Unit 4: Cell biology

4.1 Cell theory 4.3 Parts of the cell and their

 The major contributors functions
of cell theory are.  Cell membrane
 Model of Plasma membrane
 Cell size
 Movement of substance across
 Surface area to volume the plasma membrane
ratio of a cell and its  Mitochondria
consequence  Ribosomes
4.2 Types of cells  Endoplasmic reticulum
 Prokaryotic cells  Golgi apparatus
 Eukaryotic cells  Lysosomes
 Endosymbiotic theory  Organelles found in plant cells
 Cell wall
4.3 Parts of the cell and  Vacuole
their functions
 Chloroplast
 Cell theory
How did the modern The major contributors of cell theory
cell theory develop? are.
 The discovery of Robert Hooke (1665)- The first person
cell and their who discovered cell
structure is linked  The first person use the term „cell‟
to the development after observing the structure of cork
of microscopes  He use a compound microscope using
 Many biologists a magnification of 30X.
contributed to the  He saw the walls of dead cork cell
development of cell
theory.  The word cell comes from Latin word
cellulae meaning little rooms.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1974): the first person to
sea living cell
 Observed moving unicellular organisms in a drop of
water.
 He also responsible for achieving the magnification of
microscope up to 300×.
 He called little moving animals (protoctistans)
„animalcules‟ meaning ‘little animal.
 He was also the first person to sees bacteria called
„tiny animalcules‟.
 Rene Dutrochet;
Rene Dutrochet (1824): all living things are made of
cells
He is the first person who concludes that all
organisms are made of cells.
He also responsible for the discovery of:
Stomata in epidermis of leaves
the process of osmosis
chlorophyll and its importance for photosynthesis
occurrence of respiration in animals and plants
 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

Determine the first clearly stated cell theory. It

states that:
1) Cells are structural, physiological and
organizational unit of living things
2) The cell retains a dual existence as:
a distinct entity, and
a ‘building block’ in the formation of organisms
3) Cells form by free-cell formation (spontaneous
generation)-not accepted
 Rudolf Virchow(1858)
 He was a German doctor determined that “omnis
cellula e cellula”. That means cell can only arise from
previously existing cell.
 He completes the first accepted version of cell
theory:
all organisms are made up of one or more cells
all cells come from pre-existing cells
Cell is the unit of structure, physiology and
organization in living things
Cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a
building block in the construction of organisms
Today, the modified point of cell theory states that;

 All living things are made up of cells

 Cells are structural and functional unit of all living
things
 All cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division
 Cells contain hereditary information which is passed
from cell to cell during cell division
 All cells have basically the same chemical composition
 Energy flow occurs within cells
 CELL SIZE
 The size of cell depends on their type.
 Some cell are large and visible by our naked eyes, while most
cell are microscopic
 For example, chicken egg cell is as big up to 5 cm length. While
bacteria cell are only about 100nm length.
 The size of cell can be measured by using smaller units that
are commonly used
 millimeters (mm)
 micrometers (μm)
 nanometers (nm)
 Micrometers (μm): the most appropriate to measure the
size of a cell.
 The conversion of one unit into another
 We can convert the units from one to another as shown below:

× 1000 × 1000 × 1000

m mm μm nm
† 1000 † 1000 † 1000

 To convert a larger unit to the next smaller unit, multiply by

1000:
 For example, convert 3.5 mm to μm.
 mm = 3.5 × 1000 = 3500 μm
 To convert a smaller unit to the next larger unit, divide by
1000:
 For example, convert 87 nm to μm.
 87 ‚ 1000 = 0.087 μm
 Surface area to volume ratio of a cell and its
consequence
 Size of cell and its efficiency is determined by surface area to
volume ratio.
 Think surface-area to- volume ratio in terms of ‘supply’ and
‘demand’.
 The volume of the cell creates the „demand’ which is
‘supplied‟ through the surface area of the cell.
 E.g. Respiration: the Volume of a cell creates the demand
of oxygen for aerobic respiration to generate energy which
is supplied through surface area of a cell.
 Modification of a cells to increase their surface area to
volume ratio.
 Folding surface of a cell
 Finger like projection like intestinal villi and microvilli
 Surface area to….

2au 4au
1au

Cube A Cube B Cube C

 Area=1au×1au  Area= 2au×2au  Area=4au×4au
=1au2 =4au2 = 16au2
 Surface area (SA)  SA= 6 ×4au2  SA=6 ×16au2
=6×1au2 =24 au2 = 96au2
=6 au2
 Volume (V)  Volume(V)=(2×2×2)au3  Volume(V)=
=(1×1×1)au3 =8 au3 (4×4×4)au3
=1au3 =64au3
 SA/V=6 au2/1au3  SA/V=24 au2 /8 au3  SA/V=96au2/64au3
=6:1 =3:1 =1.5:1
Surface area to volume ratio….
The smaller cell size The bigger cell size
 Large surface  Smaller surface area
area to volume to volume ratio
ratio  It will not allow
 High efficient to sufficient nutrient to
transport pass into the cell
nutrient into and  The rate of activity of
outside the cell. the cell is relatively
 The cell slow
metabolically  Cellular products
active is high distribute slowly
 Review questions
Choose the correct answer
1) Of the following four cells whose surface area to volume ratio is
given, which cell can more efficiently transport its need of material
across the cell surface?
A. 24:8 B. 54:27 C. 96:64 D.150:125
2) Which of the following statement is in agreement with the modern
cell theory?
A. Cells form by free-cell formation
B. Cell arise by spontaneous generation
C. Cell come from preexisting cell
D. Cell come from nothing
3) Suppose we consider four hypothetical cell ( designed A.B.C and D)
having cube shape with their side measuring 2,4,5 and 6. which of
these cell has less efficient to transport substance?
A. Cell ‘A’ B. Cell ‘B’ C. Cell ‘C’ D. Cell ‘D‟

Answer 1.A, 2.C & 3.D

 4.2Types of cells
1. Prokaryotic cells
 Prokaryotic cell is a type without true a nucleus.
 The first type of cells that evolved on the earth
 Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and simpler than
eukaryotic cells
 Lack distinct nucleus and membrane bounded
organelle
 Prokaryotic plasma membrane adapted to generate
energy
 Organisms that have prokaryotic cell

1. The archaebacteria
The oldest organisms evolve on Earth.
The first prokaryotes live in extreme
environmental condition like
very hot environment /thermophiles/.
salty water /Halophiles/ or
Large concentrations of gases like methane or
sulphur dioxide /Methanogens/.
 2. Eubacteria
Unicellular and prokaryotic organism
True bacteria
Bacteria found everywhere like soil, water, living
in and on organisms
Inhabit our intestines, decay organisms, convert
milk to yoghurt and so on.
3. Cyanobacteria/blue green algae/
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Have flattened sac called thylakoid where
photosynthesis is performed
 Eukaryotic cell
 The word eukaryotic is derived from Greek
eu (true) and
karyos (nuclear),
So, eukaryotic cell has a true distinct nucleus.
 Contain membrane bounded organelles and evolved
from prokaryotic endosymbiotic association.
 Organelles individual structures in a cell with a
specific function
 Organelles surrounded by membranes

 Nucleus,  Endoplasmic reticulum  Lysosomes,

 Mitochondria  Chloroplasts (if  Golgi apparatus
present),
Organisms that have Eukaryotic cell

Fungi (multicellular, eukaryotic)

Protista (eukaryotic, unicellular, and
multicellular)
Plantae (multicellular, eukaryotic)
Animalia (multicellular, eukaryotic)
 Endosymbiotic theory the origin of
eukaryotic cells

Endosymbiosis is the theory of evolution of

eukaryotic cell arose from the symbiosis of
different species of prokaryotic cell.
According to this hypothesis, modern eukaryotic
cells evolved from endosymbiotic association
prokaryotic with large unicellular organisms.
The theory was proposed by Lynn Margulis.
 Origin of eukaryotic cells
1) Infolding plasma membrane and would eventually
evolve into the endoplasmic reticulum (EPR) of
eukaryotic cells.
2) Engulfing of aerobic heterotrophic prokaryote, which
later evolve into the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.
Precursors of animal, fungal and protoctistans cells.
3) Engulfing of photosynthetic prokaryote evolve into
chloroplasts develop into ancestral photosynthetic
eukaryotic.
Precursors of plant cells.
Origin of eukaryotic cell
 Feature Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
 Size  1–10 μm  10–100 μm
Nucleus  Do not have distinct nucleus  Have distinct nucleus
 DNA  In a continuous loop  Linear DNA
 Not associated with  Associated with histone
protein to form proteins to form
chromosomes chromosomes
 Ribosomes  Present, but smaller than in  Present, but larger than in
eukaryotic cells (70S) prokaryotic cells (80S)
 Cell wall  Always present  Present in plant, algal and
 made from peptidoglycan fungal cells
 Cellulose in plant cells
 Cell  In addition of controlling  Control the movement of
membrane substance in and out of a substance in and out of cell
cell, specialized to
generate energy
1.The endosymbiotic hypothesis for the origin of
eukaryotic cells provides an explanation for the origin
of which of this cellular structure?
A. Golgi bodies C. Nucleus
B. Chromosomes D. Mitochondria
2. Which one of the following eukaryotic cell organelles
was a free living cell before eukaryotic cell is evolved?
A. Nucleus C. Ribosomes
B. Lysosomes D. Chloroplast
3. Cube A has a side measuring 1mm. Cube B has a side
measuring 2mm. The surface-area- to-volume ratio of
cube A when compared to cube B is:
A. two times bigger C. half times smaller
B. two times smaller D. half times bigger
ANSWER. 1D,2D & 3A
 4.3. Part of the cell and their function

1. Cell membrane or plasma membrane or cell

surface membrane
isolates the cell from the environment
controls the exchange of substances between
cell and its cellular environment.
 The major function Cell membrane
1.Cell membrane isolates and protects a cell from
its surroundings.
2.It control the exchange of substances between the
cell and cellular environment.
3.It communicate with other cell (cell signaling);
allow the cell to cell recognition and identify;
Hormones
Immune system (in animals) and
Growth regulator substances, such as auxins (in
plants).
A timeline of the development of our
understanding of the structure of the plasma
membrane
 1665 Robert Hooke discovers cells, but only sees dead cells and has no
idea of a cell membrane
 1895 Charles Overton shows that lipid nature of Membrane.
 1905 Langmuir proposes a lipid monolayer as the basic membrane
structure.
 1925 E Gorter and G Grendel suggested plasma membrane is a
phospholipid bilayer.
 1935 Davson and Danielli suggests that phospholipid bilayer sandwich
between two protein layers
 1959 J D Robertson proposes the unit membrane model
 1972 S J Singer and G L Nicholson propose the fluid mosaic model of
membrane structure.
 2000 Unwin and Henderson propose membrane protein structure
 Model of Plasma membrane
1. The Davson–Danielli model (sandwich model)
 The model suggests that phospholipid bilayer
sandwich between two layers protein.
 This model was a revised in 1954 which included
protein-lined pores.
 Limitation of Davson–Danielli model
The model generalized as all membrane are identical.
However, membrane with different function also have
different chemical composition.
The model does not properly explain how molecule
crosses the membrane.
 Fluid mosaic model
 Proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1972
 It states that membrane is a mosaic of protein dispersed
in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids
 It suggest that the model has both fluidity and mosaic
properties.
 A mosaic is a pattern of appearance of protein and
cholesterol within the membrane.
 The membrane is not static, but it is dynamic and
constantly changing.
 Plasma membrane has protein molecules scattered in
the bilayer.
 Fluid mosaic model of membrane consists
the following components
1) Phospholipid bilayer: the main substance of the membrane
 It has hydrophilic /water loving/ toward the outside and hydrophobic
/water hating/ toward the inside.
2) Integral proteins /intrinsic protein and trans-membrane protein/
 Channel proteins:
 Have an ion pore that allow the passage of ions through them
 There are different channel protein for different ions
 Carrier proteins
 move larger molecules through the membrane by facilitated diffusion
or active transport
 Peripheral proteins (extrinsic proteins):
 Protein that span in one of phospholipid bilayers some of them
function as enzymes, others anchor integral proteins to the
cytoskeleton
 Fluid mosaic model of membrane…
3) Carbohydrates
 It is the third major component of plasma membrane
 Always found on the exterior surface of a cell: these are
 Glycoproteins are carbohydrate group attached to protein
 Glycolipids are carbohydrate attached to lipid molecules
Serves as receptor sites for hormones and drugs
and allow cell to cell recognition.
4) Cholesterol
 A steroid lipid that stiffen the membrane
 Regulate membrane fluidity
 Reduces the fluidity of the membrane. How?
 Movement of substance across the plasma
membrane
 Plasma membrane allows selective substance in and out of cell
/selectively permeable/
 There are two ways in which Substances can enter or leave a
cell:
1) Passive processes: simple diffusion, facilitative diffusion
and Osmosis
 The movement of substance along /on/ concentration
gradients;
 Does not require extra energy from the cell’s metabolism
2) Active processes: endocytosis, exocytosis and active
transport
 The movement of substance against concentration gradient
 Require extra energy (ATP) from the cell’s metabolism.
 Simple diffusion
 Is the random movement of
molecules from a region of higher
concentration to lower concentration.
 Movement of substance down a
concentration gradient until equilibrium
is reached
 Diffusion occur in solid, liquid or gas
and across plasma membrane of cell.
 Kinetic energy of the molecule and
concentration gradient drives
diffusion
 Substance cross The phospholipid bilayer
phospholipid bilayer by is not permeable to;
simple diffusion must be;  Large polar molecule,
Small non-polar which are not soluble in
molecules which are lipid lipid , such as
soluble such as; glucose,
fatty acid , amino acids,
glycerol, nucleic acids and
polysaccharides
steroid,
 Ions (charged), such as
Vitamin A,D,E and K
H+, Na-, HCO3-, K+
Non-charged molecule
such as, water, oxygen
and carbon dioxide
 Factor affecting rate of simple diffusion

1) Concentration gradient; a bigger difference in concentration

results in faster diffusion
2) Thickness of the membrane; as all plasma membranes are
the same thickness, this is not really an issue when
considering diffusion into and out of cells, but for other
situations where particles must cross some kind of barrier, a
shorter distance/thinner membrane/ results in faster
diffusion
3) Surface area of the membrane; the larger surface area the
faster the rate of diffusion.
4) Temperature; diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures
because the particles have more kinetic energy and so move
faster.
 Facilitated diffusion
Extracellular fluid Channel
 Facilitate diffusion is the movement of
specific molecule /ions/across plasma protein
membrane.
 Does not require expenditure of metabolic
energy
 It is assisted by either channel protein or
carrier protein Cytoplasm
 The movement of substance down
concentration gradient. Extracellular fluid
Factor affect rate of facilitative diffusion
1) Thickness of a membrane
2) Concentration gradient
3) Numbers of carrier proteins (or channel
proteins)
Carrier protein Cytoplasm
 The three essential characteristics of
facilitate diffusion
Simple
 Specific: channel is diffusion
designed for one molecule
to transport/
 Passive: no need of ATP
 Saturate: maximum rate
is reached when trans-
membrane protein is
saturated
Figure: comparisons of passive and active transport
 Osmosis /the diffusion of water/
Osmosis is the movement of water from a system
with a high water potential to a system with a low
water potential across a partially permeable
membrane.
The symbol for water potential is Ψ (psi).
It is measured in units of pressure called pascal
(pa).
Pure, liquid water has a higher water potential than
any other system. It is defined as zero:
Ψ (pure water) = 0 Pa
The other system (cell, Solution and suspension)
have a negative vale of water potential.
 Osmosis…
 Water potential (Ψ) of pure water = 0 Pa
 All other systems (cells, solutions and suspensions) have a
negative value water potential. This is because the solid
particle reduce the number of free water molecule in the
system and so the water potential is reduced and become
negative. So we can define osmosis:
 Osmosis is the movement of water from a system with a high
water potential (less negative) to one with a lower water
potential (more negative), across a partially permeable
membrane.
 Factor affecting osmosis:
 surface area of the membrane
 difference in water potential
 distance the molecules must travel
What happens to cells placed in solutions of
different concentrations?

 The difference in water potential between cell and

solution will determine whether water enters or leaves
by osmosis.
 There are three type of solution, when comparing the
water potential of a solution to that of a cell
 Isotonic solution having the same water potential as the cell.
 Hypertonic solution having lower water potential (more
negative) than the cell.
 Hypotonic solution having a higher water potential (less
negative) than the cell.
What happens to cells placed in solutions of different
concentrations?
 Hypotonic dilute or weak solution
in plant
 The cell gain water and swells and
becomes turgid
 The cells do not burst because the cell
wall exerts wall pressure against turgor
pressure
 Role of turgidity in plants
 Supporting young, non-woody plant
stems.
 Mechanical support of young non
woody tissue e.g. leaves
 Hypertonic, concentrated, strong solution in
plant
 The cell loss water by osmosis
 The vacuole shrinks and the
cell become flaccid
 Finally cytoplasm pulls away
from cell wall known as
plasmolysis
 If the plant is not watered, the
cells will be plasmolysed and
become flaccid.
 Osmosis in Animal cell
Hypotonic dilute or weak
solution. E.g. fresh water
 The cell gain water
 The cell swell and eventually
burst /haemolysis/
Hypertonic, concentrated,
strong solution. E.g. sea water
 The cell loss water by osmosis
 The cell becomes shrink and
shrivel a state known as
crenation
 Active processes
a) Active transport
 Active transport is the move substance from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration
 Substance move against concentration gradient
 It requires:
 Energy: requires metabolic energy (ATP) from cellular
respiration to drive the process
 Pump (transporter): is the transmembrane protein used to
actively transport substance across plasma membrane.
 Important of active transport
 The cell can absorb ions and other substance from dilute
solutions
 Regulate the volume of cell by controlling osmotic potential
 Maintain homeostasis
 b) Endocytosis
 Endocytosis is the movement of a substance into a cell
by forming Vesicles.
 Engulfing large particles into a cell via vesicle forming
at the plasma membrane.
 Require ATP to move the membrane around the
particles to form the vesicle.
 There are a number of ways endocytosis can happen
1)Phagocytosis
2)Pinocytosis
3)Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Type of endocytosis
Phagocytosis /cell eating/
Is the injection of materials from outside of a cell into its
interior, forming cytoplasmic vesicle.
Involves the creation of pseudopodia to enclose large
particles or even whole organisms from outside the cell.
Pinocytosis /cell drinking/
It is the injection of fluid into a cell by turning a portion of
cell membrane inward to form internal vesicle
Does not require the formation of large pseudopodia to
engulf the particles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Very selective process
Receptors on the plasma membrane bind to the desired
molecule and forming cytoplasmic vesicles
 Type of endocytosis

Phagocytosis Pinocytosis Receptor-mediated

endocytosis
 C. Exocytosis

 The process by which substances are moved from

inside to outside of the cell by forming a vesicles on
the plasma membrane of a cell.
 Important to release macromolecules, such as;
1) enzymes
2) hormones
3) Protein
4) Polysaccharides
5) neurotransmitter
 Used input of metabolic energy (ATP)
2. Exocytosis….
 Cellular structure and their function
1. The nucleus Nucleolus.
The nucleus typically  A round a dark body within
occupies about 10% of the the nucleus
volume of a cell.  It is not membrane-bound.
It has several components:  Important in synthesise of
ribosomes and RNA.
Nuclear envelope
Surrounds the nucleus. Chromatin
 Made up of DNA and
double membrane with proteins histones.
several pores  When cells divide, the
selectively permeable chromatin condenses into
control the movement of recognisable structures
material in and out of called chromosomes.
nucleus
 2. Mitochondria
 Is organelle responsible for aerobic cellular respiration.
 It consists two membranes.
1) Smooth outer membrane
2) Folded inner membrane /cristae/
 Cristae is the site of ATP synthesis
 Cristae separate mitochondria into two parts
 Fluid matrix: some of the reactions of aerobic respiration
take place
 Intermembrane space lying between membrane
 Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosome.
 Cell with heavy energy demands, such as muscle cell and
epithelial cell have more mitochondria than other cell.
 Parts of Mitochondria

Fluid matrix
 3. Ribosomes
 Ribosome are protein synthesizing organelle in the cell
 They are made from RNA and protein
 Ribosome are manufactured in the nucleolus of the
nucleus
 Found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
 Ribosome is not surrounded by membrane
 It can be found;
Free in the cytoplasm
Bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
 Endoplasmic reticulum /ER/

 ER is a membrane Rough ER
bounded organelle  Has ribosomes on its
 The ER connects the surface
plasma membrane with  Responsible for the
the nuclear membrane manufacture and
 Act as a system of canal transport of proteins.
to transport material from Smooth ER
plasma membrane to  Have no ribosomes on its
nucleus surface.
 There are two types of
 It is concerned with the
endoplasmic reticulum:
 synthesis of lipids
 carbohydrate metabolism
and detoxification
 Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)
 The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membrane bound sacs
called cisternae
 It receive protein and lipid made in endoplasmic reticulum and
modify, sort, packaging them.
 For example protein may be converted into glycoproteins and lipid
into glycolipids
 It acts as ‘a cellular post officer’ that labels and then distributes
molecules.
 Importance
 Modify, sort and packaging molecules
 Produce lysosomes
 Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are a single Function of Lysosome
membrane bounded sac 1) Hetrophagy: digestion of
extracellular material taken by
found in animals /absent in endocytosis
plant/. 2) Autophagy: digestion of
 Produce in Golgi apparatus unwanted structure within the
cell,
 Contain digestive enzymes 3) Autolysis: self digestion of a
that break down cellular cell. E.g. distraction of much
waste and debris larger uterus after birth,
4) Release enzyme outside the
 Abundant in phagocytic cell. E.g. sperm cell have a
white blood cells to digest special lysosome called
acrosome to penetrate the
foreign cells that have been membrane of egg cell
engulfed
 Organelles found in plant cells

Cell wall
 Cell wall is a tough, rigid layer that surround the plant
cell.
 It is the nonliving part of the cell which located outside
cell membrane
 Made up of a complex polysaccharide called cellulose
 The cell wall is completely permeable
 Helps to protect and support of plant cell
 Vacuole
 Vacuole is a membrane enclosed fluid filled sac found
in plant cell. A fluid filled sac called cell sap.
 When the vacuole is full of water it exerts hydrostatic
pressure against the cell wall and the cell become
turgid
 If the vacuole loses water by osmosis, the pressure
reduces and turgor is lost. Consequently, the cell
become flaccid
 There four, Vacuole is important in developing
turgidity of a plant cell.
 Chloroplast
 Chloroplast are the site of photosynthesis
 It is surrounded by double membrane like mitochondria
 Unlike mitochondria the inner membrane is not folded
1) The smooth outer membrane
2) The smooth inner membrane.
 Inside inner membrane
 Grana (stack of thylakoids) where the light
dependent reactions occur, and
 A fluid stroma; where the light-independent
reactions occur.
 Chloroplast like mitochondria contain their own DNA
Chloroplast
 Cell fractionation
 Cell fractionation separates the components of a cell by
ultracentrifugation,
 The technique is carried out as follows:
1. Cell sample is stored in a suspension that is:
 Buffered: the neutral pH prevents damage to the structure of
proteins, including enzymes
 Isotonic (of equal water potential):this prevents osmotic effect
 Cool : this reduces the activity of enzymes
2. Homogenization the act of something homogeneous or
uniform in composition
3. Ultracentrifugation: separating organelle by high speed in
centrifuge
Cell fractionation organelle order
1) Nuclei
2) Chloroplast
3) Mitochondria
4) Lysosome
5) Peroxisomes
6) Fragment plasma membrane
7) Fragment of endoplasmic reticulum
8) Ribosomes