on for several years. The press, the college and the schools
were maintained efficiently. One missionary after another joined the
pioneers; new stations were established in important localities, as at

Cochin, Trichur, and Mavelikurray ; in numerous out- stations pulilic

worship Avas performed and schools maintained, with the same hope as
animated the Society from the outset. By degrees however the missionaries
gained a clearer estimate of tlieir true position. They saw that in rela-

tion to the Syrian church they were absolutely without authority ; they
were mere volunteers in the attempt to get rid of existing evils ; they
were physicians ready to assist the cure of a disease of which they had
clear perceptions ; but which the patient scarcely felt, and in regard to
which he might at any time decline their services in toto. They found
that when the novelty of the thing had worn off, the old Adam in the

people had greatly revived. They saw that the spiritual worth of the
church and the task of raising it up, had been much overrated. They
found the people careless about real religion ; they found the priesthood
unconverted ; looking after their fees, formal in their service ; the whole

body was lifeless and They found enmity gradually excited, espe-
cold.

cially in persons of influence, by their pure doctrine. While they preach-

ed Christ crucified ; the priests in power taught regeneration by baptism.
 ;

130 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

and the efficacy of prayers for the dead. By those prayers the priests
gained their chief support, and they were of cour'se opposed to a system
of doctrine which diminished their gains. They found themselves and
their nsefuhiess entirely in the hands of the Metran : all the priests were
ordained by him ; all their priests, all their scholars and students were
under his ecclesiastical authority. If any Avere obnoxious to him, or to
the priests generally, by peculiar excellence or fidehty, he could refuse
ordination, or he could forbid them to preach ; or by himself he could
keep up the error already existing of ordaining boys as deacons. As
head of the mission he could check or alter, or refuse to sanction, mea-
sures for the improvement of the people. In the course of time all this

opposition was experienced in fact ; an irreligious Metran was appointed^

who cared nothing for the spiritual progress of the church : and on more
than one occasion, a missionary in charge of the college, returning sud-
denly to his class room, after going homeward, caught the Metran or one
of the native Professors in the very act of teaching some doctrine, the

very opposite of that which he had just laid down —and purposely un-
doing all the good which the missionary had just endeavoured to do.
After submitting to this opposition for a long time, and seeing the
labours of the missionaries set at nought, the Bishop of Calcutta a few
years ago, resolved to disconnect the Church Missionary Society from
the Syrian Church altogether. The missionaries left the college ; their

assistants left the Syrian body : their converts did the same : and the
whole drew off from the decayed church, exactly as converts in Bengal
or Tinnevelly separate themselves from the heathen. These converts
and the missions founded for their benefit have since greatly prospered

large congregations exist at every station : including no less than 4000

persons young and old : of whom 1000 arc communicants. Fifty day-

schools exist for boys ; and 150 girls are instructed in the boarding schools.

The chief stations are six in number of which five are in most important

localities among the Syrian christians. Trichoor contains 12,000 Syrians :

Cottayam, Mdvelikdre, Tiruwilla and Pallam are in the very heart of the
churches, and are advancing in usefulness every year. Their handsome
Gothic churches, their school and mission houses, bear testimony to a
purer faith and purer missionary zeal for the true Head of the redeemed

church, than their dull neighbours, the venerable buildings of former

times.
As a body, the Syrians remain very inactive, irreligious and formal.
Yet their knowledge of the gospel has been greatly increased, both by its^
 ON THE SYRIAN CHRISTIANS, 131

preaching among them and the spread of the printed word. Numbers
possess and are able to read that word for themselves. They have much
less faith in prayers for the dead than formerly ; and many priests have
in consequence been obliged to give up their work in the church in order

to get a livelihood by other means : some are employing themselves in so

undignified a pursuit, as the making of embroidered fans. The mind of
the people has been greatly unsettled by the disputes concerning the
office of the Metran three or four
: rivals have claimed authority together
for years : and they look all the more to the quiet and prosperous mis-
sions of the Church Society for true help and guidance. The heathen too
are coming nearer. Several cases have occurred in which high brahmins,
nairs and sudras, have come forward to profess Christ and a remarkable :

progress has been made among the wild hill people, especially the
Chogans and Araans, living in the jungles near the ghauts. Thus is the
wilderness made glad : thus tbe parched desert becomes like the garden
of the Lord.

8 2
 LECTURE FOURTH : PART SECOND.

THE JESUIT MISSIONS

IN

SOUTH INDIA.

When tlie Portuguese first arrived in India, they obtained possession

of the town and territory of Goa. As became good cathohcs, they soon
]iad an archbishop appointed by the king with numerous clergy : but
they did Httle for the heathen for many years : the scandalous lives of the
Europeans high and low, giving their native subjects the lowest idea of
their moral and religious character. The first really missionary efforts

were made by Xa\ier, who landed at Goa in 1542, now three hundred
years ago. Directing his attention to the state of his own countrymen,
he set his face against their shameless wickedness, and it is said by his

instructions and personal influence, produced a considerable reformation

in Goa. He next went and visited the fishing villages farther down the
Avest coast, especially in the southwest of Travancore ; and coming as
both iheir political deliverer and religious instructor, enrolled thousands

as disciples of Christ. Passing onward and round Cape Comorin to the

gulf of Manaar and the Pearl Fishery coast, he baptized thousands more
of the same class, remaining among them for five or six years. His chief
church is still at Kotar, a mile from Nagercoil; and is celebrated for the
miracles wrought within its walls. An annual festival in his name is

maintained to the present time. The fishing villages to which he went,

are situated all along the two coasts of India, at intervals of two or three
miles. They are not very large and are inhabited by people of the lowest
kind. On the west coast they are termed Mukuas ; on the east, Para-
vers. To this day thousands of these people call themselves christians.
As the traveller passes through their village on the sandy beach, he sees
a large cross or two, and a very common hut, very like one of the
Shanar devil-sheds, but of considerable size. This is the church. I re-

member especially a village and church of this kind close to Cape Comorin.
 THE JESUIT MISSIONS. 133

In Tmncvelly fill tlic Paravers arc catholics, and hunflrcds are found in
different localities all up the east coast as far as Pulicat. They are in

the lowest state of ignorance and degradation. The very morning that
I left Madras, I had a painful illustration of this fact.Ingoing on board
the H'mdostan in the Madras roads, we had to pass through a very rough
and wild surf, which now and then broke right over the boat. In all
their difficulties and dangers, the boatmen uttered but one cry " San
Javier ;" ''
San Javier." During the many pitchings and rollings of our

stormy trip, they had but one talisman to trust to, the name and inter-

cession of their patron saint, " San Javier !"

When Xavier left the country other Jesuit missionaries entered on his
work. The most celebrated among his successors were the missionaries
of Madura. Their head and founder was Robert de Nobili, the nephew
of Cardinal Bcllarmine, who began a new mission entirely on a new
plan. The energy, the self-denial, the hardship and privations endured
by his followers were very great : but according to their own account the
results correspond to their efforts; the mission being vaunted as the
most successful in aU modern times. With a view to overcome the
repugnance of the natives to familiar intercourse with Europeans, Ro-
bert de Nobili after a successful study of the Tamil language, disguised
himself as a brahmin, and before brahmins in Madura swore on oath,
that like them he was descended from the God Brahma, and had obtained
a revelation of the true divine law. After a time many came to him
fully believing that he was not a European, but a genuine brahmin from
another part of India : his successors kept up the same system and main-
tained it against all opposition for a hundred and fifty years. They
assert that they never baptized till after careful examination of their
candidates; that their converts were , christians of the most spiritual
views and the most holy lives ; that for weeks together they might hear
their confessions without finding one guilty of mortal sin : that their
disciples had a perfect horror of idolatry and all its accompanying rites :

that they were even desirous of persecution and under it upheld their
faith most nobly : that even the devil acknowledged the excellence of
their mission and could injure none of its weakest members ; while the
fear of the devil so drove converts into the church, that he might be
termed the best catechist in the mission ; that tigers also refused to injure
christians passing through their jungles ; that numerous miracles were
continually wrought especially in Xavier's church at Kotar : and that
their people were on the whole a most excellent and angelic body of
134- THE JESUIT MISSIONS.

converts. Such is their own account ])ut there is evidence of the

:

clearest kind from their own pens and from Papal records, that the whole
plan was a lie ; that it began in lies and perjury : that in perjury and
lies it was maintained ; and hj lying and deception was utterly ruined in
the end. From the outset Robert de Nobili and the others denied with
oaths that they were Ferinyis or EuropeanSj asserting boldly that they
were real brahmins ; they dressed, bathed and ate like brahmins, wore
the sacred thread, put ashes on their breast and forehead; wore the
native wooden shoes ; and slept upon a tiger's skin. Themselves assert
that their whole attention was given to concealing the fact that they
were Feringis, since they augured the complete destruction of the mis-
sion from its discovery. Yet after all they failed to bring in the brahmin
class for whose conversion their system was adopted. Sudras came ; but
the majority of their people were Parias. Thousands on thousands of
this class were baptized : but they were never elevated, and the mission-
aries kept up as great a distinction between them and the higher castes
after their profession as before it. They also baptized by stealth thousands

of dying heathen children ; their catechists and christians would go to

the sick under pretence of giving medicine, and knowing the baptismal
formula, administer the rite unknown to the parties themselves. In this
way, they boast of immense numbers of converts. In managing their
converts, they kept up the same system of deception and compromise.
They allowed them the same cars and idolatrous processions as before,
the Virgin JNIary taking the place of the Hindu god : the christians too
in certain cases joined the heathen in their idolatrous ceremonies. In
their marriages the heathen emblems, the heathen rites and customs as

to food, were all kept up still : in their bathings they still repeated the

same formulas as before, uttering the name of some god as they touched
each successive limb. In fact, except as to name they were, exactly and

in every respect, the same heathen Parias as they were before. Hence
as a matter of course in the Tanjore persecutions in 1701, thousands at

once apostatized : and in later years in the Mysore, under Tippoo, of

60,000 catholics, says the Abbe Dubois, not one had the courage to die
for his religion.
As soon as Pope Gregory heard of these proceedings, he commanded
the priests to desist from them. They received his command in silence
and went on as before. The Cardinal de Tournon was despatched to
India to examine into the matter ; and after ascertaining every particular

from the confessions of two leading missionaries, passed a decree forbid-

 THE JESUIT MISSIONS. 135

ding the continuance of all or any of these practices. They remonstrated

and took oath that to deprive their converts of any of their customs in
marriage, bathing, processions or feasts, would be to endanger their souls'
salvation ! What an awful confession from these blinded men ; that to give
them the pure gospel would ruin their souls ; while to continue their
heathen practices Avould ensure their salvation ! Yet these men called
themselves ministers, not of heathenism, but of Christ. Failing in Eu-
rope to get the decree reversed, they yet in one of their cluu'ches, " called
the body and blood of Christ to witness" that it had been annidled and
the forbidden practices allowed. "Obstinate and impudent" (as Pope
Clement styles them,) they Avould not obey the papal decrees sent to
them again and again. At length according to the Brief of 1734, they
vowed and swore on the holy gospels, that they would obey and at once ;

without delay they perjured themselves by persisting in their former

contumacy. As a last resource, Pope Benedict ordered that any one of
the missionaries who should refuse to carry out his oath, should be trans-

mitted to Rome immediately. They were compelled to stop, beaten at

every turn^ and in 1773 the Society was dissolved.* Of all misrepre-
sentations of missionary labour, theirs was the most awful : of all deli-

berate rejection of the gospel, for heathen rules in preference, theirs was
the most voluntary : of all the lying and perjviry, which have been
committed by men of knowledge and education, theirs were the most
deliberate, most unblushing, most continued, that the world ever saw.
Such was in deed and in truth the system of the famous Madura
Mission : a mission full of scandalous wickedness from its beginning to
its end.
For nearly from 1773 to 1830, scarcely any care was
sixty years, i. e.

taken of the catholic missions and of their numerous converts. The older
missionaries gradually died out, while none arrived from Europe to fill

their place. The Paris Seminary for Foreign Missions was destroyed in
the revolution of 1793 : and thus in 1803 the whole of the French Mis-
sions in India had but one Bishop and fifteen European priests, several

of whom were old men. So great was the disproportion between

them and their flocks that many congregations could not be visited
even once a year. In 1807, the
priests were reduced to five. In
1830 some Roman Catholics went over to the Protestant Missions,
and as the number of Protestant Missionaries was greatly increasing,
an appeal was made to the Society for the propagation of the faith

* Calcutta Eeview, II. pp 77—115.

 ;

13G THE JESUIT MISSIONS.

to send Jesuits again to their former spliere. The offer was accepted,
and at once the whole of South India was parcelled out into different
Vicariates, as were other parts of Asia. In 1837 four Jesuit priests

arrived at Pondicherry : and five more in the next two years : in ten

years, sixty-four arrived, and w^ere spread tlu-oughout the missions, so

as to render their services as efficient as possible. One of the first mat-

ters which attracted their notice was, that the Goa clergy had, during
the days of neglect, quietly taken possession of many of the Jesuit

churches : and assumed the pastorship of their congregations. The Por-

tuguese crown entirely opposed the right of the Pope to appoint Vicars
apostolic to these dioceses in India ; the right of patronage having been
conferred on it in former days by Pope Leo. To this claim the Jesuits

reply that Portugal is unable to maintain the ancient bishoprics, and that
having an archbishop at Goa is a mere farce. A deadly feud exists
between the parties : and in numerous instances expensive lawsuits have
been carried on by the new comers in order to oust the Goa " schismatics"
from their territories. In many cases they have succeeded ; in others

they have been foiled. All the catholics of South India are in the Jesuit
almanac divided into Orthodox and Schismatic.
A peculiar circumstance which for many years distinguished the modern
mission was the repeated deaths of young and promising missionaries.
Totally inexperienced in the influences of an Indian climate and having
no elder associates to give them advice, these zealous men from the time
they arrived gave themselves up to a life of hardship, starvation and toil.
They spent a large portion of the year in travelling through their districts
walking long distances and putting up in mud huts, eight feet square, totally
unfurnished ; they generally slept upon the damp ground, and contented
themselves with little food. They were accustomed to eat nothing bvit

rice and fish curry. Meat or wine never passed their lips, and the taste

of bread was almost unknowai. As a natural consequence of this severe

and entire change from that diet to which they had been accustomed in
Europe, they began to fall with fearful rapidity : cholera became quite

common among them and ; several were seized with it at the very altar,

while performing mass, after a night spent almost entirely in listening to

the confessions of their people. In ten years twenty-one priests died out

of sixty-four ; the majority of whom had not reached thirty-five years

of age. These facts are mentioned in a little work, entitled the Jesuit
Mission in India, pid)lished in 1852 by the Rev. W. Strickland, a Jesuit

priest at Trichinopoly. It contains numerous facts most condemnatory

 ;

THE JESUIT MISSIONS. 137

of the system it describes. In 1841, Father Clifford, an English Jesuit,

brother of Lord Clifford, joined the mission. His plain English common
sense discerned at once the folly of the system which they were pm'suing,
and from the time of his arrival, he remonstrated again and again Avith the
Superiors of the mission in France, assuring them that itwasfar more expen-
sive to send out new and inexperienced missionaries, than to take proper
care of the experienced men already in the country. The repeated deaths of
his brethren, especially in 1843, convinced the Superiors that he was right
and permission was given for the missionaries to take a small quantity
of wine daily, of bread a moderate portion, and meat every day except
Fridays, Saturdays and the fast-days of the church. From the time
when the new rule began to tell upon their constitutions, the mortality

was greatly reduced, and for several years has not been much greater
than in healthier spheres of labour. Father Clifford did much to build
up the modern Jesuit Mission, during his short career. He seems to
have been a man of great zeal, and to have acted from very high motives.
His spirit was full of affection, and he was a powerful preacher. He was
stationed at Trichinopoly for the double reason, that it is a large Civil

station ; and in addition to the officers of two Native Regiments, has a Euro-
pean Regiment and Artillery. His work therefore was, as an Englishman
of rank, to influence the English : he was greatly beloved by the Catholic
soldiers and much respected by Protestants as an upright and consistent
priest of his church. In 1844 after a short career of three years in
India he was drowned in the Coleroon. His successor at Trichinopoly,

also an Englishman, was a great hunter, and used up all the hacks of
the town in his enthusiastic sports : he soon dissipated the good feeling
which Father Clifford had excited towards their church. One of the
chief objects which the latter earnestly aimed to accomplish, was the
establishment of a College at Negapatam, which should serve both as a
boarding school for young catholic boys and as a training school for
native priests. The college was founded in 1845 : and its present large

building was opened two years ago. I went over it in the course of my
journey, with one of the priests, and also over the Jesuit Church and
Seminary in Pondicherry, Two other institutions of the kind have
long existed in the pleasant and well cultivated island of Verapoli, the

head-quarters of the Romo- Syrian mission in North Travancore : ano-

ther has been established at Quilon ; and there is a sixth seminary at

Mangalore.
138 THE JESUIT MISSIONS.

At the present time, the Jesuit and Roman Catholic missions are

spread very widely throughout the Madras Presidency. We have nothing

like them in North India, except in the neighbourhood of Dacca, at

Hussingahad, Furreedpore and Pubna, where there is a Catholic popu-

lation of 13,000 souls. It will be useful to sum up the Roman Catholic

population as given in the Madras Catholic Directory for 1853, a work
published on authority, permissu superioi'um. A similar statement,
taken apparently from the same authority, was handed in to the recent
India Committee in the House of Commons.

Vicariate.
 THE JESUIT MISSIONS. 139

Uninstructed, without the Bible, what can they understand of the minute-
ness with which the holy law of Christ enters as a guiding principle into
every thought and act and purpose of a christian's life. If those who are

constantly instructed from our pulpits, and who, educated in good schools,
read for themselves intelligently the word of God, still feel that for

Avarning, exhortation and comfort such study and such instruction are
daily required to counteract the heart's evil, —what must be the degraded
condition of the poor Paravers and Mukuas and Romo- Syrians and
Parias, who are called christians indeed, but are full of heathen notions,
are never taught to read or write, never preached to, and are encouraged
in their heathenish practices by their teacher himself. Is it not a mere
matter of course, that we find them as they once were, with only the
names of their deities changed, while their thoughts, belief and conduct
remain as degraded as ever. That this is really the case, has been de-
clared by Protestant missionaries over and over again ; when they have
met these native catholics in retired villages of the country : perfect
heathen in every thing but name.
I think that in India, Protestant missionaries have nothing to fear from
Roman Catholics ; even with the skill and policy for which the Jesuits
are celebrated. Their converts help to draw away fallen and outcast
christians, and are a great scandal in the way of the heathen ; but other-
wise it seems to me there is little cause to fear their injuring us among
the natives. The Hindus have gods of their own and need not the Catho-
lic They have a ritual of their own and need not
Saints as intercessors.
the Papist beads. They have their own cars and ceremonies and proces-

sions why should they join a people who have borrowed them from
;

them. More than that, if there is one thing which has distinguished
Protestant Missions in India more than another, it is that they have

fearlessly spread the Word of God, and have widely established schools to

illustrate that word witli all the reasons that an enlightened mind can
grasp. The Roman Catholics flourish in ignorance. The Protestant
missionaries have gained their 100,000 converts by hard battles with the
sword of wisdom. The one has invoked darkness to its aid ; the other

light. The one has trusted to human policy ; the other appeals to the

converting grace of God.

Nor do I think that the Jesuit missionaries deserve above Protestants
praise for their self-denial. I allow that they dress simply, eat plainly,

and have few luxuries at home. I allow that they travel much, are
greatly exposed, live poorly and toil hard. I have heard of a bishop, living
 ^

140 THE JESUIT MISSIONS.

in a cave on fifty rupees a month, and devotedly attending the sick when
friends and relatives had fled from fear. But all this is much easier on
the Jesuit's principles, than it is to be a faithful minister on the principles
of the New Testament. The Jesuit missionary's chief care is to ad-
minister baptism and the mass rightly : to hear confessions and prepare
for the communion. He studies not the Bible to find lessons of instruc-
tion suitable to the condition of his people : if he finds among them gross
sin, the next absolution wipes it all away. He does not mourn over the
heathen practices of his converts ; he upholds and encourages them. Their
blind ignorance of God's truth is no burden to his mind ; firm faith in
the church is amply sufficient to secure their salvation. Nor is his own
condition simply one of discomfort. The church teaches him that self-

denial for its service is a gromid of religious merit ; which the saints will
not forget ; and for which he will be amply rewarded in another world
To such a motive, human nature is pecuharly sensitive. History proves
that to obtain merit there is no depth of suff'ering and misery to which
a human being will not submit. Hindu sannyasis suffer enough ; but the
anchorets of Mesopotamia in the early church sufiered immensely more.
Far different is the behef of the christian and the christian minister. He
fights against his very nature from the first : he cuts away the root of human
pride and of self-righteousness by acknowledging salvation only by another.
And when he labours, he labours with this conviction, that when all has
been done that was appointed, he is only an unprofitable servant. A
Protestant minister too is not contented with the mere performance of a
line of ceremonies. He looks not to baptism, to the Lord's Supper, and
to extreme unction, for his people's salvation : he is not contented to
leave them in ignorance, relying on these things and knowing nothing
of their S ardour. He makes it is his first duty to warn and teach, to
exhort and invite, to comfort and cheer his flock. If he finds gross sins,
he mou.rns over the signs of an unconverted heart and feels that those
who call themselves christians are in the gall of iniquity still. These
things constitute the grand difference between the two parties. The one
throughout his course acts with human nature ; the other fights ever
against The one submits himself to the smooth doctrines of the reli-
it.

gion of man the other, to the humbling precepts of the revelation of God.
;

Which of these is the easier which of them is the greater burden. The
:

physical privations of a Jesuit, (and he has no other) , supported by his

motives of self-righteousness, are not to be compared to the mental
anxieties and griefs of a faithful Protestant pastor. They are as much
 THE JESUIT MISSIONS. 141

lighter to bear, as it is easier to crush the body than to mortify the soul.

Because the gospel of the New Testament finds these spiritual evils to

contend with, while all other religions yield to and adopt them, I take
the fact as a clear indication that that Gospel is from God.
 LECTURE FIFTH.

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

When visiting in 1849, the missionary boarding-schools at Cuttack

and Balasore in the province of Orissa, my attention was specially drawn
to a class of children, who but for the humane interference
of Government
would have been brutally sacrificed upon the blood-stained altars of
heathen gods. These children were termed Merias. They belonged not
to the Oriya population, amongst whom they were then living, but had
sprung from the Khonds of the distant hills, and for very safety had been
brought by the officers of government down into the Orissa plains-

Their dark complexion, broad face, and flat nose, shewed them to be of dif-
ferent origin from that of the Hindus ; while the position they had occupied,
and the horrid death from which they had been saved, invested them
with a peculiar interest; and rendered them objects of peculiar solicitude
to those who are interested in seeing the fruits of christian humanity
developed amid oriental barbarity and crime. Surely every christian
heart will join in the prayer, then mentally offered, that these dear young
people might be brought by the Spirit of God to " present their bodies

a living sacrifice" to the Saviour of sinners ; as the most " reasonable

service" they could render to Him for saving them from a cruel and

bloody death in ignorance and sin ; and for bringing them out of the
darkness of idolatry into the gospel's marvellous light. Much has been
written of late years concerning the human sacrifices prevalent among
the Khonds : but I have thought it advisable in order to complete these

sketches of Missions in the Presidency of Madras, to describe them

somewhat in detail : and to sketch the history of those measures which
have been employed for their suppression.

THE KHOND COUNTRY.

The Khonds are an aboriginal people inhabiting the hills which border
the southern portion of the country of Orissa : their territory lies almost

entirely within the Presidency of IMadras. Till a few years ago, nothing
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 143

whatever was known concerning thera. In the year 1829, when Lord
Bentinck abolished the rite of Suttee, no one could have informed him,
that within foui* hundred miles of Calcutta, their existed numerous
tribes, who were then perpetrating human sacrifices and destroying their
female infants, without one thought that they were doing wrong. Even
by the Supreme Government of India, the thing was absolutely unknown.
It was in 1836, when the Raja of Goomsur, who had long been tributary
to the East India Company, rebelled against the Government, that
a military force was required to occupy his territory and to subdue the
Khond tribes of Upper Goomsur, to whom he had fled. The Government
and the Khonds then became intimately known to each other for the first

time ; and then for the first time all the barbarous practices of the latter

stood revealed to the wide world. The enquiries then and subsequently
made by the Government officers, brought to light the manners and
habits of these hill barbarians ; the character of their country ; the con-
stitution of their Societies ; the relations in which they stood to each
other and to the Zemindars of the country near them ; their domestic,

social and tribal feuds ; their mode of life ; the amount of their civiliza-

tion and knowledge ; their rehgious superstitions ; and the objects and
method of their worship. Thus was it found that in extensive districts

human sacrifices were practised ; in others, female infanticide ; in others,

both these evils ; in a few others, neither of them. This information
contributed chiefly to the Madras Government, by many officers and
dm-ing several years, appears in the most complete form in the ably-writ-
ten Reports of Capt. Macpherson, the first of which was published by
Government, in 1841.

The Khonds inhabit the hill districts on the borders of Orissa and
Ganjam. Their country naturally divides itself into two parts ; lying
as it does partly above and partly below the Ghat range, of which we have
so frequently spoken. In the lower districts the hilly wastes, clothed with
deep woods and interspersed with extensive valleys and undulating downs
gradually come down to the level plains of Orissa, near the sea. From
these the higher districts are separated, by the steep and j^recipitous
Ghats ; and form an extensive plateau above them, somewhat similar
to that of Mysore, stretching far away into the territories of Central

India. These hill regions termed Malias, are distinguished by different

names. Bordering on the Orissa territory and the river Mohanuddy,
lie the Boad Malias ; next toward the south the Goomsur Malias, includ-
ing Hodzoghoro, the Bara and Athdro Mutahs, and Chokupad ; south
 ;

144 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

of these are the Surddd and Corada Malias; and west of these, the
extensive Malias of Chinna Kimedy. These are the chief divisions of the
Khond country. Of these only the Surada Malias entirely, and Groomsur
partially, lie below the Ghats : the rest are entirely above them.
The country thus divided presents a varied aspect to the travellers
eye. Below the Ghats, the villages are somewhat scattered the valleys ;

appear poor, bleak and barren ; water is less abundant than in the higher
lands ; the country displays no varieties of scenery ; and the hilly slopes

under the great range are thickly covered with the Dammer tree and the
bamboo. The districts on the plateau above are far more pictm-esque.

The table-land is much broken by valleys sometimes deep and rugged

and is crossed by ridges of hills of varied height some being 4000 feet
above the sea. Many parts are bare of wood; in others are groups

of forest trees ; in others a jungle rich in flowers ; the valleys and

glens furnish sites for the villages and fields for culture ; while in
the higher and deeper recesses of the hills thick forests grow inha-
bited by the tiger and the bear. In the Malias of Chinna Kimedy
a thick forest of timber trees covers the whole surface and extends
westward without a break for more than a hundred and forty

miles. Portions of this forest have been cut down by the people,
and the cleared land in the valleys cultivated. The soil is every
where fertile ; and if the land were all cleared and the numerous water-
falls and springs properly turned to account, it would yield the most
abundant harvests. Numerous vegetable products are raised, which fur-
nish materials for traffic in the plains. In Chinna Kimedy alone, besides
Avhat is consumed by the people, more than ten thousand bullock-loads
of turmeric and four thousand loads of mustard, pepper, tamarind,
arrow-root, honey and wax, are carried to the markets below the Ghats to
be exchanged for cloth, brass and iron vessels, and beads. The routes by
which the traffic is carried on from the higher land to the plains are most

difficult to traverse. Till lately they were merely the natural openings
through the mountains, unimproved by any aid of art : one of them
however, leading through the heart of Goomsur, has been greatly im-
proved by the Government, and rendered a safe and easy pass.

THE KHOND PEOPLE.

The people are in general divided into two great classes ; those living

on the lower ranges of the Ghats, and those in the districts above them.
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 145

The former are called Bennia Klionds the latter, the Mdlid or highland
;

Khonds. The Bennia Khonds were apparently permitted by their Hindu

conquerors to retain their lands on a rent tenure or on that of feudal ser-
vice to their zemindars. Living nearer tlie plains, and in subjection to
Hindu governors, they have of course been brought into constant inter-
course with the Hindus who people them : they attend the markets and
bazars, and witness much of a life and habits different from their own.
The consequence has been a partial adoption of Hindu manners. The
most changed among the Bennias are very like the Hindus and between ;

them and the pure Khonds may be seen all grades in the change from
the habits of the latter to those of the former. They wear the Hindu dress,
speak the Oriya language, build houses after the Hindu plan, use the Oriya
plough, refuse to cultivate turmeric, drink milk, eat ghee, and abstain
from the barbarous practice of dancing, of which their less refined coun-
trymen are extravagantly fond. They have even adopted Kali as one
of their deities ; while the Hindus in the same districts have adopted the
Khond god and call him Khondini. In the worship of the deity both
people unite together ; wliile the Khond priest and the brahman serve

together at his altar. In this way while they retain many of their
original customs, theBennia Khonds have departed from the thorough
barbarism of their highland brethren and become assimilated in some
measure to their Hindu neighbours. The process of assimilation is still

going on ; and will advance, perhaps with accelerated speed, now that the
East India Company are rulers of the whole country, and more frequent
intercourse has been established between its different localities.
The Mdlid Khonds on the other hand, living on the plateau and in
the vallies above the ghats, exhibit all the characteristics of Khond society
in their purest form. They have, it is true, always been in inter-
course with the zemindars of the lower country ; sometimes making a raid
or foray into their territories to levy black-mail, but acting usually as
independent allies and friends, never as subjects. Separated from the Hin-
dus of the plains by the broad belt of hill zemindaries, filled with men like
themselves, and shut out by their inaccessible hills and jungles from all

attempts at conquest, they have remained the same people in manners

and pursuits for many hundreds, it may be thousands, of years. To some
particulars concerning these manners, let me briefly direct your attention.
The dress of the Khonds both male and female is very scanty, and
resembles that of the poorer Hindus. The men wear their black and
shiny hair in a knot fastened by an iron pin above the forehead or
u
 ;

146 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KIIONDS.

on the side of the head : Ijotli men and women wear ornaments of
iron or ])one, or of dyed wood. A(/nctdlure is considered the
only lionourable em[)k)yraent, and, drawing to itself the people's
greatest energy, is exceedingly productive. The land of every com-
mmiity is apportioned into a great number of petty free-holds ; and
each proprietor cultivates for himself. Several kinds of rice, yams, millet,
turmeric, tobacco, and mustard are the staple produce. They possess
large herds of buffaloes, bullocks and swine, numerous fowls, and flocks

of goats. But the people are also ivadike : from early youth they are
trained to use the sling, the bow and arrow, and the tanr/i or hill-axe ;

and so constant are their quarrels as almost totally to suspend cultivation

at some periods. No indigenous manufactures are produced among them :

the employment is considered low. The cloth and brass vessels which
they require, as well as their salt, they procure in the plains, in exchange
for the produce of their fields. Various Hindu outcasts have from
time immemorial acted for them as potters, blacksmiths, weavers and
distillers, and have performed various menial services. Their houses are
made of strong boards, well fastened, and are sometimes plastered inside ;

the roof is thatched. Forty or fifty such houses arranged in two rows,
with the doors fronting the street, constitute a village. These houses are
all alike for rich and poor. The Khonds never repair them ; but when
they grow old, as they do in about fourteen years, a new village is built of

entirely new materials. InteUectuully the Khonds are rather quick in per-

ception, firm in their resolutions, and good-humoured. They have an un-

conquerable love of personal freedom and are very impatient of restraint.
They are faithful to their engagements Avhen made; but have no idea of
any rights except their own. Hence their readiness, both singly and in
bands, to make a foray on others' territories or districts, and seize " what-
ever they like best" (as they term it) : which means, the most valuable
property of others. They are selfish, ferocious, and dreadful drunkards.

Like the Arabs, they are remarkable for their hospitality, and rather
suffer loss and danger than violate its sacred rites. Marriages only
take place between the members of different tribes. The women, though
thev do not cat with their husbands, arc yet treated Avith some respect

they attend to domestic duties ; hold ammunition for their tribe on the
battle field ; and by their advice exercise much influence on their Coun-
cils. A wife can quit her husband's house and return to that of her pa-

rents when she likes ;

(in which case her dowry must be repaid) ; and if she
choose another man for a husband from among the unmarried men of a
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 147

tribe, lie is compelled to many her. The lieense tlms allowed to the
women is productive of great evil. Their judicial customs are very-
simple. Murder, manslaughter and wounding are generally settled private-
ly according to the law of retaliation, which in the case of blood is bind-
ing on the nearest relative : (as was the law of the Gocl or blood-avenger
among the Hebrews.) Important cases are settled hy the Patriarchal
Council. Witnesses are then examined and many kinds of ordeal appealed
to. At the close of all trials, the members of the triliunal are well feast-
ed with rice, meat and spirits, at the expense of the losing party. Through-
out their social and jjolitical constitution, the Patriarchal principle
prevails. All the members of a family are subject in every thing to the
supreme control of its head, called " Abbaya." A collection of families
makes a village, over which is a village abbaya, selected from the abl)ayas
of families. A collection of villages is called a mutah or district, over
which is a muliko chosen from the village Patriarchs. A number of mutahs
make a tribe, which is governed by a tribal muliko. Tribes are grouped
together in a confederacy, over which is appointed a chieffederal Patriarch.
This is the form of their constitution ; but breaks and anomalies here and
there occur, produced by the disorganisation which wars and other events
have produced among them. These Patriarchs of various grades possess
authority to settle disputes in the sphere over which they are respectively
appointed : and in difficult cases they consult with those of their own
rank what is to be done. They receive no emoluments. At these coun-
cils, the members of each society may be present and vote, though they
do not speak. Upon very important public matters a General Council of
the whole people is held, when the matter is discussed by the Abbayas of
mutahs and tribes ; and the votes of the whole assembly are taken to decide
it. The chief Federal Patriarch stands at the top of this social pyramid.
His first duty is to consult the interests of the whole people by maintain-
ing as far as possible the closest union between all the sections into which
they are divided. Boundary questions are his especial care ; but as he has
no force at his disposal to compel submission to his sentence, tribal feuds
arising from them are constantly bursting out. This Federal Patriarch
has been hitherto the channel of communication between the Khonds and
the zemindars in the lower Malias : and through him all arrangements
have been usually made. His position is therefore a most important one
both to his people and to the zemindars. In relation to this position
and the duties it involves, the Patriarchs receive a distinctive name. In
Boad^ they are called A7io?iro ; in Suradah, Majee : in Goomsur, Bisaye :

u 2
148 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KIIONDS.

in other districts, Muliko. Tlieir immediate descendants also bear the

same name. The Bisayes of Goomsur are a family of Hindus, who long
since ascended above the Ghauts, and settled in the district of Hodzo.
ghoro. Sam Bisaye, so often mentioned in the correspondence of the
Government officers, was formerly Federal Patriarch of the Goomsur
tribes : and Cliokra Bisaye, who occasioned the rebellion in the Boad
Malias, was his nephew.

THE KHOND LANGUAGE.

As may be well imagined from the circumstances of the people, the
Khond language is not a single fixed tongue, like Bengali or English,
which all the people speak. As we survey the whole extent of their
country, it seems to have more than one chief dialect with many local
varieties. Unwritten languages naturally fluctuate much, according to
the different degi'ees of intercourse which are maintained amongst the
several branches of the tribes that speak them. A very interesting
example of this change is thus described by the Rev, R. Moffat, in con-
nection with a servile portion of the Bechuana nation, termed Balala.
" Connected wdth each of the towns among that people, there are great nvimbers of
what are called '
Balala,' poor ones, who stand in the same relation to the Bechuanas
in which the Bushmen formerly stood to the Hottentots, and whose origin doubtless
was of the same nature. These Balala were once inhabitants of the towns, and have
been permitted or appointed to live in country-places for the purpose of procuring
skins of wild animals, ^\ild honey, and roots, for their respective chiefs.
" The dialect of the Sechuana spoken by these people, especially in districts remote
from the towns, is so different from that spoken by the nation generally, that inter-
preters are frequently required. In order to account for this, it is necessary to become
acquainted with their habits. In the tov\'ns the purity and harmony of the language is

kept up by their pitchos or public meetings, at which the finest language is spoken ; by
their festivals and ceremonies ; as well as by their songs and their constant intercourse.

With the isolated villages of the desert, it is far otherwise. They have no such meet-
ings, no festivals, no cattle, nor any kind of manufactures to keep their energies
alive. Riches they have none, their sole care being to keep body and soul together ; to
accomplish this, is with them their 'chief end;' they are compelled to traverse the
wilds often to a great distance from their native village. On such occasions, fathers
and mothers and all who can bear a burden, often set out for weeks at a time, and leave
their children to the care of two or more infirm old people. The infant progeny, some
of whom are beginning to lisp, while others can just master a whole sentence, and those
still farther advanced, romping and playing together, the children of nature, through
the livelong day, become habituated to a language of their own. The more voluble
condescend to the less precocious, and thus from this iufant Babel proceeds a dialect
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 149

composed of a host of mongrel words and phrases joined together without rule, and in

the course of a generation the entire character of the language is changed."

The Khonds are not so uncivilized a nation as these poor Balala ; in

social rank and in civilization they are rather like the Bechuanas from
whom the Balala spring. They too have their tribal meetings, their

consultations, and speeches : and thus a knowledge of the higher terms

in their language is preserved. But a change in the common language
must gradually take place in the course of years : the differences between

the expressions of the more distant tribes and those of the lower classes of
the people increasing to the greatest degree. Where there are no author-

ities to determine style in the choice of words, to define their pronunciation

and to maintain their grammatical relations, the wonder is not that such

changes are introduced into a language, but that it can for hundreds of
years maintain so many of its original forms and terms.
The Khond language remained unwritten till the people became known
to Europeans. During the Goomsur war some of the military officers
occasionally recorded some of the words in Oriya characters in order to
facilitate their intercourse with the people, when meeting them in the

markets below the ghats : or making known to them the wishes of Govern*

ment but no systematic

: effort could be made to study the language,
till the country had been well settled for some time. Dr. Cadenhead,
when Assistant in Khondistan, was, we believe, the first who made any en-
deavour to reduce it to Avriting and prepare for imparting information by
its means in the education of the people. Amongst other things he planned

the commencement of a translation of the New Testament. His residence

in the country was however too brief, and his engagements too onerous,
to allow him to devote much of his time to the important subject ; no
practical results followed from his plans, and he was unable to print any
thing before he left the Agency. The honour of first making a thorough
study of the language, of reducing it carefully to writing, of developing

its grammar and printing the first Khond book, belongs to Capt. Frye.
This able linguist after considerable intercom'se with the people, drew up
a vocabulary, a spelling book and other elementary works suitable for
the young, which were all received with great delight by the Merias in
the mission schools ; and was preparing other works when ill health
compelled him to leave the country. The Khond Grammar was naturally
expected from his pen ; but sickness delayed its appearance : and it was
recently drawn out by one of the Orissa missionaries."^

* In the Calcutta Christian Observer. May and June 1853.

 : : :

150 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

The language appears to be regular in its structure. A survey of its

roots and forms at once shews that it is not, like Oriya and Bengali, of
Sanskrit origin. It has a greater resemblance to the Telugu that is, to
;

the pure and original Telugu, freed from the admixture of Sanskrit. It is

therefore connected with the most ancient tongues of Southern India,

those of the aboriginal population, whose words, grammatical forms and
idioms pervade the Tamil and Telugu, the Canarese and jNIaleali, through-
out the Avhole of the Peninsula. Competent scholars too have declared
it to be the best specimen of an original Tartar tongue to be found in all

India. The conclusion is natural that the Khonds once occupied the
plains at the foot of their mountains, now held by the Oriyas in the north
and the Telugus in the south : and were driven from the lowlands, by
the irruption of the brahminical armies that hold the soil to this day.
In manners, customs and language, they greatly resemble the other hill

people Avho are their neighbours. Mr. Inglis says, they are like the
Sourahs on their south border, and the Koles on the north : and a friend
assured me that a description of their manner of life will extensively apply

to the Santals of the Bhagulpore hills. Who can wonder that with their
fierce spirit, freebooting has been a traditional custom among them, and
that they now delight in making forays upon those plains, from which
their forefathers were long since driven. May they not say like Rode-
rick Dim, as from their elevated homes above the ghauts, they survey
the lowlands of Orissa
" These fertile plains, that softened vale,
Were once the birthright of the Gael
The stranger came with iron hand.
And from our fathers rent the land.
Where dwell we now ? See rudely swell
Crag over crag, and fell o'er fell.

Pent in this fortress of the north,

Think'st thou we will not sally forth

To spoil the spoiler as we may.
And from the robber rend the prey?"

Here I cannot help hazarding the conjecture, based upon the existence
of these aborigines from the banks of the Ganges down to Cape Comorin,
that they have had much to do with peopling the islands of the South
Pacific. These islands, it is known, are occupied by two different races,

of which one is the Malay. The Malay Polynesians occupy the islands to

the eastward, the Navigators', Hervey, Marquesas and Society groups

and are of a fsir complexion. The other race occupies the great islands
 ;

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KIIONDS. 151

to the west, of Avliich New Caledonia and New Guinea are the chief: they
are of much darker complexion and have somcAvhat woolly hair. It seems
probable that the Malay Polynesians started from Burmah and Siam by
the Peninsula of Malacca, and thence made their way to the eastern Pa-
cific. Whence sprung those of the darker race, if not from the aborigines
of India ? Any one who has seen a band of Dhangor Kales cleaning the
streets of Calcutta will at once acknowledge their perfect resemblance to
the natives of New Guinea ; and that any one of the former people could
have stood as a model to Captain Erskine, for the sketches which he has
given of the latter, in his recent;^ work on the Pacific. JNIay it not then
be, that it was from the aborigines of India pushed forward by their Hindu
conquerors, that the iVrchipelago and Western Pacific received at least a
portion of their swarthy and barbarous population : and that coming last

they drove before them to the eastward such of the Malay-speaking

islanders, as they found already there?

THE KHOND RELIGION.

The Khonds, being ignorant, are excessively superstitious. All internal

diseases (the chief of which among them are fever, enteritis and small-
pox) are treated as the fruits of the displeasure of the deity. To effect a
cure no medicine whatever is taken, but various incantations are performed
by the priests. Tliey thoroughly believe in witchcraft, magic and sorcery :

and various punishments, even to death itself, are inflicted on those who
are supposed to injure others by magic arts. All tigers which kill men,
are considered to be men who, through the agency of a god, have trans-
formed themselves into the shape of that animal. Ugly old women are,

among them, as elsewhere, often set down as witches.

The Khonds, though a barbarous tribe, possess a religion ; though un-

like the mythology of their neighbours, the Hindus, theirs is rather
simple. They worship many inferior deities ; amongst whom several of the

Hindu gods and goddesses seem to find a place. But a few particular
deities occupy the chief share of their veneration, and are the chief objects
of their worship. The earth being the great source of subsistence to the
Khonds, they reckon the Earth-yoddess as one of these chief divinities

and the functions, attributed to her, are just such as express the fears and
desires of an agricultural people. As constant quarrels arise between the

tribes for the possession of land, it is natural that they shoidd have, like
the Romans, a god of boundaries, in order to define with the highest sane-
152 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

tions the borders of each tribe. The Sun and Moon from their position

and uses, are of course constant objects of worship. Continually engaged

in wars and feuds, they honoiu' most highly a god of war : every village

has a grove to him, wherein his appropriate symbol, a piece of iron, is

buried. Partly dependent on the chase for their support, they have a god

of hunting. Liable to the small-pox, they recognise, as the Hindus have

done, a god presiding over that disease and offer sacrifices to appease him
whenever it appears. Like causes have given rise to a Forest god, a god
of Rivers, another of Fountains : each hill and each hamlet have their
separate deities. Thus we see that the jcauses which gave rise to such
divinities in olden times, have produced them likewise among the Khonds.
" As face answereth to face in a glass, so doth the heart of man to man.'*

The priests among the Khonds form a distinct class, and they alone can

perform all the ceremonies appointed in public or private worship : at

bii'ths, sicknesses, marriages and deaths, they alone can officiate. They
receive no fees, and no rank : even their share of the land is tilled by
themselves : honour is professedly their only reward : but their very posi-
tion, as the leaders of superstition, cannot fail to give them a predominant
influence in the councils and proceedings of their tribes.

HUMAN SACRIFICES.

One particular of their worship, already alluded to, demands a special

mention. It forms a most important item in their opinions and practices,

and indeed is one of those essential points, whose influence is felt

throughout the whole framework of their society. The earth goddess,

on whose favour (as they think) their very subsistence depends, is worship-

ped with HUMAN SACRIFICES. " Oucc," it is Said, "the earth was an un-
stable mass, unfit for cultivation : the goddess said, ' Let human blood be

spilt,' and a child was sacrificed. The earth became fertile, and the god-

dess ordained that man should repeat the rite and live." By this legend

the sacrifice is dated from the very origin of agriculture, and the Khond
to the produce of his
believes that its continued observance is essential

food. Hence the pomp and ceremony with which it is celebrated.

These sacrifices are performed both publicly and privately. The public
sacrifices take place in the spring when the earth is sown, and at harvest,

when it is reaped : others also are offered while the crop is growing.

The occurrence of a great pestilence in society ; the ravages of wild beasts ;

or any thing which happens peculiarly unpropitious to the person, the

 ;:

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 153

family or tlie property of the various Patriarchs of the tribes, are all cir-

cumstances which call publicly for these dreadful offerings. They are
offered privately by a particular family for similar reasons : fear, not love,
prompting their performance.
The \dctims, which are of both sexes are known by the name of merias.
They are not native Khonds of the district where they are sacrificed ; but
are usually children from the plains or from distant localities. They
are procured by Hindus already mentioned as settlers
some of the servile

among the Khonds, viz. by those of the weaver caste. By the Khonds these
persons are called Dombango; by the Hindus, Panwa. Some of this class are
attached to every Khond village and perform various offices for the commu-
nity. They weave, trade in cloth and steal ; they are the public messengers
and musicians ; and are always employed to procure Meria victims. These
Merias they sometimes steal from the Oriyas ; sometimes they buy them ;
sometimes they get them from distant sections of the Khond themselves
in times of scarcity sometimes they get them from families of Pan was
;

like themselves ; and not unfrequently they sell their own children. Many
of the children that I saw in the Cuttack and Balasore schools were said
to be of this class : and two or three in Balasore are apparently Sontals.

The victims, when procured, are brought blindfold into the village where
they are to remain : those intended for public sacrifice are lodged in the
house of the abbaya. They are not immediately sacrificed ; but are kept and
fed with great care, it may be for several years. Males are sometimes
married to females like themselves, in which case their offspring are bom
to the parents' condition. In some cases they are married not long
before the sacrifice, and the marriage is merely nominal. If possible, the
actual position and prospects of these Merias are concealed from them ; so
long as they are unsuspicious and live contented in the family which has
charge of them, they are free and honoured : permitted to wander every
where and welcomed as sacred in every house. If however, they exhibit
any signs of fear or any desire to escape, they are chained up. One boy
in the Cuttack school who had been thus confined before the officers
delivered him, had a ring on his ancle, so tight that it could not be taken
off without being filed through. Another informed us, that being afraid
after seeing a sacrifice, he was told by the people with whom he lived
" Why should you fear ; nothing will happen to you^ you are our son
we shall never kill you." It is not easy, however, to keep such a matter
thoroughly secret for any length of time, and before the sacrifice at least,

it becomes openly known to the victims themselves.

X
154 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

The public sacrifices are always arranged hj the patriarch and the
priest. All the community gather together to celebrate them ; all feuds
are forgotten and all labour is laid aside. The manner in which the
sacrifice is performed appears to vary in certain details in different dis-

tricts ; but substantially it is the same in all. The great festival of the
year, called Tonki, occurs at the full month of Poush, about moon in the
the end of December it lasts for three days and the sacrifices are more
; ;

numerous than on other occasions. On the first day the whole commu-
nity give themselves up to feasting and riot. On the second, in one
district, as preliminary to the chief sacrifice, a victim is suspended by his
neck and heels lengthwise over a trench, is then gashed by the priest in
six places, then beheaded, and buried on the spot. In most places, how-
ever, on the second day, there is a grand procession. The appointed vic-

tim well dressed, is led forth to the Meria grove ; all the people, decked
out in their hill finery, with their bear skins and peacock feathers,
accompany it Avith drums, dancing, shouting, and singing some sacred
song, in which the victim is devoted to the earth-goddess. One
of these songs was sung before us by the Khond boys in the Cuttack
school : it contained among other things the following unmistakeable
announcement ;
" We have fed you long, we can support you no
more; to-morrow you Avill be cut to pieces." The second night is

passed, like the first day, in revelling and feasting. On the third day,
after a renewal of the rioting, the whole village bring the unhappy
Meria forth to the spot already pointed out by the priest as a propitious

one. A split bamboo is planted in the ground ; and the victim, quite
intoxicated and unconscious, is fastened within the cleft, either by the
throat or chest, the crowd standing eagerly round. On a given signal,
they rush on the wretched being, and with their knives and axes, cut out
small pieces from the living sufferer, taking care to avoid any vital parts,
until death takes place. The whole process occupies about twenty
minutes. Each piece cut from the victim is immediately carried by its

possessor to his fields and deposited in the earth. Great value is attached
to the first piece and a proportionate eagerness is evinced to obtain it.

Such is the account which we heard in Cuttack from the lips of a rescued
Meria, who had seen the sacrifice five times.
The numbei' of Merias yearly sacrificed before the British war in

Goomsur, must have been very large. It appears that nearly the whole
of Khondistan is more or less infected with the evil and that it prevails :

to the greatest extent in the districts most removed from the influence of
 ! ;

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 155

the East India Company. Not only the Malias above named, and which
are best known to the English, but Jeypore and the country southward
as far as the Godavery, are all involved in the awful crime. Westward
again by Bustar, the Klionds go far into Nagpore and into the state of
Hydrabad : and they have carried the rite with them. In Bustar it is

known that the sacrifices have been enormous. On one occasion about
the year 1826, when the llaja set out to visit the Raja of Nagpore
twenty-five grown men were all sacrificed at one time. In all this immense
extent of country stretching far away to the Avestward, not one voice
was ever raised against its horrid barbarity. A variety of causes also have
been allowed to call for this sacrifice. It is not only a single annual
festival, that demands its performance, but public and private calamities
of various kinds, in addition to the regular return of the seasons of sowing
and harvest, have been held to justify it. It would seem then that hun-
dreds of Merias have been annually required to meet this large denjand
and the great number, found on different occasions and given up to the
Government officers, confirm such a supposition. Three hundred have at
one time been brought away even from small districts. Thanks be to
God that this dreadful form of human guilt is now drawing to a close
The horrid rite of human sacrifice does not prevail throughout every
single district of the Kliond country. It seems that in the Malias below
the ghats it is not observed at all. In the northern Malias above the
ghats, that is, in Boad, the Bara and Atharo Mutas, in Hodzoghoro, it

seems very general ; as well as in some parts of Cliinna Kimedy, and also
in the unknown territories stretching far to the west. In the southern
districts, another practice pretty generally exists, of a different, but
not Less destructive kind, that of female infanticidi!:. Apparently the
latter custom has no reference to religious feeling or law : but finds its

root in the civil institutions of the people, especially in the expenses

connected with marriage, and the great freedom of divorce allowed to
the Khond wives. The Khonds of these districts always allege poverty as

the cause; as did the Rajputs of Upper and Western India, who till lately
practised a similar custom. A thousand children at least must have
been destroyed annually, in two or three of these districts alone. Whole
villages have been met with, without a single female child.

Such are the appalling facts, and such the horrid practices which were
revealed to the Government of India by its zealous officers, who super-
intended the Khond country : practises which existed unknovm and
unchecked, till less than twenty years ago, in a country within four
X 2
156 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

hundred miles distance of Calcutta. Some errors may have crept into

the description ; but these are the main features of the character and
habits of the Khond tribes. " It is no easy task/' says Col. Campbell

in his Report of 1819, "even in a civilized land, to glean from the more
intelligent members of the community a narrative of the origin and

progress of innumerable customs and observances, which are nevertheless

most rigidly and superstitiously adhered to ; how greatly is the difficulty
augmented, when we have to deal with a people, whose moral and intel-

lectual nature has yet to be developed." It is only after Europeans and

Natives from the plains have acquired the Khond language, or Khonds
have acquired Oriya or English, that all the details of their customs will
become fully and correctly known.

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TO SUPPRESS THESE RITES.

No sooner was the Government informed of the appalling enls existing

amongst these newly conquered barbarians, than they adopted measures
with a view to suppress them. And from the date of the first war
in Goomsur to the present time, they have continued an agency among
the Khonds, not merely for the purpose of promoting civil and social

order, but for checking and bringing to an end, if possible, the horrible
rites we have described. In this humane purpose of the Government,
every Christian heart must rejoice. How seldom has such a sight been
seen ! We have had in this country, and still have, cause of difference

with the Government for the position it occupies in some points, with

respect to religion, (such as its endowment of Jogonnath and its con-

nection with the idol temples in Bombay and Southern India ;) but its

benevolent efforts for the social welfare of the Khonds deserve from all
right-thinking men the highest praise. These efforts have been fully
described in successive numbers of the Calcutta Review, and numerous
extracts have been therein published from the official reports of the several
officers employed. It is from these extracts and others contained in a
pamphlet on the Khond Agency, that the following summary of their
measures has been compiled. It is impossible, in reading these reports, and
the orders which they called forth from the various Governments in India,
not to admire the deep interest taken by all concerned in the suppression
of these barbarous rites. Two officers of the jNIadras army have especially

distinguished themselves by their hearty zeal in this good cause. Both

have received the warm approbation of the Court of Directors and both
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 157

deserve the honour of the community at large. These officers are Colonel
Campbell and Capt. Macpherson.
The Hon. Mr. Russell^ Special Commissioner Goomsur
in the war, was
the first to bring the evils existing among the Khonds to the notice of
the Madras Government. In doing so, while he laid bare the facts of the
case, he acknowledged there were great difficvilties in the way of their re-

moval. He distinctly showed however that as the people knew so little of

the Government, coercion was out of the question ; that only slow and
gradual means could be employed; that an effort should be made to
convince them of our good intentions ; to treat them as friends, and then
to enlighten them as to the real character of their superstitious customs.

For the promotion of intercourse with them, he also recommended the

revival of the old markets, to be plentifully stocked with articles which
the Khonds desire. The Madras Government adopted these views,
and instructed the Collector in Ganjam to make further enquiry into
the matter ; to take all opportunities of convincing the chiefs of the
heinousness and folly of these practices, and to assure them that the
Government had determined to put them down. The first victims
rescued were saved by Captain Millar in the early part of 1837, while
the troops were serving in the country. With blunt candour he demanded
these victims and by force and intimidation compelled their surrender.
Seventeen others were given up to Mr. Russell. In December of the
same year, Capt. Campbell, finding the season of the great sacrifice draw-
ing near, proceeded to visit the Upper Malias of Goomsur, with the
distinct purpose of opposing its celebration. Having summoned the
heads of the different districts, he explained to them by an interpreter
the abhorrence of the Government at these rites ; endeavom'cd to convince
them of their barlmrity and inutility : and declared that the Government
would no longer allow the sacrifice, and peremptorily demanded all their

victims. He received after some trouble no less than 105. Oaths were
then taken from the chiefs after the Khond fashion, that their Meria
sacrifice should henceforth be at an end ; and that any one who per-
formed it should be deemed worthy of severe punishment. Capt.
Campbell sanguinely believed that in these Goomsur Malias, the sacri-

fice would henceforth cease. The following year he visited the Mutahs
again and reported that the sacrifices had greatly diminished in compari-
son with former times ; only three had been performed on the borders of
the districts. He also seized two notorious kidnappers, and sent them
for trial to Ganjam. At the same time, Mr. Bannerman, the Collector of
158 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

Ganjam, proceeded to a more southern portion of the Khond country,

the Mahas of Chinna Kimedy. He came upon the people in the very
midst of their ceremonies ; and ha\dng obtained the meria whom they
were about to sacrifice, stated it to be the determination of Government
that the rite should be performed no more. He also reasoned with them
about the heinousness of the crime they were committing and urged
them voluntarily to abolish it. With their usual independence of feeling
and manner, they at once replied ; That they owed no tribute and no
allegiance to the East India Company ; that the sacrifice was an old
custom : and that without it, their fields would yield no crops. They
also shewed themselves on all sides armed, and seemed half inclined to
attack the Collector and rescue their victim. He retreated however
successfully : and brought to Ganjam altogether nine merias.
The Klionds of Goomsur who had become the direct subjects of the

British Government, enjoyed a peculiar advantage above their country-

men. In their superintendent, they had a central and controlling head,

able to hear and settle the endless disputes and feuds which arose among
them ; and which till that time, under their own system, no authority
among themselves could finally determine. One or two most important
cases arose very soon after Capt. Campbell received charge of the pro-
vince, and were satisfactorily settled. So sensible were the people of the

value of this reference, that they constantly brought their disputes, from
trifling matters up to blood-feuds, before Capt. Campbell, and when his
cold-weather tour among the hills was finished, they followed him with
the same object to the plains.
These measures were steadily maintained during the next two years.
Peace prevailed in the Goomsur and Surada Malias. The confidence
of the people in their new government increased. They continued to

bring to the agent their boundary disputes and the endless quarrels
produced by their women : and they attended in large numbers the
fiiirs opened for their use. Capt. Campbell also continued to visit

the districts above the ghats ; especially at the important seasons of

the great sacrifice, and to argue with the chiefs and people against its

continuance. Nor were his visits by any means The people,

fruitless.

however unconvinced, were at least over-awed, and the number of

sacrifices openly performed was decidedly lessened. He found, however,

when visiting Upper Goomsur Khonds Avere

in January, 184<1, that the

still much attached to the old system,

and though no public sacrifices had

been made since the British troops entered the country, yet twenty-four
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 159

victims had been purchased during the year 1840. This circumstance
cannot be regarded as unnatural ; a superstition believed to lie at the
very root of social prosperity, and observed unbroken for ages, was not
to be eradicated in four years, with no greater coercion than the brief
imprisonment of a few kidnappers ; especially when all the neighbouring
districts sacrificed merias without let or hinderance. The subsidiary

agency allowed to the officials Avas of a very imperfect kind. The time
subtracted from other duties for attention to the one great evil was but
small : their visits, owing to deficiency of carriage, were few and beset with
obstacles : while one great means of bringing the Khonds into constant

intercourse with the lower districts, viz. the road through Goomsur to
Sohnpur was not even begun. Effbrts were almost entirely confined
to a single district. The Government of Madras dreading another
collision with the barbarous tribes, acted timidly : and while Capt.
Campbell was urging that measures should be taken for abolishing the

Boad and Cliinna Kimedy, as well as Goomsur, no notice was

rites in

taken of his appeal. At length, however, after repeated representations

from Capt. Campbell that additional means must be employed, on the
recommendation of Lord Elphinstone, amongst other plans, an officer

was appointed to survey the line of a road through the hill tracts and to
raise a body of hill Paiks as a semi-military police. His whole time was
to be devoted to the subject : and better means of carriage, with a separate

establishment, were allowed him than his predecessors had enjoyed.

Immediately after Capt. Campbell aocompanied his Regiment to China,
and Capt. Macpherson received the appointment he vacated, with the
increased powers and more efficient agency mentioned.
The important districts of Boad and Duspalla, lying to the north of
Goomsur, did not share in the eflbrts we have now described. Being
under the jurisdiction of tlie Bengal Government, they were superintended
by other officers. In 1837, Mr. Ricketts, the Commissioner of Cuttack,
marched through them both and having ascertained the existence of the
sacrifices amongst their inhabitants, he demanded from the Khonds of
Duspalla, the surrender of their Merias. For this purpose he summoned
the Raja and the Khond Chiefs : and having spent days in reasoning with
them upon the wickedness of the practice, induced them to sign a paper,
engaging to give them up and confessing that any who should perform
them again would be justly liable to punishment. Mr. Ricketts next
visited the chief Khonros of the Boad hills ; but they, being more inde-
pendent and less afraid of punishment, declined to sanction either the
 :

160 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

surrender of victims or any engagements for the future abolition of the

sacrifice. Mr. Ricketts brought away in all 24? merias. At a later
period, Mr. Ricketts's successor despatched a native officer with a small
guard^ into the same districts, in order to demand the surrender of merias
and report on the present state of these rites. He brought away eight
children, but reported that the Boad chiefs, though they attended his
summons, refused to give up seventeen victims whom they acknowledged
to be in their possession. In 1844 Lieut. Hicks, the Commissioner's
Assistant, visited the two districts again, arrested one of the kidnappers,
and succeeded in rescuing twenty-five merias. He also met the Khond
chiefs and induced twenty-six of them to renew their agreement that the
inhuman rite should be abolished. It was with great reluctance, and
only after long delay, that many of the chiefs consented to visit him
and when urged on the best grounds to abstain from their sacrifices, they

only replied that they were ceremonies received from their ancestors.
The year following, Mr. Hicks repeated his visit, which in Duspalla
apparently had the best efiect. It was found that the rite was losing its

publicity and was perceptibly on the decline : the customary processions

were omitted and secrecy was courted in its celebration. The Boad
chiefs, however, he found as obstreperous as before, and almost inclined
to drive him from the country by force. Entering one of the districts, by
a most precipitous and formidable pass, he found that the people had
all fled; the few chief men, who presented themselves, came to him
intoxicated ; and it was only after many refusals on their part, that he
succeeded in bringing away twelve victims. He learned however with

satisfaction that even amongst these fastnesses of Boad, the revolting

sacrifice had been considerably checked only thirteen victims had been
:

sacrificed, where formerly hundreds had been slaughtered, and that here

also the rite had been performed in private that the perpetrators might
not be known.
A third series of Khond districts, farther west along the Mohanadi

river,were under the jurisdiction of the South Western Agency in Bengal.

Col. Ouseley, hearing that numerous merias were held by the people in
the Zemindaries of Sohnpore, Patika and other estates, sent prompt
orders to the Rajas who governed them to send all merias to him
instantly ; to give notice of all persons who retained them or purposed to

sacrifice them ; and to inform the Khond chiefs under their jurisdiction
that all who should sacrifice for the future were liable to be hanged. He
however expressed his fear that owing to the seclusion of the Khonds
 :

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KIIONDS. 161

amongst their jungles and fastnesses, to their comparative independence

of the Raja's authority, and to the distance of his agency from the dis-
tricts where they resided, this plain order would be but little obeyed.
What was the result of Col. Ouseley's efforts, and whether they have
been continued by his successors, I am unable to say.

Such were the early measures adopted by the Governments of Madras

and Bengal for the suppression of the dreadful Meria sacrifice : and such
the kind of success which their plans met with during the first few years.
Begun in the upper Malias of Goomsur, and its several mutahs, they
had been continued there for four successive years : and partially extend-
ed to Chinna Kimedy. Boad and Duspalla had been really visited for
only two seasons with any thing like a persevering determination to put
the evil down. Immense tracts of country, and numerous branches of
the Khond tribes, had not been visited at all. Some of the effects of these
visits had been immediate : and some had an influence upon the practice
of the rite which would be exhibited only in future years. The first
result of the Government enquiries was to reveal the actual fact of the
Mcria sacrifice, the ground on which it was maintained by the people,
and the revolting barbarities with which it was accompanied. Then, the
deeper the enquiry went, and the greater the variety of the modes of
investigation, the more appalling did the sacrifice appear, from the im-
mense extent of territory over which it was celebrated unchecked ; its

perpetrators ignorant of its dreadful heinousness, and its victims every

where awfully numerous. Then too did men learn the many difficulties

by which the efforts to suppress it were surrounded. It became evident

that the Khonds who had first learned the might of the Government in
a disastrous war, and were ignorant of the humane principles by which
these eftbrts were suggested, were suspicious of all interference with their
peculiar customs, and doubted the motive by which the rite had been so
earnestly attacked. Endued with the warmest love for liberty, they

feared, in these efforts, underhand attempts to bring them into complete po-
litical subservience to this new Power around them. It was seen also that
their political relations to the Government were unfavourable to the decided
measures which their case seemed to require. In only one case, was the
East India Company a direct ruler, in the districts of Goomsur: in others,
there was a Raja over the Khonds, who paid a small tribute to him
while he alone had any direct dealings with the Government. Far to
the west, other districts were even more independent than these. Again^
y
 :

163 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

the physical difficulties in the way of the Agent's progress were

very great. The passes from the plains to the JNIalias above the ghauts

are few and hard to travel : the districts are cut off from each other, by

lines of hills^ precipitous valleys, and immense tracts of forest and jungle :

in some cases, as in Boad, the routes could be entirely closed, the valleys

blockaded, and all intercourse with other parts brought to an end. Ma-
laria and fever are very prevalent at some times of the year ; the heat

and rain are obstacles at other times ; so that the period of each year in

which Europeans could safely visit the hills was reduced to a very limited
time. Added to these things was the fact that all the agents employed
were amply engaged in other duties and that but little leisure could be

spared from them, to devote their attention to the important work of

saving merias and humanizing their barl^arous sacrificers. Happily these
difficulties were not all insurmountable : they did not therefore prevent

all good : they served to call forth the zeal, energy and self-denial of all

eno-ao-ed in the good work : so that in spite of all disadvantages attempts

were made to meet the evil and to meet it with success.

The good really effected during the few years mentioned can scarcely
be reckoned small. In addition to the knowledge acquired of all the

circumstances that had to be dealt with ; two hundred and forty victims
had actually been rescued and safely placed under Government protection.
Eepeated conferences had been held with the Khond Chiefs in which ;

principles of humanity had been expounded, the revolting nature of their

sacrifices explained, the horror of the Government at their cruelty been

declared and all had been informed in the plainest terms that the Go-
vernment had determined to have them abolished. Such explanations
were indeed but steps towards that suppression, but they were absolutely
required for a clear understanding of the proceedings of Government, about
which the Khonds were suspicious. They had also an immediate effect

upon the people, in checking the sacrifice, which till then they had never
hesitated to perform this gratifying result is shewn in several ways.
;

First the sacrifices became much more private : secondly ; they became

less numerous : and thirdly ; the people were inspired with a wholesome

fear of punishment for what had now been declared to be wrong. I quote

two very interesting illustrations of this last fact from the statements of
rescued children. They reveal several painful elements in the private

preliminary history of these horrid crimes ; as well as exhibit the influence

of the Agents' visits

 ;

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 163

" Deposition of Susta, of Boad, aged about twelve yeais.

" About three years ago, Rotna Panwa, of Putka in Boad, sold me, for I know not

what sum, to Sugaib MuUick Khund. He had previously brought my mother to live
with him. I went with her he then kidnapped me. I was employed in fetching wood.
;

Last October, the paiks of the village in which I was, went to call the priest to sacri-

fice me, but the priest would not attend. He told them to wait until all the Govern-

ment servants had left the district, and then he would sacrifice me. There was no other
meria in the village but myself. Upon the occasion of sending for the ])riest, I first

knew of the human sacrifices. My mother is still alive. The man who sold me, I

have heard since my release, has died. I beg to be sent to my mother, who is in Ulut
in Boad. «

" Deposition of Subdee, ax/ed fifteen years, of Duspulla.

" About five years ago, my father and mother went to Patka in Boad, for the pur-

pose of getting mangoes, as it was a time of scarcity ; they took me with them and ;

when in the jungle at that place, Peenka Panwa, of that village, took me away and sold
me to Gobur Naik, who employed me in fetching wood. Two months ago 1 was cover-
ed with turmeric, and then I heard from the villagers that I was intended for a
* meria.' The villagers sent for one Ruthee Gooroo, a priest, but he refused to
come, as the Government servants were in the district and had forbidden the
custom."

Beyond these direct results of their interference^ the Government

officers had acquired valuable experience respecting tlie greatness of the
evils to be dealt Avith^ the difficulties to be encountered in suppressing
them, and the means demanded for their removal. The measures sue:-

gested by them for the future^ in order to attain a more secure, speedy
and complete suppression of the meria sacrifice, were both direct and
indirect.

1. The indirect were such as would remove obstacles to the exercise

of more extended influence, and would aid in humanizing and civilising

the barbarous people. They Avere measures calculated to secure in-

creased intercourse with people of better habits and better views of the
laws which govern society at large. For this end it was essential to

have good and easy roads formed through the various districts ; a difficult
work, owing to the precipitous passes which shut ort' some localities, and
the dense forests which covered others. Capt. Campbell suggested that
the chief road should be formed, from Aska near Ganjam, up the Koor-
minghia pass, and across the districts of Gomsur and Boad to Sohnpore
on the Mohanadi. This is the high road from the coast into Nagpore
and as it would run through the very heart of Khondistan and Avould carry
immense traffic both to and from the sea coast, it would not only prove
Y 2
164 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

of the greatest use to the Khond trade, but would bring the hill tribes

into constant communication with the plains. For the same reasons it

was recommended by Capt. Hicks, that a similar road should be formed

leading from Cuttack through Duspalla and Boad^ up the Burmiil pass,
then almost impracticable. In all the districts other roads might be
opened, leading from the main routes. Thus trade would be carried on
with ea?e, the people of different districts b*e no longer isolated, commu-
nications be secured both with Nagpore and the sea coast ; and best of
all, unity be imparted to the various branches of agency among the Khonds
which they had never yet enjoyed! It was also suggested that markets
should be maintained, and fairs established, for the purpose of facilitating

and that they should be amply stocked with all the articles which
trade,

the Khonds are anxious to buy. It was proposed also that a body of

Khond police should be raised and permanently maintained in the Goom-

sur territory, in order to keep the peace. The value of these measures

as subsidiary to the higher purposes of maintaining political and social

order, of humanizing the wild people, and above all, of suppressing the

dreadfd rites of their cruel religion, will be readily acknowledged. It

must be regretted however that several of them, especially the completion

of the great routes, were not accomplished for several years ; and thus
the other plans of the Government were needlessly impeded in their
progress.

2. The most important question which arose from the experience

of the first few years, related to the principle on which direct measures
for the abolition of the meria sacrifices and infanticide should be based.
By all the Government officers, who were men of judgment and well

acquainted with the country, the case was felt to be exceedingly difficult.
Here was a barbarous people, extremely ignorant of the Government,
extremely ignorant of the first principles of true morality, engaged in

the constant commission of the most brutal murders, without one thought
of their heinousness, and convinced that by their means they were secur-
iu"- the favour of the gods and the friiitfulness of the soil. These people
were to be taught the real character of their rites and to be induced
entirely to abolish them. Was the Government to turn missionary, and

strive to get rid of the evil merely by producing an entire change in the

moral and religious opinions of the Khonds ? Or was it to turn despot,

issue an ukase, denouncing the sacrifices, and despatch a military force
to crush the rite with bullets and the sword ? Or was it, in assuming the
rule of the country, to recognise the sacrifices as murders, and steadily
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 165

piinisli the perpetrators with imprisonment and death. It was felt that
something must be done, and done on system, to meet the evil as exten-

sively as it existed : and accordingly from the first, the local officers in

submitting their own views of the matter, asked direction from their
respective superiors as to the rule by which they were to act.
a. On one point all the officers were agreed. All rejected as
impracticable and cruel, the despotic plan of crushing the system by
bullets. All felt that the ignorance of the people claimed compassion,
and that the kindest persuasion must be employed to induce them vo-
luntarily to abstain from their repeated cruelties. All felt that justice
and mercy alike required that the most earnest endeavours should be
made to convince the people of their guilt ; to explain the true nature

of their human sacrifice ; to exhibit its brutality, its cruelty, its utter
uselessness ; to shew how those who did not sacrifice, fared in their har-
vest as well as those who did : that the people of the plains also needed
no such dreadful rites to secure the harvests by which they are fed,

and that on the contrary, such sacrifices are horrid crimes which alike
meet with the reprobation of men and with the anger of an offended God.
Such persuasions therefore were oft'ered from the very first, and such
considerations were laid before the Khoud assemblies, year after year, to
convince them that their rites were both wrong in themselves and in-
jurious in their results.
b. But this was not all. The various officers of Government, civil
and military, were agreed also that some degree of force must be used in
its suppression. All were agreed that the sacrifice should be treated as a
crime, and that those engaged in it, either as principals or accessaries,
should not only be declared worthy of punishment, but have that punish-
ment inflicted upon them. This suggestion was a most natural one.
Even in the professing church of Christ, which occupies the highest
stand of morality, the motives to holiness embrace not only the love and
gratitude due to the Redeemer, but appeal also to the fear of his punish-
ment and the rebuke of fellow-christians. In the most civilized com-
munities all great vices and crimes are checked, and the cause of
order sustained, by inflicting punishment upon offenders. At this
very time, the burning of a Suttee, human sacrifice at Kalighat,
the sacrifice of a child at Gunga Sagor, are all crimes in the eye of
the law, and are punished as deliberate mm-ders. The (iovcrnment
of India regards these acts, though professedly religious, as crimes

against society ; and not content with mere persuasion, endeavours by

166 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

the effect of punishment to suppress them. The officers in Khondistan

wished the same rule to be promulgated among the Khonds. The Go-
vernment was however timid in so soon declaring an extensive custom a
public offence^ and it was years before even the kidnappers were openly
and regularly dealt with, as men guilty of acknowledged crime. The
difficulty lay in securing to the Government sufficient authority to en-

force a law that should forbid the sacrifice by inflicting such punishment
for it as the law might threaten. Ultimately such authority was
secured by the experience of a second war in all the Hill tracts of Boad
and Goomsur ; and the fears of the people have since compelled them to
yield obedience to the law, accompanied as the penalties have been, by
constant endeavours to convince them of the real heinousness of the for-
bidden crime. Lord Auckland thus concisely expressed the two princi-
ples on which it was proposed to conduct the Khond Agency, and by
which all civilized Societies are practically governed :

" The working of a moral change among the people by the progress of general in-
struction and consequent civilization, can alone eradicate from among them the
inclination to indulge in rites so horrible. But though the entire suppression of the

practice of human sacrifice among this wild and barbarous race must be the work of
time, yet much may be done even now, and no proper exertion should be omitted
towards checking the frequency of the crime by the terror of just punishment."

The best plan was however adopted to meet the difficulties which the
case presented. Goomsur was made the basis of all operations against
the sacrifices. In Goomsur the war had occurred, its people knew the
force which the Government could command, when it liked and Goom- :

sur was directly under Government authority. In this important

country therefore thus impressed, the work was begun, and had steadily
continued ; considerable success was attained : and a foundation laid for

extending efforts into the other provinces. The work of abolition was
immense, and patience and perseverance were required in the measures
adopted to secure it.

In the commencement of 1842, Captain Macpherson succeeded Major

Campbell, as principal assistant in Khondistan. He was in many ways,
eminently qualified to succeed that distinguished officer. Possessed of
great energy, and great abihty, he had applied himself for a considerable
time to the study of Khond affairs : and had recently presented to the
Madras Government an elaborate Report upon the subject of the country
and customs of the people. This Report is exceedingly interesting, and
gives a remarkably clear and complete account of the habits, and man-
 :

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 167

ners ; the tribal relations^ the government, and rehgion of the Khonds.
All the subsequent Reports presented to Government by their author
are distinguished by the same power of analysis and the same clear and
forcible language. In entering upon the duties of his important office,

Capt. Macpherson adopted a peculiar theory as to the best mode of in-

ducing the Khond tribes to give up the sacrifices which had so long
prevailed among them. It is often repeated in his valuable Reports,
and is so different to the plan adopted by missionaries for civilizing as
well as converting idolatrous nations, that it is worth while to say a few
words respecting it. Capt. Macpherson entirely repudiated in these
efforts of the Government any resort to force on a large scale ; though
like others he fully allowed that at the right time the sacrifice must be
declared a crime, and those who engage in it, especially the procurers of
every class, must be subjected to severe punishment. His clear intellect

however saw that to secure the efficient execution of such a law, it was
necessary to obtain strong authority for the Government, and a spirit of
obedience to that authority on the part of the people. This authority he
hoped to secure in several ways. The personal influence of the agents
had already been exerted for it, and should be so still : influence acquired
by free intercourse with the tribes, and by the exhibition of a deep interest
in their welfare. Grants of laud from the wastes of Goomsur and Boad
might be made to those of the people who had little or none of their own.
On the chief Patriarchs might be bestowed a home in the low country, that
they might familiarise themselves with the customs and notions of the
plains. Grants of money and cattle, titles of honour, and privileges
might also be given to deserving chiefs. They might be appointed to
various offices in the public service ; a body of troops also might be raised
in the country. The chief means however which he proposed to employ
in drawing the regard of the tribes upon the Government was the ad-
ministration of justice, which amongst themselves, they were ill able to
enforce. He thought that if the Government gave them this boon, the
tribes would exercise confidence in the Government, and allow it to
exercise authority in return. That is, out of gratitude for securing them
justice, the tribes would give up a measure of their loved independence,

and in obeying the Government orders, even surrender their long cherish-
ed sacrifices. In this way these sacrifices would eventually be aboKshed.
This theory at first sight looks well, being both ingenious and novel
but it is fairly open to criticism. In the first place it hopes to obtain a
great effect from a small cause. Religious feelings are the strongest of
168 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

all human impulses ; and religious practices are more tenaciously adhered
to than any others. Liberty and independence among the Khonds are

most highly prized. Justice was no doubt a want among them : but it

would be felt only by individuals in times of dispute : and the administra-

tion of it, even by the best courts, contains too many defects to be attractive
even to the most civilised community. The love of liberty, and the love
of the sacrifice were universal ;
yet it was hoped that this complete inde-
pendence and this exercise of a universally practised rite, would be set

aside for the boon of justice, which only individuals, at various times,
would need. Again : gratitude is a Christian virtue, and even when felt

towards God by his own children, is far from securing that perfect obe-
dience which he requires. To expect it then from a Khond for such a
benefit, and to expect it, when his ancient superstitions were in the
way, was to secure certain disappointment. Besides, the authority per-

mitted to the Government, and the obedience consequently paid by the

tribes, were to be voluntarily tendered. On the one hand, it would take
a long time before the independent tribes would surrender their liberty :

and on the other, they would be prepared to throw off such allegiance
whenever they were displeased with the proceedings of Government.
That this consideration is a sound one, is proved by the fact that the
tribes in Boad actually did resist the agent in the case of their sacrifices

and retook their merias from him by force. Lastly, the theory was really
inapplicable to the only part of the country where it was tested for more
than a short time, viz. Goomsur. In Goomsur the tribes could not
tender to Governmeiit an allegiance which it had already won by the
conquest of the country. The administration of justice on the part of
the Government was also not a boon, but a duty which it owed to the

tribes, and which, as such, had been performed by Capt. Campbell for

four years, as a part of his official labours. Apart too from all these consi-
derations, it is a lamentable fact, that the theory was utterly ruined by
the native members of the Agency. By their bribes and extortions, they

so perverted justice, that they became personally the objects of intense

hatred, and the occasions of a lamentable and disastrous war.
Capt. Macpherson however, was no mere theorist. Thoroughly inter-
ested in the welfare of the people, whose habits he had studied for years,
and deeply anxious to aid in totally suppressing the horrible meria sacri-

fice, he conducted his Agency and discharged his important duties with
energy, fidelity and zeal. He saw clearly that the best way to root out

the evil was to secure for the Government a greater amount of autho-
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. IG9

rity than it then enjoyed, and a more complete submission to its will

than the people had yet given ; and both by his personal influence, and
by his devotion to the good order of the tribes, endeavoured as far as he
could to obtain the desired ends. His first visit was paid to the non-
sacrificing districts of Goomsur, and the districts in which female infan-
ticide was practised. Returning to the plains, he summoned to his office

at Nowgaum the chiefs of the Bara and Atharo Mutahs, and strongly
urged on them the propriety of totally abolishing the bloody rites to

which they were still clinging. He at the same time assured them that
the Government was determined on the abolition, and so long as they
were obedient to its authority, would, as a duty, give them justice and
protection. The chiefs then renewed to Capt. Macpherson the pledge
which they had previously given to Major Campbell. On visiting their

villages the following year, Capt. Macpherson found that only four sacri-

fices had been publicly performed ; although the longings of the people
were evinced by the fact that numerous merias continued to be purchased
and reserved for future opportunities. Of these, no less than one hundred
and twenty-four, who were valued at twelve thousand rupees, were sur-
rendered, and taken to Ganjam. In Chinna Kimedy and Boad, the
districts that had been little visited, the sacrifices continued to be nu-
merous.
In 1844, Capt. Macpherson brought away one hundred and forty-two
victims from Upper Goomsur; and again received pledges from the
Kliond chiefs that the sacrifice should be discontinued. It is however,

to be regretted that, on misrepresentations made by his subordinates, he

was led to recommend the removal and imprisonment of Sam Bisaye,

the Federal head of the Goomsur Malias : and, as a consequence, found
the district of Hodzoghoro, where the old chief lived, in great dissatis-
faction and disorder. The ^arae year, he renewed his eSbrts to secure

the abolition of infanticide in Suradah and Pondacole, and finding a

deficiency of women in the tribe, gave to various individuals in marriage,
fifty-three of the female merias whom he had saved from Goomsur. He
gave them as wards of Government, hoping that their husbands would,
from their relation to the Government, have nothing to do with the cruel
practice that had hitherto prevailed. It was subsequently found however,
that the girls, which sprang from these marriages, were all destroyed !

The usual visit above the ghauts was paid, in the commencement of
1845, by Dr. Cadenhead, the able Assistant of the Agency ; Capt. Mac-
pherson having visited Calcutta in order to expedite the passing of an
z
170 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THK KHONDS.

Act for putting all the Khond districts under one system of management
Dr. Cadenhead reported that there still existed among the great body of
the people an intense longing to return to their old customs. They said

that theyhad appointed chiefs wlio might represent the matter to the
Government and secure permission for them to sacrifice again this :

had been in vain ; and they were wishing to appoint others who might
further their cause more effectually. They were assured, however, that

such a permission the Government could not give. This was the only
point on which the people were dissatisfied. The country, said they, is

happy : but the Government has not yet permitted the sacrifices.

In February, 1846, a new district was brought within the range of the
Agent's operations. Capt. Macpherson in that month proceeded to the

Boad Malias, and after a short delay induced the Khonds to surrender
one hundred and seventy merias. But the infamous extortions and
corrupt practices of the native members of the Agency, which had long
drawn towards them the dislike of the people, had become so bad, that
the Khonds of Boad hastily jumped to the conclusion, that the
Government intended not only to take the victims, which had been
surrendered, but to subdue their country and punish the chief men for

having sacrificed in former years. A mob at once rose to arms and

demanded the victims back, declaring that in future they would give no
more. The whole district fell into disorder, and the opposition to the

Government was organized under four leading chiefs. Chokra Bisaye

came from XJngool and attached all the people closely to himself and
;

the chiefs, by promising that he would secure perfect freedom for the
sacrifice in futm'e. Thence the uproar spread into Goomsur, and a twelve-
month after to the Malias below the ghauts. Troops were therefore
moved once more above the hills proclamations were issued against the
;

Boad chiefs and Chokra Bisaye and the J^gent felt himself compelled
;

to ravage various tracts, with all their villages and depots of grain. The
conduct of military operation^ was committed to General Dyce, and after
much loss on the part of the people, by the most conciliating, but firm
proceedings of the Government, the rebellion was brought to a close.
Such resistance on the part of the Khonds cannot be deemed unnatural.
They had seen the firmness Avith which their English masters had for

eight years adhered to their resolution of abolishing their beloved sacri-

fices. They had submitted in sullen silence, but had, year by year, given

unequivocal proofs that they had not been convinced by the Agents'
arguments, and still thought the sacrifices a desirable privilege. Boad,
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. I7l

being more independent and having never felt the military power of the
Government, naturally rose in rebellion on the first attempt to take
victims on a large scale : and the chiefs openly avowed that they did so
in order to thwart the designs of Government. While the extortions of
the native officers must in some respects be regarded as the occasion of the
outbreak, the love of the sacrifices was clearly its real cause. It ulti-

mately proved a good : the people were compelled to feel that the Govern-
ment had ample power to enforce its decrees, and that those decrees
must be obeyed. It is right to add that the three guilty natives who
had so abused their trust and misled their superior, were severely
punished ; and that Sam Bisaye, the Patriarch of Goomsur, whom by
lies they had injured, was restored to his office and his home.
On the re-establishment of peace, Capt. Macpherson retired, and the
Government placed the Khond Agency once more in the hands of Colonel
Campbell, by whom its operations had been first conducted. Col.
Campbell has retained it till the present time and has carried out its

great objects to a most successful issue. His first visit was to the district

of Boad, where, on several grounds, the re-possession of the surrendered

victims was imperatively required. Col. Campbell made a thorough
examination of the whole country; traversing districts, unvisited by
Europeans, by the most difficult and circuitous routes he thus ; laid a secm-e

foundation for future operations, and destroyed any lingering hope among
the chiefs that the Government were half-hearted in abolishing the sacrifice.

The number of victims obtained was 235, of whom 120 had been taken
from Capt. Macpherson. Next season, operations were commenced in
Chinna Kimedy, and the subjected kindly but most firmly pressed upon
the people 206 victims were given up.
: In Boad none were sacrificed
that year; and on the Agent re-^dsiting its chiefs, a hundred merias
were given up to him. The number of merias saved in 1848 and
total

1849 amounted to no less than 547 all of them from districts where
:

the abolition had scarcely been begun. In his Report for the latter year.
Col. Campbell has described so clearly his method of procedure, and the
results which it produced, that we quote one or two of its most interest-

ing passages, in order that he may speak for himself:

" From the very first, I openly and in the most plain and intelligible manner
proclaimed the chief design of my appearance among them. Without any disguise
or circumlocution, I told them that the Government had sent me for the sole and
avowed purpose of putting au end for ever to the inhuman and barbai'ous murders

yearly perpetrated by them, and if needful, of enforcing the cession of all the victims
z 2
 ;

172 ROA^ERNMEXT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

held in possession, and destined to die this cruel death. All their other ancient
usages, I impressed upon them, would be strictly respected : the Government was
anxious to befriend them, and willing to assist them. If any were suffering oppres-
sion, redress should be afforded, and justice meted out with an impartial hand
but this Meria sacrifice, this inhuman practice, must at once and for ever be laid
aside.
" Daily and almost hourly were these wild mountaineers of Chinna Kimedy
assembled in my Camp. I weai'ied both the Khouds and myself with every argu-
ment I could think of, to induce them to desist from a practice, cruel and guilty
in the eyes of God and man. I very especially directed their attention to the
fertile districts human blood is shed to appease
of Sarunguddah and Degi, where no
a sanguinary god. own law of a life for a life/
I recalled to their minds their '

and challenged them to gainsay, if they could, its justice, when applied to their own
practice of slaying their fellow-creatures. I related at length how the Circar had
traversed over Goomsur and Boad; had swept away every meria from those
countries, and utterly abolished the revolting ceremony, I told them how their
brethren in those neighbouring hills had most solemnly pledged themselves never
again to sacrifice a human being, and how abundantly they had prospered in house
and field since abstaining from the rite ; but above all I emphatically declared, in
terms most plain and intelligible, the firm and unalterable resolve of the Great
Circar, at all risks to stop these atrocious murders. I did not for one moment
profess to regard their abominable custom as a '
deplorable eiTor,' but I made
known in sufficiently expressive language, that the rite was an odious and an
outrageous crime.
" From Chinna Kimedy I proceeded into the Boad Hills, where my Assistant

Captain Macvicar had been travelling for some time : the results of his visits

having already been communicated, no minute detail is necessary.

" The entire abolition of the rite of human sacrifice which so recently prevailed
throughout the extensive Mafias of Boad is a subject of sincere congratulation.
Not one drop of blood has been shed this year on the altar of their barbarous
superstition nor was there manifested in any quarter the least disposition to break
;

the pledge of abstinence which they had vowed last year. The whole of these
hills have been traversed, and the same pleasing results exhibited in every quarter,
" In the Boad country we need in the first place to be most thankful to God,
whose bountiful harvest, bestowed upon the Khonds, so powerfully and mercifully
seconded our efforts to His hand too we owe it that, during the year, the Khonds
:

enioyed immunity from all but the most ordinary sickness and next we may ascribe :

much of our success to the felt and acknowledged power of the Government to
enforce its will ; that will having been openly and unreservedly, without the slight-

est compromise or hesitation, and in the most straight-forward manner, declared to

the Khouds, wherever and whenever they were met by myself or my
Assistant,

and proclaimed universally throughout the country. There was no cautious inqui-
sition as formerlyrecommended, but the glaring fact was dealt with as an enormity
which the Government neither would nor could longer suffer to continue to exist.
I mention this prominently, because the success which has attended our labours in
 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG TUB KIIONDS, 173

Boad and elsewhere, conclusively demonstrates the advantage of a firmer, bolder,

and more determined line of policy, than vi^as deemed prudent in the days of our
earlier connection with these hills.

"AVhen the present generation, and perhaps their children, shall have passed
away : when, through the medium of schools, and other modes of civilization, such
as roads, fairs, the introduction among them of better implements of labour, teaching
them improved methods of clearing and irrigating the ground, &c. we shall have
been able to change the current of their thoughts and feelings, and to direct them
into a better channel, I shall have some hopes of their being as fully convinced iu
their hearts, of the utter folly, uselessness, and sinfulness of the meria sacrifice,

as they now are of the impossibility of performing it save at a risk, which they
most wisely prefer to avoid. They are not insensible either to the advantages
which flow from the friendship of the Circar, and would not willingly forego
them.
" We must therefore maintain the ground we have now won ; the triumph in
Boad has so far been complete but ; care and cautious watchfulness must still be exer-
cised. If then a vigilant supervision is kept up over Goomsur and Boad, we may
most fairly and reasonably conclude, that the sacrifice of human victims is for ever

at an end ; but I have been most anxious that there should be no misunderstanding
as to the real extent of our labours, or of the grounds upon which the suppression
of the rite actually rests ; hence I have continued my observations to a length
which I hope will be forgiven.
" I would also respectfully observe that I have not alluded to the great precursor

of civilization, the Gospel ; not because I am insensible to its fitness for these wild
races (who have no predilection for brahmins) but simply because it is not within
the province of the Government of India, to introduce any Agency of the kind.
I may however with propriety express the hope that, in due season, these poor
savages will be visited by the teachers of a higher and purer wisdom than that
of man."

Similar measures were adopted in Suradah and the districts where

infanticide was practised : the folly and wickedness of the practice were
pointed out, and the determination of the Government to punish offenders
publicly announced. Colonel Campbell however, felt the great difficulty
of meeting this peculiar evil. He says :

"Until then, we shall be enabled to establish village Schools, and introduce other
wholesome measures for the moral elevation of this people ; the best means of
stemming the torrent appear to me to consist in maintaining a constant intercourse

and paying occasional visits ; always insisting on seeing the children and visiting
with various marks of displeasure the Chiefs of those villages where the relative
number of the sexes is so disproportionate as to leave no doubt of the destruction
of the females ; while on the other hand, the preservers of their infants will be
specially rewarded, receiving such presents as will plainly evince the favour of
Government.
 ;

174 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

•'
I am painfully aware how sleuder these appliances seem for the eradication of
such a gigantic plague ; but I have bestowed that attention which is due to the
consideration of so deeply interesting a subject ; and after long and anxious thought,
I can devise no more hopeful remedies than those now suggested. Constant super-
vision and vigilance are at present, I judge, our only practical instruments."

The value of these operations, continued for five years, may be learned
from the following striking fact laid before the Government in one of

Colonel Campbell's last Reports. In the infanticide- districts of Suradah,

containing seventy villages, with 2,150 families. Colonel Campbell in
1848 found less than fifty female children. In the beginning of 1853,
in the same families, he found nine hundred girls, under four years of
age. What more striking proof can be offered of the complete success

of the efforts made to preserve these children alive.

Perseverance in these firm but conciliatory measures has at length

been crowned with the most gratifying success. Four years ago, the
Malias of Goomsur, including the Bara and Athara Mutahs, Hodzo-
ghoro and Chokapad ; the Malias of Boad, and of Chinna Kimedy were
almost entirely freed from the dreadful crime of human sacrifice. Con-
stant watchfLdness has kept them so : and new efforts have been pushed
forward into Jeypore, Kalahundy, and the Khond districts near them, with
the same gratifying result. Tribe after tribe has yielded obedience to the
humane demands of the Government : victims have been surrendered

pledges given ', and promises faithfully performed. And now that Nagpore
is British territory, a few years more of the same zealous but conciliato-

ry efforts may fulfil the hope that the meria sacrifice will be entirely
abolished from the whole of Khondistan.
A careful re\iew of the Agents' Reports exhibits the number of merias
actually saved, since the first war in Goomsur, as nearly two thousand.
Of these a hundred were rescued by the efforts of Messrs. Bannerman
and Ricketts : The Agency of
of Captains Hicks and Miller, and others.
Capt. Macpherson saved nearly 400 and Colonel Campbell, in his two
:

periods of office, has rescued nearly 1500. Of these merias, Chinna Kimedy
has surrendered 700 ; Boad, 400 and Goomsur, 500.
: From Boad none
have been received since 1851 : and from Goomsur, none since 1818.
An interesting question here arises : What has become of all these

merias, thus saved from a bloody death? The larger number being
grown up when rescued have been settled by Government, particularly
at first, in the Malias below the gliiits among their own people. Land
was given them and materials were supplied for farming. Many were
 :

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS. 175

already married ; and were at once established in little farms, or settled

together in villages. Others not so, were married, males to females. Of

the large number saved during the last eight years, one fourth have been
thus settled in comfort ; a few have entered the service of private indi-
viduals : or been employed in the police. Of the females 247 have married
suitably amongst other Khonds : 150 merias of both sexes have died
80 have deserted: 170 have been restored to their friends or have been :

adopted by others. Long since a few of them were placed in the mission-
ary boarding schools at Cuttack ;
particularly those saved from the Boad
Hills by Lieut. Hicks. Capt. Macpherson not only disapproved of mis-
sionaries visiting the Khond hills, and reproved one of his Assistants

for maintaining friendly intercourse with them, but, with one exception,
sent no children to their orphan schools. Colonel Campbell, however,
has during the last few years sent more than 200 boys and girls to the
schools at Berhampore, Cuttack and Balasore ; where they are being
trained up as christians. Many of these children I had the pleasure of
seeing during my visit to Orissa in 1849. At Balasore, there were
seventeen boys and twelve girls, from seventeen to fourteen years of age.
They were all learning to read and write Oriya, in which they had made
some progress ; as their knowledge increases, Mr. Bachelor was hoping to
give them instruction of a better kind. They were all active, and very
anxious to be useful. It was a pleasant sight to see the happy faces of

the girls, as they sat on the veranda floor writing the Oriya alphabet,

or standing round Mrs. Bachelor singing Oriya hymns ; or those of the

boys, as they wandered about with their bows and arrows, in the use of
which they are very expert. Woe to the stray paria dog or jackal, who
found his way near their quarters ! The schools at Cuttack contained
about eighty of these children, most of them very young. On theii' first

arrival, they met with children once like themselves, with whom they
could communicate in the Khond tongue ; through their means, they
soon began Oriya and were able to benefit by the religious and other
instructions of the school. The girls sang several Oriya hymns very
nicely when we visited them : and the boys sang some of their Khond
songs, and danced some of their dances. They also described to us the
mode of sacrifice, which several of them had seen. The children at

Berhampore I did not see : but interesting notices of their progress are
contained in the Reports of that station. Of course they were at first

wild and uncultivated in the extreme, but after a few weeks grew tame
and civilized. One of the elder girls named Ikedi, who is a member of
 :

176 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS AMONG THE KHONDS.

the Cliurch and herself a Khond, acted as interpreter for the girls, and
devoted much of her time to their welfai-e. There were thirty boys and
thirty girls in the Berhampore school. Several singular cases have
occiirred from time to time in which new comers have been recognised
as the brothers or sisters of children already in the schools. Ikedi, the

girl just mentioned, found her own brother. A lad named Philip, at the

same time found his younger brother. Mr. Bailey says

" On the day these chiklren arrived, the Khond boys who had been with us some
time ran with great glee to see them ; and as they were placed in the front of my
house in a line that their names might be called over, the name of Dasia was at length
mentioned. Philip, one of the elder boys, immediately exclaimed with surprise,
* Dasia ! Dasia ! why that is my little brother ;' and he at once ran and fell upon his

neck and embraced him. But I said, '

Philip, how do you know that he is your bro-
ther V '
O,' he replied, '
I am sure Dasia is my brother : I remember his name, and
the day on which he was sold ; but now I see him again.' Many cases of a similar

character have occurred before, in the reception of Meria children into these

Asylums."

Of the children thus introduced into these excellent schools, many

have profited greatly by their studies. Many have been settled in the
christian villages ; and have exhibited a character and life illustrating

even the temporal benefits of religious and moral education which they
enjoyed. And not a few both male and female have been truly converted,
and have adorned the gospel of Christ their Saviour. Muster, one of
the pious Khonds, was employed by Capt. Frye for assisting his studies
in the Khond language.
It is a triumphant testimony to the Gospel, to see a humane and
christian Government employing its officers, its influence and financial
resources, to draw barbarous tribes from dreadful rites and crimes ; and
save the lives of helpless children devoted to sacrifice. It is a still fur-

ther testimony to it, to see the Christian Cliurch adopt these rescued

ones, foster them, instruct them, and pray for them. It is a higher
testimony still, to see the Lord of Glory himself look with compassion
on these souls for which he died, changing them by his grace and fitting

them for glory. To him be all the glory of all the good done among
sinful men Amen. !
 :

LECTURE SIXTH.

ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS

PRESIDENCY.

In the previous lectures we have seen that the Presidency of Madras

naturally divides itself into distinct districts, on its east and west sea coasts,
with the high plateau of Mysore between them ; how these districts are
to a great extent occupied by different nations ; and how the missions
carried on among them fall into natural groups, determined by their
geographical position and the different languages spoken therein. We
have rapidly reviewed the Telugu Missions on the upper coast of the
Bay of Bengal, the Canarese Missions in the district above the ghauts
and the German Missions in the provinces of Canara and Malabar.
We then turned to the Tamul Missions in Madras, Tanjore and Madura;
briefly investigated their lengthened history, examined the decay of the
early Tranquebar Mission and its offshoots, and traced out the causes of
the strong Caste prejudices Avhich have prevailed so extensivel}^ in the
Tamil churches. We next passed to the southern extremity of India,
inhabited by the tribe of Shanars, and considered the progress and
results of missionary operations among them in Tinnevelly and Travan-
core. The last Protestant Mission examined, was that established among
the ancient Syrian Churches of North Travancore ; wherein we noticed
the plan which was originally aimed at of reviving the Syrian body under
their former regime, its failure, and the separation of the Church Mis-
sionary converts from that system, in order to form them into a bi-anch
of the Church of England, In contrast to these proceedings of evan-
gelical churches, we surveyed the past and present efforts of the Jesuit
missionaries, under the most extraordinary phases : and found that though
their converts are declared to be 650,000 in number, they are not to be
compared to the 100,000 Protestant natives of India in christian know-
ledge, education and religious character : that only in name have they
2 a
178 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

become christian, while in the ordinary practices of life, they are as

much heathen as before.
The Telugu and Mysore missions are comparatively limited ; and their
fruits appear only to be small : they each contain about 700 native chris-
tians : the German missions number 1400. The Tamil churches are
much larger, the native christians amounting to 17,000.
The Shanar
converts number 52,000 those among the Syrian churches, 4000. The
:

total number of native Protestant christians in the Presidency is above

76,000, of whom 10,600 are communicants. The missionaries in charge
of these churches are 179 in number, with 405 catechists. About
30,000 boys are instructed in their schools : and 8,000 girls. These
results looked at by themselves are truly gratifying, to all who can appre-
ciate the grand difference between the prospects of a heathen soul and
the soul of a true christian beyond the gTave. They shew the present
agencies and present position of the mission churches : and prove that
the labours expended for their benefit have not been carried on in vain.
We must add to them the converted souls that have passed into the
heavens, of whose death, on many occasions, missionaries have spoken
with hearty satisfaction. Nor is this all. We know that the object of

all our missionary agencies is to bring men into the body of commu-
nicants, and to keep them there, worthily performing their duty to the

Saviour so long as life lasts. But as time is required before these

agencies accomplish their ends completely, we must remember, as part

of our missionary results, all the mtermecliate steps that have been
secured between the starting of the agency and the reaping of its fruits.

We will look not only to the harvest reaped, to the harvest ripe : we will

look also to the green standing corn, to the blade, to the ear, and even
to the seed that lies hidden in the soil. We must look for results accom-
plished, not only to our church members, dead and living : but to the
knowledge spread, the copies of the word distributed, to the schools
where the young have been early impressed, to the diminished offerings
to idols, to the decay of belief in idolatry, to the extensive conviction
that its cause will fail, to the belief that cliristianity will conquer : to

the diminution of dispute and argument against the gospel, and to the
silence, sometimes the readiness, with which its truths are heard. If we

do less, we do injustice.

But much as we seem to have accomplished, how much still remains.

Contrast the scattered bands of christians with the dense masses of

heathenism in which they live the agencies employed, with the sphere
;
 — :

ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 179

to which they are applied ; and we shall at once exclaim, what are these
among so many ! So great is the difference between the two parties, the
one so swallows up and hides the other, that we cannot wonder at the

objection which is sometimes brought against our statements; "Where

are the converts — Ave never see or hear of them : nor do we expect we
shall; look at the strength of brahmanism, of idolatry and of caste;
how can you ever set them aside and root them out of the country
what do these feeble Jews ?" It is good therefore to look the difficulties

of the work of the Lord fairly in the face, and see how much the church
has yet to do before its labour is accomplished. The following consi-
derations may help us to appreciate them.

EXTENT OP COUNTRY AND POPULATION.

The Presidency of Madras is of triangular shape ; its greatest length

from Cape Comorin to Goa is 530 miles, and its greatest breadth from
Goa to Ganjam is nearly 790 miles. It contains therefore more than
200,000 square miles in all. It contains countries which for hundreds
of years constituted independent kingdoms. That portion which is now
in subjection to the Honorable East India Company is divided into
twenty districts or provinces ; and to these must be added the Mysore
country : and the independent kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin. The
total Revenue drawn annually from these extensive and fertile provinces
amounts to nearly six millions of pounds sterling, which is shewn
as follows :

Revenue Co.'s Territory, 1851-2, Es. 4,78,07,000

Ditto Travancore, 41,58,000
Ditto Mysore, 70,00,000
Ditto Cochin, 4,86,000

Total,. . . . 5,94,51,000

Besides the produce consumed where it is grown_, the trade from one
portion of the country to another is, even under its present disadvantages,

most extensive. In spite of bad trunk roads, in spite of cross-roads ten

times worse, the Government Engineer recently reported, that after

careful consideration he had found that the annual traffic into and out of

Madras on the western roads alone, amounted to 50,000 tons of goods, of

2 A 2
 —

180 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

the value of one million and a quarter sterling. Not less trade is carried

on through the southern districts and those on the west coast. Indeed few
branches of enquiry, give a higher idea of the value of these provinces
of India than the consideration of the surplus produce which they
export.
Look again at the immense population which this one division of our
Indian empire contains :

In the Company's Territory, 22,301,697

„ Mysore, 3, 110,382

„ Travancore in 1836, 1,280,668

,. Cochin, 290,000

Total,. . . . 27,282,747

These twenty-seven millions form a number about equal to that of all

the inhabitants of the British Isles put together. Yet how different are

their circumstances from those of oui' countrymen. They may have the
means of sustaining life, but possess in general little beyond it. They are
civilized to a considerable extent, but their knowledge of things beyond
their own immediate sphere is very limited ; and education, worth the
name, is at the lowest ebb. Above all as following error in religion it

becomes us to look at them with Christian eyes and to enquire what

provision has been made for their full and faithful instruction in the way
of truth. Of the whole number, twenty-four millions are Hindus : more
than two millions are Muhammedans : the Catholics number 650,000 :

the Syrian Christians, 120,000 : the Jews, 1600 at Cochin : while our
native Protestant Christians amount only to 76,000.

Look again at the different divisions of the population, and you will

see how little has been accomplished in the thorough spread of gospel
truth among them. The Telugu people below the ghauts are divided
into seven districts ; and amount to 6,650,000 people. Their territory,
as we have seen contains nineteen missionaries and of the six millions
and a half, 700 are Christians. Nor are matters improved by looking at

the labours of the different Societies that have entered the country. The
London Missionary Society, the first in the field, has taken up the dis-

tricts of Vizagapatam and Cuddapah ; but though they contain a popu-

lation of 2,706,000 souls, the among them only five
Society employs
European missionaries. The Church Missionary Society has taken up
Masuiipatam with 520,000; and employs /o!<r missionaries. The Ame-
 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 181

rican Baptist Society at Nellore sends tivo missionaries to 935^000 : and

the American Lutheran Mission, occupying the two districts of Raj-
mundry and Guntoor, has provided ,^i?e missionaries for 1,580,000. We
feel the destitution still more, when we look at the towns and villages

which these districts contain. Vizagapatam contains 50,000 people •

Vizianagaram, 28,000; Guntoor, 12,000; Masulipatam, 60,000 ; Ellore,

20,000. Masulipatam has a district of 4,510 square miles : and contains

1583 villages, with hamlets double that number. Near Masulipatam
itself is the town of Godoor Avith 3000 people : Beizwarah contains
4000 : more than fifty villages contain between 2000 and 4000 inha-
bitants each. Yet except the chief town itself, not one town or village of
that large district contains even a missionary school. The district of

Rajmundry again contains twelve towns, each numbering from 6000 to

12,000 inhabitants.
Passmg onward to the Mysore, the same appalling inequality is apparent.
The Mysore proper contains 3,410,382, among whom are established
only four or five missionary stations with ten European missionaries. If
we add Bellary and Kurnool, on the same upper level of table-land,

whose population are of the same tribe and speak the same language, Can-
we add 1,503,789 andif wetakeinDnARWARin the same country,
arese, :

we must add many thousand more, giving a total Canarese population

amounting to more than five millions above the ghauts on the table-land.
To these have hitherto been sent twenty missionaries who reside at ten
stations. The total number of Canarese christians is 800. If we com-
pare the Mysore with Scotland : how diflferent does its supply of God's
ministers appear. The Cougregationalists in Scotland, with a hundred
churches, are looked upon as a somewhat insignificant body, and yet
they have three or four times the number of pastors which the Mysore
has of missionaries. If we add the numerous ministers of the United
Presbyterian Church; the eight hundred ministers of the Free Church ; and
those of the Establishment; we shall find more than two thousand
ministers labouring among a population of two and a half millions, while
for the five millions of the Mysore and Bellary there are no more than
twenty. How can it be expected that, when marked religious progress
is somewhat slow even in Scotland, it can possibly be rapid in our Indian
provinces. Nor shall we improve matters by looking into the details.
Scotland has large towns but so has the Mysore towns that may be
: :

considered numerous and well peopled, considering the poverty of the

country. Bangalore in cantonments alone has 93,000 people ; besides
 ;

182 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

the thousands in and around the pettah : the town and talook of Mysore
contain 88,000 : Seringapatara, 12,000 : Chittledroog has 14,000, with-
out a missionary : tlie talooks of Toomkoor and Coonghul, with one
missionary, 101,000. The Bellary district has four missionaries resident
in the town of Bellary. That town is the head of the district; and
numbers 37,126 inhabitants with a large military force. Were it situated

in the more settled parts of the United States, it would probably have
not less than forty ministers of the gospel. But besides Bellary the
district contains sixteen other towns all of which have 4000 inhabitants
or more. Thus Kumply has 7,000: Hospett, 8,000: Gooty, 4,400;
Adoni, 19,000; Harponhully, 6,000; and so on. Many have been visited
by missionaries, but in none of them have they made a permanent settle-
ment. To these sixteen towns, with above 4,000 persons each, add the
12,000 villages which are spread over its surface of 12,000 square miles.
Such instances might be endlessly multiplied.
The Tamil country has been to some extent better supplied : but there
are parts of it lamentably destitute. From Pulicat to Cape Comorin,
the Tamil speaking population number 11,555,868 persons: they are
divided into nine districts, some of which are very extensive and contain
important towns. The total number of European and American mission-
aries resident among them is seventy-five : of whom sixteen are in Tinne-

velly alone and seventeen in the province of Tanjore. I will not weary
you with pointing out all the large and flourishing towns ; and shewing
the disproportion between the number of their teachers and the popu-
lation to be taught. I wiU mention the case of one district alone, whose
utter destitution you ^\\\\ at once perceive. North Arcot possesses a

total population of 1,485,000. It includes in greater abundance than

usual well peopled -sdllages and towns. Thus Vellore contains 120,000 :

Arcot, 16,000: Wallajapett, 20,000: Raneepett, 18,000: Goriatum,

10,000: Amboor, 11,000: Arnee, 16,000: Tripatty, 9,000: and six
others, each 4,000 or more all carrying on good trade and in pros-
;

perous circumstances, yet among them all, there is but one missionary
in the town of Arcot. If we enter the adjoining district of Salem,
we find one missionary among 942,000 people. In Coimbatoor, with
1,152,862 people, there are two missionaries resident in the chief

town.
The province of Travancore is supplied in a similarly dispropor-
tionate manner. Out of its 1,280,000 the London Missionary Society
has placed eight missionaries in eleven districts with 505,000 people
 :

ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 183

and the Church Missionary Society eight missionaries in twenty-one

districts with 775,000. Again we say What are these among so many ?
:

In whatever way we take up the subject, whether we look at parts or at

the whole, we cannot fail to realise a deep conviction that in South India
the work of the Lord is but just begun. We may rejoice to know that

76,000 persons are called by the name of Christ and have the gospel

regularly preached to them as their chosen authority in religion : or that

more than 10,000 are so advanced in knowledge and character as to be

admitted to the Communion of the Lord's Supper. But on the other
hand we see but one hundred and eighty missionaries, European and
native, in the whole population of twenty-seven millions : and find^ scat-

tered over the country, towns with fifty, thirty and twenty thousand
inhabitants where none reside at all : while thousands upon thousands

of villages have never been entered by missionaries to preach the gospel

even once in the half century. The more fully therefore, we enter into
detail, the deeper will our conviction grow, of the real spiritual desti-
tution in which this great portion of our Indian empire lies.

Let us not forget another thing : the effect which such a state of

things has upon a missionary's own mind : as he contrasts the feebleness

of his own efforts with the vastness of the evils with which he contends.

Mr. Fox has described it very clearly in one of his letters :

"Iam lost and
bewildered in the multitude of my work. There lies before me the crowd-
ed population of this large iovnx, Masulipatam, with 60,000 inhabitants
they are to be preached to, to have an impression made upon them. If
I go to one part one day, and to another part another day, my time and
labour are dissipated. If I keep myself to one portion, my labour is
swallowed up in the great flood of heathenism. .. Again there are the
villages in the suburbs : fine, populous villages. Again there are the
numerous villages and still more numerous hamlets studding the country
all round about. Where I am to begin, I know not. Then there ought
to be schools, to be established, to be looked after, to be watched and
taught. I cannot so much as begin them. And so, though I may be
preaching continually to the adults, there is the rising generation grow-
ing up in their heathenism. ... Above all it is only a very limited portion
of the day that I can be engaged in out-of-door work : the short periods
before and after simrise and sunset. Then comes the work of transla-
tion : tracts there are in some numbers : books are only yet by ones and
twos. Who is sufficient to imite in himself these multifarious duties,
for tens and hundreds of thousands ?" Another extract from one of his
184 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

letters illustrates the state of the people so situated. " I rode 250 miles
in a straight line through a populous country, passing through villages
every three or four miles, and seeing others in all directions ; occasion-
ally also coming to considerable towns : but in all that district there was
not a single christian missionary, not one person from whom a heathen
might hear the word of life. My road lay parallel to the sea coast, at
no great distance from it, but I might have gone inland for 100, 200 or
300 miles and, except in one place, have found the whole land equally
wanting in christian teachers. My district is nearly 100 miles each way,
it is impossible that I can visit even the chief villages for two or three
days each, diu'ing the six months in the year in which the weather allows
me to be out.^"" We have then the argument of numbers in an appeal
to christian churches for greater sacrifices and more zealous efforts to

instruct the people of Southern India.

THE STRENGTH OF SUPERSTITION.

But other arguments exist besides. The people of South India are
idolaters equally with the Hindus among whom we dwell. They are in
bondage equally with the people of Bengal : they have prejudged the
question of changing their religion as firmly and as erroneously as have
our neighbours. They have the same, if not stronger, obstacles in the
way of accepting the gospel. Caste, which is so strong with the Hindus
of North India, and produces so much open enmity to the gospel, is

even stronger in South India than in Bengal. The existence of a large

class of Parias, deemed outcast, has made all Hindus of caste the more
watchful in keeping themselves from pollution. The brahraans being
fewer in number than with us, and the outcasts so numerous, the Sudras,
who are of no rank here, are men of great respectability there. The
varying degrees, in which different ranks may pollute a superior, are dis-
tinctly defined. The Parias may not sit in presence of the Sudras, and
frequently have schools been temporarily broken up, because the mis-
sionary wished to teach both together. In Travancore the different
classes cannot approach nearer than a fixed number of steps. One class,

the Nayades, must never presume to enter a village even to purchase

food : they must call out for some one, leave the money on a stone, and
are left entirely at the mercy of his honesty, as to whether they will

receive any thing in exchange. The lower classes are often severely

beaten for infringing the prescribed rules. The extreme is reached in

 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 185

one poor set of people, so excessively low, so intensely degraded in public

estimation, that they are never to be seen by the light of day. When
so many Pjirias have become Christians, I need not stop to describe the
estimation in which the whole body are held by the heathen : nor to
exhilDit the powerful obstacle which this high caste spirit places in the
way of a candid acknowledgement of that truth which an unbiassed
judgment must approve. The same cause has tended to promote great
bigotry among all classes of Hindus, and to elevate the comparatively
small caste of brahmans into a class more powerful than with us. This
is particularly the case in Travancore, in Madura and in Tanjore. Every
brahman in South India is a great personage, and I believe almost all
live by their priestly office, instead of being driven like thousands in

Bengal to support themselves by honest trade.

THE GREAT TEMPLE ESTABLISHMENTS.

Another cause of the great influence of Hinduism in Madras is seen
in the wealthy temple establishments, by which numerous brahmans are
supported, and in which festivals are celebrated upon a grand scale. We
liave no temples in Bengal like the celebrated temples found throughout
the Tamil districts of the Madras Presidency : and it may be interestinej
therefore to give some information respecting them. They are made
somewhat in the following way. The actual shrine of the idol is usually a
low, common- looking stone-building at the side of a broad, well-paved court.
Near it Avill be found a large hall with a flat roof, supported in most cases
by a thousand pillars ; this hall has no walls on its outer sides, but is

left entirely open. Sometimes the pillars are well carved, sometimes
they are common slabs of stone. Near the great hall there is usually a
tank, entirely faced with stone steps, and having a small temple of six or
eight pillars, rising from a stone platform in the very centre of the water.
The court in which the shrine, the hall and the tank are situated, has
many smaller buildings about it, sometimes with massive figures of bulls;
and is generally enclosed by high stone walls. In the entrance of these
walls is built the most conspicuous portion of the whole establishment,
viz. a tall heavy-looking tower, sometimes rising to the height of two
hundred feet. These towers are shaped like a wedge, sloping off on the
four sides, but wider than they are deep : their top is straight, and is orna-
mented with the representation of a flame of fire bursting upward. These
towers are the most conspicuous objects in the temple ; but are not parti-
2 B
 ;

186 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

cularly sacred. They are simply ornaments to the chief gateways.

Sometimes a temple has several such towers.
Excellent specimens of these great temples are to be found in many
parts of the Presidency. At Trichendoor and Tinnevelly in the south
there are two very celebrated. At Madura, there is a very large one
at Conjeveram, near Madras, there are two ; one to Siva, and the other
to Vishnu, But the most celebrated of all are in the province of Tanjore,
M'here Hinduism seems stronger than in any other part of India, except
Travancore. The province is full of temples. Within a small range of
territory, there are no less than seven pagodas of great note ; distin-

gviished among the natives by the name of the seven. They are the
pagodas of Chillumbrum ; Combaconum Trivalur Manargoody Tan-
; ; ;

jore; Avriar and Seringham. All have the sacred shrine ; the hall with
a thousand pillars ; the sacred tank ; and several immense towers.
Nothing strikes a stranger in connection with Hinduism in Tanjore so
much, as the number and the height of these pagoda towers. Numerous
brahmans are attached to each ; and the fat of the land is in their posses-

sion. The total revenue of the Tanjore temples, as far as they were or
are connected with Government, amounts to £31,780 a year. This
income was once entirely derived from land : but since the Government
resumed several of the large estates, the brahmans receive the net pro-

ceeds in money, without the trouble of collecting them. In point of

finish and beauty of structure, the temple in the Fort of Tanjore is the

finest in aU South India. It stands in a large, well-kept com-t, paved

with stone : the tower is built like a pyramid, the four sides of the base

being equal : and it is 320 feet in perpendicular height. It is covered

with the usual figures, and is coloured red and green in different parts of

the cornices and mouldings. The top of the tower is a copper dome.

The shrine stands close to the tower so that the two form one building,
a thing quite unusual. Behind it on the east side is the great bull, an

immense figure formed from a single block of black marble and well
carved. It is perhaps the most celebrated idol in South India. Numer-

ous smaller temples and cars crowd the pettah of Tanjore ; on these
10,000 Rs. a month are spent by the Rajah; who receives a large
pension, and inside the fort is independent.

But the most celebrated of all the South India temples is that of
Seringham it is distinguished by its great wealth and the immense space
:

over which it is spread. A few miles above Trichinopoly the river Cavery
divides into two branches, leaving a broad tract between them; after
 ;

ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 187

ninning on for twelve miles, the two used to unite again and thence go
onward to the sea ; they thus inclosed an island called Seringham. (It

is an island no longer ; as the Government by their celebrated anient

have prevented the Cavery rejoining its northern branch, the Coleroon
and have led it away in a thousand channels to water the province of

Tanjore) . Towards the north end of this island stands the temple. In
the shrine itself there is nothing remarkable : it is low and dirty. Nor
do its pillared halls deserve much praise ; they are dirty in the extreme
and (like all the temples of South India) full of bats, with not a few
monkeys. But there is this peculiarity. The Court in which the shrine
stands is walled oif : so that strangers cannot approach it. The great
hall stands on one side of a second court outside the former : each court
being nearly square. A third court stands all round and outside the
second : each of its four entrances having an immense tower over the
gateway. A fourth court follows, with similar toAvers, enclosing the
third ; a fifth, then a sixth, surround them : each growing larger and
larger till the outside is reached. The gateways all stand in a line, and
also the towers : at intervals on an average of 350 feet. The outside
walls thus become 1400 yards, or nearly a mile long. It would take nearly

an hour to walk round them. The number of towers altogether amounts

to fourteen large and several smaller ones. The chief tower of entrance,
the Roy Kobram, is unfinished : it contains several stones, each thirty
feet long and five feet thick. The four outer courts are like streets,
and contain numerous dwelling-houses and bazars. One street of brah-

mans on the east side looks particularly clean and neat. More than
a 1000 brahman-families reside in these conrts, containing 5000 people :

together with five thousand others of good caste connected with the
temple and its services.

This temple possesses a great number of valuable gifts, which are

freely shown to English visitors who wish to inspect them. The most
valuable of them are ornaments, such as natives wear, consisting of jewels

of various kinds, as rubies, emeralds, diamonds and pearls, set in gold.

They include bracelets, armlets and anklets ; ornaments for the forehead

and breast ; chains for the arms, neck and waist ; a gold palankeen, worth

Rs. 20,000 ; an umbrella of gold and velvet, ornamented with figures

made of seed pearls. Amongst them are six pieces, made on one pattern,

which form the outer casing of a figure about two feet high they include :

a breastplate a backplate legs, back and front

;
feet, hands, and a
; :

crown of the shape of a bottle. When put together, these six pieces

ti
u o
o D 1^
 :

lob ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY".

form a hollow figure^ two feet high : wanting a head. Each piece is

made of pure gold ; and is profusely set with diamonds, emeralds and
rubies. Their total value is Ks. 22,750. Again there are portions,
incomplete, of the casing of a figure, fifteen feet high. They include a
gold tiara, two feet high : flat earrings, a foot long : two gold hands,
differing, about a foot and a half long : two gold feet, two feet long : two
immense armlets ; anklets with bells : and bracelets of gold balls, strung
together according to the present fashion among English ladies. The
whole of these jewels are of gold, somewhat thin ; their total value is

Rs. 24,000. Besides these, I saw a gold ghurra or pitcher, worth Rs.
13,000 : a water-pot, worth Rs. 2000 ; a gold vessel used by Rajas and
smokers, 7000 : a milk cup, 2500 : two spoons and a plate, 6000
several other water-pots, 3600. The silver articles also are exceedingly
numerous and of very great value in all. The total value of these jewels

amounts to no less than twenty lakhs of rupees or .€200,000. The an-

nual income from lands, of this single temple, as paid by the Government,
is Rs. 43,000 : the offerings must be all superadded : and it will then be
seen how large that income is in all. The whole property is in charge of

native superintendents, and it is said that, of late years, glass is rapidly

being substituted for precious stones.

Such facts exhibit in a broad light, the power which Hinduism still

exercises over the minds of its votaries. Rich Rajahs, widows, land-
holders, and merchants present these offerings : and the poor flock in

thousands to the annual festivals. The temple of Seringham is but one

of many all of which have their particular attractior s at particular
;

times. Add these considerations respecting the temples, the caste-spirit

and brahminical power, to those already off"ered concerning the immense
population still unblest with the gospel : and you will comprehend not
only the wide extent of the field opened, but the obstacles which exist to
the reception of the gospel which is preached.

ENCOURAGEMENTS.

Yet the Church of Christ has no reason whatever to despair of success

in the work which it has midertaken. Large as the field is, it has begun
admirably to occupy it. Most important positions have been made good :

fruits have already been reaped. Much knowledge of Christ has been
spread abroad : much opposition to the truth has been silenced. The
heathen have been compelled to feel that there is reason on the side of
 :

ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 189

Christianity ; that its doctrines are hard to be rejected : and that its

missionaries are clever, obstinate men, who will not get angry in discus-
sion, and who will not be put down. The temples, great as they once
were, are all falling into decay. Marks of neglect are profusely stamped
upon every one of them : the bats in countless numbers already possess
them. In all South India, the only temple I saw kept really clean and
in good repair, was the temple in the fort of Tanjore, where a wealthy
Hindu Rajah rules. Thei-e is a legend among the natives in Tanjore,
that the great Bull behind that temple was once very small ; else, say
they, how could it have got between the pillars where it now lies ; but it

went on growing larger and larger till it attained its present immense
size. When the infidel Company came, it ceased growing. There is a
world of truth in this legend after all. Since the days when common
sense came into the land : when foreigners began to expose idolatry ; to
speak against caste ; to spread the Bible ; to instruct the young ; and
arg-ue with the defenders of this ancient system fearlessly, the Bull of
Hinduism has ceased to grow. Its influence has begun to decrease, and
although it may still appear vast and powerful, and may now and then
put forth spasmodic eflbrts, its inward strength is fast going to decay.
These things are parts in the great process of the country's renovation
and much as we rejoice over actual converts, we may rejoice too over the
diminution of obstacles by which converts are kept back. If we have
not yet built up much, we have pulled a great deal down ; and have made
extensive preparations for pulling down and building up a vast deal more.
"Experience hath produced the hope" of ultimate perfect success: while
the promise of God stands perfectly sure : The idols he shall utterly
abolish: to Jesus every knee shall bow. Unappalled then by difficul-

ties, the church must go in and possess the land. Its agents must
preach much to the old, must instruct the young; must spread the
inspired word that is like fire, and able like a hammer to break the
rock in pieces. Thus will the great harvest of South India be prepared,
while we pray, in obedience to our Lord's command, that he will send
forth more labourers to reap the harvest.

CHRISTIAN UNION.
Let US consider the call which these facts make to all christians to
labour in the field of missions with thorough unity of aft'ection and of
purpose. Can any one body of christians fully instruct a field so vast,
 ;

190 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

as that which we have contemplated ? Can any one supply money and
men and labour sufficient for the full cultivation of these well-peopled
domains ? No : and hence we find in the Madras Presidency no less than
ten different Societies engaged : and in all India, twenty-two. Again,
we may ask, has any one of these dealt fairly by the limited districts
which they have appropriated as a sphere of labour. Not one has done
so : what need then that all should look, not to their own things, but to
the things of others : that Ephraim should not envy Judah : and Judah
not vex Ephraim. That there is a great deal of cordial co-operiition
among these various divisions of the missionary army, must be acknow-
ledged with gratitude and pleasure. Looking at the case on a wider scale
we may ask, is it not a remarkable fact that in modern days, evangelical
christians are brought so very near to each other in point of doctrine. In
respect to the depra\ity of our nature, the uselessness of meritorious
works ; the perfect propitiation of the cross of Christ ; the sanctifying
influences of the spirit ; and the necessity of a holy life for converted

men ; how wonderfully all these bodies of christians are now agreed
although in former days they discussed and fought these questions with
each other, and set each other down as high and low, latitudinarian and
bigoted, with considerable rancour, bitterness and scorn. But why has
the Master taught us better. Is not our present union both an effect

of common efforts in his service, and an incentive to greater self-sacrifice

and greater nnion still ? We constantly hear that the Bible alone is the
Religion of Protestants; and Ave have heard it so often that we are
accustomed to receive it as fact. But is it true ? Is there one body of
christians, that can honestly declare that the saying is perfectly true of

us, in respect both to our doctrine, our practice and our system of go-
vernment. I wish it were true of us all. The more it is so, the more
shall we be ready to relinquish human devices and human systems and
human plans, as authoritative ; in order to give expression to christian
love in joining heartily in the Lord's work with all who trust his name.
If however any adhere to their own systems as superior to all others,

let them prove the fact, by being more self-sacrificing, more liberal,
more zealous, more holy, more humble than their neighbours. The object
of all systems of government is to maintain a pure fellowship and supply
pure ordinances. The Lord grant that his people may increase in real
unity everywhere, and join together with one heart, as his living army
to war against the kingdom of darkness.
The work of the church is sm'e to be successful. Full as South India
 ON THE RELIGIOUS CLAIMS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 191

is of idolatry ; mighty as are its temples ; numerous as are their idols

and their idol votaries ; the land belongs to Christ. All souls are His.
He is Supreme King. At the appointed time He will take his power and
reign. Every province shall submit ; every tribe, of every language, to
Hira shall bow the knee. No locality, no people shall be excepted. Even
the town of Tanjore, the stronghold of Hinduism, shall yield itself unre-
servedly to the King of kings. Its numerous cars shall become fuel to

the fire ; its idols perish ; and their shrines pass for ever away. The
tower of its great pagoda shall become the vestibule of a Church of
Christ. Its numerous people, renewed in the spirit of their mind, shall

gather within its walls as Christian worshippers. They shall yield with-

out reserve to his authority ; shall lay their gifts upon his altar : and
rejoice in his eternal joy. All hearts shall be full of obedience; all

hearts shall enjoy his peace. And the name of the city from that day

shall be Jehovah Shammah : "The Lord is there."

 Lately published by the same author.

REVISED STATISTICS
OF

MISSIONS IN INDIA AND CEYLON

Price one Shilling.

RESULTS OF MISSIONARY LABOUR IN INDIA.

Price one Shilling.

Lately published by Macleod JVylie, Esq.

THE URGENT CLAIMS OF INDIA FOR MORE

CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.
Second Edition,

Price one Shilling.

THE BIBLE IN INDIA.

Price Sixpence.

Also recently published :

CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS A HISTORY

OF

BIBLICAL TRANSLATIONS IN INDIA.

Price two Shillings.

W. H. Dalton. Cockspub Steeet.

DATE DUE
BW7507 .W195 . .

visited
, .

and
Missions in South India
Princeton Theological
Seminary -Speerbbrary

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