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Little else is known about the use of mail by the Greeks, but the Roman legionnaire was equipped
with a lorica hamata, a mail shirt, from a very early date. A flintlock was similar to a wheel lock
except that ignition came from a blow of flint against steel, with the sparks directed into the priming
powder in the pan. Cast-iron cannon were significantly heavier and bulkier than bronze guns firing
the same weight of ball. The Mongols The 13th-century Mongol armies of Genghis Khan and his
immediate successors depended on large herds of grass-fed Mongolian ponies, as many as six or
eight to a warrior. They did to the early modern fortress what cast-bronze cannon had done to the
medieval curtain wall. Modern experiments suggest that a trebuchet with an arm about 50 feet (15
metres) long would have been capable of throwing a 300-pound (135-kilogram) stone to a distance
of 300 yards (275 metres); such a trebuchet would have had a counterpoise of about 10 tons. Some
of the earliest unequivocal evidence of the use of the stirrup comes from Avar graves. Offensive arms
harm the enemy, while defensive weapons ward off offensive blows. These scientific observations
confirmed the insistence of early—and thoroughly unscientific—texts that charcoal from different
kinds of wood was suited to different applications. Towers were made with massive, protruding feet
to frustrate attempts at mining. The principles of radar, and its military applications, are covered in
radar. It originates from the realm of naval warfare, where a loose cannon on a ship could roll freely
and cause immense danger to the vessel and its crew. Until the late 15th century ce, when advances
in transportation technology broke down the barriers between them, the world contained a number of
military ecospheres. Forging an integral, one-piece dome of metal capable of covering the entire head
was extremely difficult. Prehistory The earliest military weapons The earliest evidence for a
specialized technology of war dates from the period before knowledge of metalworking had been
acquired. Our experts will answer your question WITHIN MINUTES for Free. Permanent versions
can be bought at the end of the quest. He then surrounded the city with a broad ditch that could be
swept by flanking fire from gunports set low in projections extending into the ditch. One, moving
westward, crossed into Europe and there originated the vast herds of primeval animals that
eventually roamed almost the entire continent. Torsion engines with two horizontally opposed arms
rotating in the horizontal plane, such as that described above, are called ballistae. Willow charcoal,
for example, was preferred for cannon powder and dogwood charcoal for small arms—a preference
substantiated by 19th-century tests. Siege weapons The most basic means of taking a fortress were
to storm the gate or go over the wall by simple escalade using ladders, but these methods rarely
succeeded except by surprise or treachery. Wet incorporation was more complete and uniform than
dry mixing, the process “froze” the components permanently into a stable grain matrix so that
separation was no longer a problem, and wet slurry could be ground in large quantities by water-
driven mills with little danger of explosion. An extended debate in the 1580s between advocates of
the longbow and proponents of gunpowder weapons hinged mainly on the small numbers and
limited skills of available archers, not around any inherent technical deficiency in the weapon itself.
It was then a logical, if expensive, step to cast or forge small metal plates and sew them onto a
protective garment. Once completed, the mine was fired to burn away the shoring; this collapsed the
gallery and brought down the walls. Sound infantry armed with the pike could fend off cavalry with
ease, even when outnumbered. To their surprise and relief, they discovered not only that the sloping
earthen rampart could be defended against escalade but that it was far more resistant to cannon shot
than the vertical stone wall that it supplanted. They acquired the name recurved since the outer arms
of the bow curved away from the archer when the bow was strung, which imparted a mechanical
advantage at the end of the draw. The late 12th-century helm was typically a barrel-shaped affair;
however, more sophisticated designs with hinged visors appeared as well.
They acquired the name recurved since the outer arms of the bow curved away from the archer when
the bow was strung, which imparted a mechanical advantage at the end of the draw. Tim Everson,
Warfare in Ancient Greece: Arms and Armour from the Heroes of Homer to Alexander the Great
(2004), drawing on archaeological evidence and Classical writings, discusses the weapons and tactics
in use from about 1550 to 150 bce. These developments were accompanied, and in part caused, by
increases in the size and power of war-horses and steady improvements in personal armour. This
scheme had significant advantages, particularly in the smaller classes of naval swivel guns and
fortress wallpieces, where the use of multiple breechblocks permitted a high rate of fire. Assume the
cannonball hits the cliff as it descends (on its way down) exactly at the edge, as shown. a.
Determine the maximum height above the ground reached by the cannonball.b. What speed will the.
The breakthrough that led to the emergence of true cannon derived from three basic perceptions. The
ox, the heavy-duty dray animal of the Mediterranean world, was used for military purposes when
heavy loads were involved and speed was not critical. The level ?Level? temp version is given
characters between levels ?TempRng. The Chinese used the substance in rockets, in pyrotechnic
projectors much like Roman candles, in crude cannon, and, according to some sources, in bombs
thrown by mechanical artillery. The first and most basic change was the migration of the touchhole
to the right side of the barrel, where it was served by a flashpan equipped with a hinged or pivoting
cover that protected the priming powder from wind, rain, and rough handling. Assuming the same
length of draw and available force, the total amount of potential energy that an archer could store in
a bow was a function of the bow’s length; that is, the longer the arms of the bow, the more energy
stored per unit of work expended in the draw and, therefore, the more kinetic energy imparted to the
string and arrow. What direction will the cannonball be moving just before it. For the principles of
aircraft flight, see airplane. John F. Guilmartin General considerations In the remote past, the
diffusion of military technology was gradual and uneven. This improved the weapon’s accuracy and
probably increased the range and penetrating power by permitting a harder cast. For a discussion of
modern military technology, see small arm, artillery, rocket and missile system, nuclear weapon,
chemical warfare, biological warfare, fortification, tank, naval ship, submarine, military aircraft,
warning system, and military communication. Finding their wall crumbling to French cannon fire, the
Pisans in desperation constructed an earthen rampart behind the threatened sector. This produced a
grudging acceptance among the European mounted elites, and the crossbow underwent a continuous
process of technical development toward greater power that ended only in the 16th century, with the
replacement of the crossbow by the harquebus and musket. Normally, they were cast breech down;
this placed the molten metal at the breech under pressure, resulting in a denser and stronger alloy
around the chamber, the most critical point. A closed helm seriously interfered with vision and made
voice communication in battle impossible. The first suits of full plate armour date from the first
decades of the 15th century. To their surprise and relief, they discovered not only that the sloping
earthen rampart could be defended against escalade but that it was far more resistant to cannon shot
than the vertical stone wall that it supplanted. Around 1600 bce, Iranian tribes introduced the war-
horse into Mesopotamia from the north, along with the light two-wheeled chariot. Finding that their
cannon fire made little impression on these low ramparts, the French and allied besiegers made
several bloody and fruitless assaults and then withdrew. The first was that gunpowder’s propellant
force could be used most effectively by confining it within a tubular barrel. The war elephant was
first used in India and was known to the Persians by the 4th century bce. Remixing at the battery
was necessary to maintain the proper proportions—an inconvenient and hazardous procedure
producing clouds of noxious and potentially explosive dust. A first-class bronze cannon of 1500
differed hardly at all in essential technology and ballistic performance from a cannon of 1850
designed to shoot a ball of the same weight. The net result was that breeds of large, powerful horses
suitable for mounted combat were difficult to establish and expensive to maintain, and they were
often lost in the turmoil of war. Most important, the gun could be transported without dismounting
the barrel by lifting the trail onto the limber, a two-wheeled mount that served as a pivoting front
axle and point of attachment for the team of horses. The earliest motte-and-bailey castles were built
where the ground was suitable and timber available, these factors apparently taking precedence over
considerations such as proximity to arable land or trade routes.
Another ball is then ?red with the same speed, but with the cannon aimed up along an incline of
length L, inclined at an angle. The first suits of full plate armour date from the first decades of the
15th century. Given walls high enough to defeat casual escalade, the prime threats to stone fortresses
were the battering ram and attempts to pry chunks out of the wall or undermine it. The cannon is
firing up onto an elevated hillside that is 60 meters. The helm was extremely heavy, and the entire
weight was borne by the neck; for this reason it was only donned immediately before combat. In its
basic form, it consisted of a six-foot shaft of ash or another hardwood, mounted by an ax blade that
had a forward point for thrusting and a thin projection on the back for piercing armour or pulling a
horseman off balance. This scheme had significant advantages, particularly in the smaller classes of
naval swivel guns and fortress wallpieces, where the use of multiple breechblocks permitted a high
rate of fire. The age of heavy shock cavalry did not come on suddenly, ushered in by the stirrup or
any other single invention. This improved carriage, though heavy in its proportions, would have been
familiar to a gunner of Napoleonic times. It usually rests on a sturdy mount or carriage, which can be
adjusted for aim and elevation. Another benefit of the polygonal bastion’s long, straight sections of
wall was that larger defensive batteries could be mounted along the parapets. The person speaking
has attempted to find the solution but has not been successful and is looking for help before the
homework deadline. Developments in foundry practice were accompanied by improvements in
weapon design. The one weapon that can stun and distract the children of Battleon. From precious
metals to base metals The dividing line between the utilitarian and the symbolic in warfare has never
been clear and unequivocal, and this line is particularly difficult to find in the design and
construction of early weaponry. The early bow The simple bow, made from a single piece of wood,
was known to Neolithic hunters; it is clearly depicted in cave paintings of 30,000 bc and earlier. The
chariot was the earliest means of transportation in combat other than a soldier’s own powers of
locomotion. Assume the cannonball hits the cliff as it descends (on its way down) exactly at the
edge, as shown. a. Determine the maximum height above the ground reached by the cannonball.b.
What speed will the. The Mongol warrior’s principal weapon was the composite recurved bow, of
which he might carry as many as three. This development overcame the inherent limitations of wood
in stiffness and tensile strength. Moreover, when they failed, they did not tear and rupture like
bronze guns but burst into fragments like a bomb. In some cases the attackers might approach the
fortress under the protection of wooden galleries. For a better experience, please enable JavaScript in
your browser before proceeding. Within this closed military topography, the crossbow soon proved
itself the missile weapon par excellence of positional and guerrilla warfare. Because the longer bow’s
more massive arms accelerated more slowly, a longer bow imparted kinetic energy to the string and
arrow at a lower velocity. In about 1750, advances in boring machines and cutting tools made it
possible for advanced foundries to cast barrels as solid blanks and then bore them out. Though
almost anything could be thrown, spherical projectiles of cut stone were the preferred ammunition.
Both gambeson and surcoat may have been Arab imports, adopted as a result of exposure to Muslim
technology during the Crusades. Personal armour Mail The availability to mounted warrior elites of
iron armour of high quality, particularly mail, was instrumental in the fall of Rome and in the
establishment of European feudalism. The third perception was that a spherical ball was the optimal
projectile.
It is evident that the technical problems of hafting a stone onto a handle were not easily solved.
These, however, were feeble weapons by contemporary European standards and had relatively little
penetrating power. A closed box is filled with dry ice at a temperature. By the last quarter of the 16th
century there were few longbowmen available, and the skill and strength of those who responded to
muster was on the whole well below the standards of two centuries earlier. There was, for example, a
tradition of fortified towns, stemming from Roman fortification, that enjoyed a tenuous existence
throughout the Dark Ages, particularly in the Mediterranean world. Then, beginning in the late 18th
century, the application of science to ballistics began to produce practical results. The principles of
radar, and its military applications, are covered in radar. Our experts will answer your question
WITHIN MINUTES for Free. The gunpowder revolution Two books by academic historians that
look closely at how warfare was changed as Europeans grew to understand the power of gunpowder
weapons are Bert S. The earliest of the Greek engines was the gastrophetes, or “belly shooter.” In
effect a large crossbow, it received its name because the user braced the stock against his belly to
draw the weapon. The modern gun would have been shorter and lighter, and it would have been
mounted on a more efficient carriage, but it would have fired its ball no farther and no more
accurately. Normally, they were cast breech down; this placed the molten metal at the breech under
pressure, resulting in a denser and stronger alloy around the chamber, the most critical point. In
response, outworks were developed, such as ravelins (detached outworks in front of the bastions)
and demilunes (semidetached outworks in the ditch between bastions), to shield the main fortress
walls from direct battery. The Germanic tribes that pressed against the boundaries of Rome from the
3rd century on may have made a breakthrough in horse breeding, and, in the Arab conquests of the
7th century and following, the superior breed of the Arabian horse was a major determinant of
tactical success. Trebuchets might have a fixed counterpoise, a pivoted counterpoise, or a
counterpoise that could be slid up and down the arm to adjust for range. Gunpowder bridged the gap
between the old and the new intellectually as well as technologically. The experience of the ancient
Greek hoplite infantrymen is one example of positive influence. Though the hafting is quite different,
bronze Sumerian spearheads of the 3rd millennium bce differ only marginally in shape from the leaf-
shaped spearheads of classical Greece. The Romans constructed huge siege towers, one of which
Caesar mentions as being 150 feet high. One of the most striking facets of ancient military
technology is the early date by which individual weapons attained their form and the longevity of
early offensive weapons concepts. All you have to do is give the Vox Nerds an assignment and they
can't help but drop everything they are doing and complete it. The invention of mechanical artillery
was ascribed traditionally to the initiative of Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, in Sicily, who in 399
bce directed his engineers to construct military engines in preparation for war with Carthage. The
knight’s defensive equipment was completed by a large, kite-shaped shield, nearly two-thirds the
height of its owner. Small breechloaders continued to be used in these ways well into the 17th
century. The reasons for the crossbow’s success were simple: crossbows were capable of killing the
most powerful of mounted warriors, yet they were far cheaper than war-horses and armour and were
much easier to master than the skills of equestrian combat. The pressure of the propellant gases
forced the punches outward against soft copper plates, and the maximum pressure was then
determined by calculating the amount of pressure needed to create an indentation of equal depth in
the copper. The nature of the breakthrough in production technology is unclear, but it probably
involved larger furnaces and a more efficient organization of resources. This was due in part to
limitations in the size, strength, and stamina of horses and in part to deficiencies in crucial supporting
technologies, notably the inefficiency of harnesses for horses and nonpivoting front axles for
wagons. This infantry revolution began when the crossbow spread northward into areas that were
peripheral to the economic, cultural, and political core of feudal Europe and where the topography
was unfavourable for mounted shock action and the land too poor to support an armoured elite.
Later, armourers used punches of hardened iron to cut rings from sheets: this reduced the labour
involved and, hence, the cost.
The war-horse The destrier, or medieval war-horse, was central to the tactical viability of European
feudalism. The pike While the halberd could penetrate the best plate armour, allowing infantrymen to
inflict heavy casualties on their mounted opponents, the lance’s advantage in length meant that men-
at-arms could inflict heavy casualties in return. There were two channels through which the horses of
Arabia and North Africa were distributed into northern Europe. Perhaps as a consequence, a wide
variety of individual offensive weapons appeared in antiquity. Le recoil of the tube itself last 0.05 s.
Determine. Castle entrances, which were few and small to begin with, were protected by barbicans,
low-lying outworks dominated by the walls and towers behind. But, while these changes were
important operationally, they represented only marginal improvements to the same basic technology.
It may have been used following the sack of Constantinople by Venetian-supported Crusaders in
1204, but it probably disappeared from use after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453.
Another ball is then ?red with the same speed, but with the cannon aimed up along an incline of
length L, inclined at an angle. The idea of mounting a bow permanently at right angles across a stock
that was fitted with a trough for the arrow, or bolt, and a mechanical trigger to hold the drawn string
and release it at will was very old. Wrought-iron breechloaders Partly because of the difficulties of
making a long, continuous barrel, and partly because of the relative ease of loading a powder charge
into a short breechblock, gunsmiths soon learned to make cannon in which the barrel and powder
chamber were separate. This was due in part to limitations in the size, strength, and stamina of horses
and in part to deficiencies in crucial supporting technologies, notably the inefficiency of harnesses for
horses and nonpivoting front axles for wagons. By about 1500 bce the cutting ax had evolved into
the sickle sword, a bronze sword with a curved concave blade and a straight thickened handle. The
palette depicts Menes, the first pharaoh of a unified Egypt, ritually smashing the forehead of an
enemy with a mace. Sometime before the middle of the 16th century, English smiths developed a
highly compact four-wheeled truck carriage for mounting trunnion-equipped shipboard ordnance,
resulting in cannon that would have been familiar to a naval gunner of Horatio Nelson ’s day. Mail
protection for horses became common in the 13th century; by the 15th, plate horse armour was used
extensively. The connection between gunpowder and steam power is instructive. Bronze was the
most common metal for body defenses well into the Iron Age, a consequence of the fact that it could
be worked in large pieces without extended hand forging and careful tempering, while iron had to be
forged from relatively small billets. The result was the wheel lock mechanism, consisting of a
serrated wheel rotated by a spring and a spring-loaded set of jaws that held a piece of iron pyrites
against the wheel. The principles of radar, and its military applications, are covered in radar. Most
important, the gun could be transported without dismounting the barrel by lifting the trail onto the
limber, a two-wheeled mount that served as a pivoting front axle and point of attachment for the
team of horses. The development of mechanical locks was accompanied by the evolution of
gunstocks with proper grips and an enlarged butt to transmit the recoil to the user’s body. By the late
4th and 5th centuries, Roman fortresses were being built on easily defensible ground with irregular
outlines that conformed to the topography; clearly, passive defense had become the dominant design
consideration. I then took the deriviative to find the optimal angle, but I could not figure out the
equation. Around 1600 bce, Iranian tribes introduced the war-horse into Mesopotamia from the
north, along with the light two-wheeled chariot. These, however, were feeble weapons by
contemporary European standards and had relatively little penetrating power. The potential of such
engines was apparent, and the demand for greater power and range quickly exceeded the capabilities
of tension. This lock was an adaptation of the tinderbox used for starting fires. The dynamic friction
coefficient between the cannon and the ground is 0.6. The height of the tube front end is at 1600 mm
above ground. Assuming the same length of draw and available force, the total amount of potential
energy that an archer could store in a bow was a function of the bow’s length; that is, the longer the
arms of the bow, the more energy stored per unit of work expended in the draw and, therefore, the
more kinetic energy imparted to the string and arrow.
The copper mace head, yielding higher density and greater crushing power, represents one of the
earliest significant uses of metal for other than ornamental purposes. Firing was apparently
accomplished by applying a red-hot wire to a touchhole drilled through the top of the thickest part of
the breech. The Mongols The 13th-century Mongol armies of Genghis Khan and his immediate
successors depended on large herds of grass-fed Mongolian ponies, as many as six or eight to a
warrior. Then, beginning in the late 18th century, the application of science to ballistics began to
produce practical results. This process began in the 12th century with the Mongol conquest of China
and invasions of Europe, and it quickened and assumed a more pronounced European flavour in the
15th and 16th centuries with the development of oceangoing ships armed with gunpowder weapons.
By 1440 the Gothic style of plate armour was well developed, representing the ultimate development
of personal armour protection. The composite bow’s resistance to bending was increased by
reinforcing the rear, or belly, of the bow with horn; its speed and power in recoil were increased by
overlaying the front of the bow with sinew, usually applied under tension. To their surprise and
relief, they discovered not only that the sloping earthen rampart could be defended against escalade
but that it was far more resistant to cannon shot than the vertical stone wall that it supplanted. In
1543 an English parson, working on a royal commission from Henry VIII, perfected a method for
casting reasonably safe, operationally efficient cannon of iron. It originated from the term used to
describe a cannon that gets detached from its mountings on a ship, endangering the crew as it rolls
unpredictably about the deck. This gave halberd fighting a ferocious all-or-nothing quality and
placed a premium on cohesion. Its main disadvantage was its weight, which tended to hang from the
shoulders and waist. Remixing at the battery was necessary to maintain the proper proportions—an
inconvenient and hazardous procedure producing clouds of noxious and potentially explosive dust.
Finding their wall crumbling to French cannon fire, the Pisans in desperation constructed an earthen
rampart behind the threatened sector. Assuming the same length of draw and available force, the total
amount of potential energy that an archer could store in a bow was a function of the bow’s length;
that is, the longer the arms of the bow, the more energy stored per unit of work expended in the draw
and, therefore, the more kinetic energy imparted to the string and arrow. The wooden towers were
vulnerable to fire, so that their faces were generally covered with hides. The English longbow
Courtesy of the West Point Museum Collections, United States Military Academy. Ultimately, the
thickness of iron needed to stop missiles—at first arrows and crossbow bolts, then harquebus and
musket balls—made armour so heavy as to be impractical for active service. The earliest known
chariots, shown in Sumerian depictions from about 2500 bce, were not true chariots but four-
wheeled carts with solid wooden wheels drawn by a team of four donkeys or wild asses. As
defensive armour and other weapons of shock combat (notably the sword) improved, spear shafts
were made longer and the use of the spear became more specialized. The Corinthian Greek helmet, a
deep bowl-shaped helmet of carefully graduated thickness forged from a single piece of bronze,
probably represented the functional as well as aesthetic apex of the bronze worker’s art. After an
extended period of dependence on Teutonic and Hunnish mercenary cavalry, the reforms of the
emperors Maurice and Heraclius in the 6th and 7th centuries developed an effective provincial militia
based on the institution of pronoia, the award of nonhereditary grants of land capable of supporting
an armoured horse archer called a cataphract. Well-made maces were for a long time few in number
and were, by and large, wielded only by champions and rulers. It also produced considerable
quantities of superheated gas, which, if confined in a partially enclosed container, could drive a
projectile out of the open end. The combination of short range, inaccuracy, and slow rate of fire
meant that crossbowmen in the open field were extremely vulnerable to cavalry. This was partly
because their rarity and expense restricted them to combat roles, and partly because of the lack of a
suitable harness. The disadvantage of a long bow was that the stored energy had to serve not only to
drive the string and arrow but also to accelerate the mass of the bow itself. The terminology of
mechanical artillery is confusing. The first step was a simple S-shaped “trigger,” called a serpentine,
fastened to the side of a hand cannon’s stock. The first category was the culverins, “long” guns with
bores on the order of 30 calibres or more.
This assumes that there is no air resistance and the cannon is fired horizontally. 4. What factors affect
the trajectory of a ball fired from a cannon. The speed and agility of these light horses so impressed
them that large numbers were imported into England and France. Bronze By classical times,
breastplates of bronze, at first beaten and then cast to the warrior’s individual shape, had become
commonplace among heavy infantry and elite cavalry. Success in combat, the sine qua non of
military organizations and the ultimate purpose of military technology, depends on the ability of the
combatant group to coordinate the actions of its members in a tactically effective manner. The first
of these was the defense of Pisa in 1500 against a combined Florentine and French army. He also
carried a sabre or scimitar, a lasso, and perhaps a lance. The technology of defensive weapons was
rarely static. This assumes that there is no air resistance and the cannon is fired at an angle of 45
degrees. 3. How do you calculate the time of flight for a ball fired from a cannon. To their surprise
and relief, they discovered not only that the sloping earthen rampart could be defended against
escalade but that it was far more resistant to cannon shot than the vertical stone wall that it
supplanted. The gate could also be sealed by means of a drawbridge. The Hyksos apparently
introduced the chariot into Egypt shortly thereafter, by which time it was a mature technology. But it
was by no means an exclusively European phenomenon; to the contrary, the mounted warrior’s
tactical supremacy was less complete in western Europe than in any other region of comparably
advanced technology save Japan, where a strikingly parallel feudal situation prevailed. The
development of a means of harnessing the energy released by a chemical reaction in order to drive a
projectile against a target marked a watershed in the harnessing of energy to human needs. Their
principal offensive arms were lance, sabre, and bow. Find the horizontal distance traveled to where
the projectile. What should ? be so that the ball travels the largest horizontal distance d by the time it
returns to the height of the top of the plane? 2. David Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms in the
Mamluk Kingdom: A Challenge to a Mediaeval Society, 2nd ed. (1978), studies a military elite that
failed to adapt to gunpowder. The Jewish historian Josephus referred to Roman catapults used in the
siege of Jerusalem in 70 ce that could throw a stone weighing 1 talent (about 55 pounds, or 25
kilograms) 2 stadia (400 yards, or 366 metres) or more. As a consequence, the materials used for
arrowheads tended to be a step behind those used for other offensive technologies. These factors,
combined with the inherent lack of precision in the trigger and release mechanism, made the ordinary
military crossbow considerably shorter-ranged and less accurate than a serious military bow in the
hands of a skilled archer. As armour protection became more complete and heavier, larger breeds of
horses appeared. The reaction impulse is the same at both points A and B. When these barbarian
peoples invaded the empire, the vast number of horses that they possessed helped them to overthrow
the Romans. With a horse, most of the pulling load was borne by the neck strap, which tended to
strangle the horse and constrict blood flow. John Gibson Warry, Warfare in the Classical World: An
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors, and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece
and Rome (1980, reissued 1995), is illustrated with photos, diagrams, maps, and battle plans. This
assumes that there is no air resistance and the cannon is fired horizontally. 2. What is the maximum
height reached by a ball fired from a cannon. Black powder was a product of the alchemist’s art, and
although alchemy presaged science in believing that physical reality was determined by an unvarying
set of natural laws, the alchemist’s experimental method was hardly scientific. As founders
established mastery over bronze, cannon became shorter and lighter. Plate armour, at first worn above
mail as reinforcement, began to replace it entirely except in areas such as the crotch, the armpits, and
the back of the knees, where the armourer’s skill could not devise a sufficiently flexible joint. By the
last quarter of the 16th century there were few longbowmen available, and the skill and strength of
those who responded to muster was on the whole well below the standards of two centuries earlier.