Mechanisms of High-pH and

John A. Beavers
e-mail: [email protected] Near-Neutral-pH SCC of
Brent A. Harle Underground Pipelines
CC Technologies,
Dublin, OH 43016 This paper provides an overview of mechanisms for high-pH and near-neutral pH stress
corrosion cracking of underground pipelines. Characteristics and historical information
on both forms of cracking are discussed. This information is then used to support pro-
posed mechanisms for crack initiation and growth. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1376716兴

Introduction possible causative agents, including nitrates, phosphates, and

caustic. All of these species are passivating agents and can cause
The first incident of stress corrosion cracking 共SCC兲 on natural
SCC of carbon steels. However, pH values high enough to cause
gas pipelines was reported in the mid-1960s and there have been
caustic cracking were never detected in electrolyte samples taken
numerous failures since that time. Most of the early failures were
from beneath coatings at failure sites and there was no evidence
intergranular in nature 关1兴, whereas, many of the recent failures
for concentration of nitrates or phosphates above the low levels
are transgranular 关2兴. It is now recognized that there are two forms
found in groundwaters. In the early 1970s, it was discovered that
of external SCC on underground pipelines. The intergranular form
a concentrated carbonate-bicarbonate solution could also cause
is referred to as high-pH or classical SCC, while the transgranular
SCC of pipeline steels 关3兴 and evidence for concentration of car-
form is referred to as low-pH, nonclassical, or near-neutral-pH
bonates at the pipe surface was found in a limited number of cases
SCC. Further details of these two forms of cracking, and possible
关1兴. Table 2 is a summary of the environmental analyses.
mechanisms for initiation and propagation, are given in the forth-
It was concluded that a concentrated carbonate-bicarbonate so-
coming.
lution was responsible for the SCC observed on pipelines and a
plausible mechanism for the development of the environment was
Characteristics proposed 关1兴. Essentially, the cathodic protection 共CP兲 system
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the two forms of causes a pH increase at the pipe surface. Carbon dioxide, which
SCC. Both forms occur in colonies with numerous cracks on the is present in the soil, is rapidly absorbed by the high-pH
pipe surface that are generally longitudinal in direction, and local- solution to generate the concentrated carbonate-bicarbonate
ized to a small area of pipe on a joint. These cracks link up to 共CO⫺2 ⫺
3 –HCO3 兲 environment. This environment is simulated in
form long shallow flaws, which can lead to ruptures. For both the laboratory using a 1N NaHCO3 –1N Na2 CO3 solution, which
forms, the fracture faces are usually covered with black magnetite has a pH of about 9.3.
or iron carbonate films. However, there are a number of differ- In spite of the fact that its selection was based on very limited
ences in the two forms of cracking. The cracks associated with field measurements, the concentrated carbonate-bicarbonate envi-
near-neutral pH SCC are generally wide and transgranular in na-
ture with evidence of corrosion of the crack walls. High-pH stress
corrosion cracks are generally intergranular and are usually sharp Table 1 Comparison of high-pH and near-neutral pH SCC
with little evidence of corrosion of the crack walls. Near-neutral
pH cracking is associated with tenting of tape coatings at the
long-seam welds and under tape wrinkles, where iron carbonate
paste deposits are present on the pipe surface. High-pH stress
corrosion cracks are usually found in the body of the pipe. Pitting
corrosion and CO2 attack also are occasionally associated with
near-neutral pH SCC sites, while high-pH stress corrosion cracks
usually are not associated with significant corrosion.

Controlling Factors
For SCC to occur on an engineering structure, three conditions
must be met simultaneously; a specific crack-promoting environ-
ment must be present, the metallurgy of the material must be
susceptible to SCC, and tensile stresses above some threshold
value must be present. Each of these factors is discussed in the
forthcoming for high-pH and near-neutral-pH SCC of natural gas
pipelines.
HIGH-pH SCC
Environmental Factors. When SCC was first observed on
natural gas pipelines, several chemical species were considered as

Contributed by the OMAE Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF OFF-

SHORE MECHANICS AND ARCTIC ENGINEERING. Manuscript received by the
OMAE Division, March 2, 1999; revised manuscript received March 21, 2001. Edi-
tor: S. Liu

Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering AUGUST 2001, Vol. 123 Õ 147
Copyright © 2001 by ASME

Downloaded From: http://offshoremechanics.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 02/27/2015 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 Table 2 Composition of liquids found under coatings near the
locations of stress-corrosion cracks †1‡

Fig. 2 Potential – pH region where SCC was found for line

pipe steels in carbonate-bicarbonate solutions at 75°C; after †5‡

ronment was readily accepted by the pipeline industry and the

scientific community as the causative agent for SCC of natural gas
pipelines. This was the case primarily because the characteristics
of the SCC generated on line pipe samples in the laboratory in this
environment were consistent with most of the field observations at The limited potential and pH ranges over which SCC occurs in
that time. These include the intergranular mode of cracking, the the high-pH environment provides an explanation for the infre-
temperature, potential, and stress dependence of cracking, the ini- quent occurrence of high-pH SCC on most pipeline systems.
tiation of multiple cracks on pipeline samples, and the association These dependencies also suggest that seasonal fluctuations are im-
of the cracking with a black magnetite film. portant in the cracking process. Significant CP current flow to the
Stress corrosion cracking of pipeline steels in the high-pH en- pipe is required to generate the elevated pH environment required
vironment occurs over a very limited potential range that is about to absorb the CO2 . On the other hand, the potential range for SCC
100 mV wide, is centered around about ⫺720 mV Cu/CuSO4 lies between the native potential of most pipelines, and adequate
共CSE兲 at 75°C, and moves in the positive 共noble兲 direction with protection, ⫺850 mV 共CSE兲. This paradox can be resolved if one
decreasing temperature 关4兴. This potential range is associated with assumes that the environment and potential vary on a seasonal
the active-passive transition in a potentiodynamic polarization basis, with SCC occurring only during periods of the year where
curve, as shown in Fig. 1 关5兴. Stress corrosion cracking in the adequate CP is not achieved.
high-pH environment also occurs over a limited pH range, cen- Metallurgical Factors . In the early 1970s, an extensive field
tered near pH 9, as shown in Fig. 2. At pH values above ten, the survey was performed on SCC of natural gas pipelines, which was
solution is primarily composed of carbonate and the passive film presented in the Fifth Symposium on Line Pipe Research 关1兴. The
characteristics and electrochemistry are not conducive to SCC. At survey attempted to correlate the occurrence of SCC with metal-
pH values below eight, the solution is dominated by the bicarbon- lurgical, environmental, and operating parameters. SCC was
ate anion, which is not highly soluble unless cations other than found to occur on pipelines having a variety of diameters, wall
Na⫹ 共e.g., NH⫹ 4 兲 are present. High-pH cracking does not readily thicknesses, pipe grades, compositions, manufacturers, and join-
occur at lower pHs since the dominant cation found in high-pH ing techniques. The range of compositions in which SCC was
electrolytes is Na⫹ . found covered the range of almost all line pipe in use at the time.
Subsequently, the Pipeline Research Committee 共PRC兲 of
A.G.A. funded a number of programs to investigate the relation-
ship between SCC susceptibility and metallurgical variables in an
attempt to identify cracking resistant steels for future construction.
Differences in the SCC susceptibility of different line pipe steels,
as measured by differences in the threshold stress for crack initia-
tion, were found in the studies, but the root cause for these differ-
ences was not identified. Practicable steel compositions or heat
treatments that resist SCC were not identified. It was found that
major alloy additions, ⬎1 percent, of some elements could in-
crease SCC resistance, but such additions are prohibitively expen-
sive 关6,7兴.
Mechanical Factors . In order for stress corrosion cracks to
propagate in a material, tensile stresses must be present at the
crack tip. Tensile stresses also are required for SCC initiation, and
cracking usually initiates at defects on the surface where stress
concentrations may exist. Crack initiation does not occur below
some value of the tensile stress, referred to as the threshold stress
( ␴ th兲.
The tensile stresses can be applied or residual in nature. In the
Fig. 1 Potentiodynamic polarization curves for mild steel at case of SCC of pipelines, both have been shown to play a role in
90°C in 1N Na2CO3 –1N NaHCO3 at two scan rates, showing the cracking. Many cases of longitudinal SCC have occurred in the
potential range over which SCC occurs; after †5‡ body of the pipe where the primary stress is the hoop stress gen-

148 Õ Vol. 123, AUGUST 2001 Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://offshoremechanics.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 02/27/2015 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 erated by the internal pressure. This contention is supported by the
fact that SCC occurs much less frequently on heavy wall pipe,
where hoop stresses are lower.
The threshold stress parameter, ␴ th , for the initiation of SCC on
line pipe steels has been studied extensively in the laboratory in
the high-pH cracking environment. It has been found that ␴ th for
machined surfaces approaches the yield stress of most steels, but
␴ th is significantly reduced for an actual pipe surface by the pres-
ence of mill scale and pits on the surface 关8兴. For mill-scaled
surfaces, ␴ th values measured in the laboratory are typically be-
tween 60 and 70 percent of specified minimum yield strength
共SMYS兲 in the high-pH cracking environment 关9兴. There is a sig-
nificant amount of scatter in the ␴ th data for a given steel, which
may be the result of variation in surface residual stresses, surface
condition 共pitting or mill scale distribution兲, or in the thermome-
chanical treatment during fabrication.
Cyclic stressing also affects SCC. Laboratory studies in the
high-pH cracking environment have shown that the small pressure
fluctuations associated with operation of a natural gas pipeline
exacerbate SCC 关7兴. This effect has been attributed to the occur- Fig. 3 Anodic potentiodynamic polarization curve for X-65 line
rence of cyclic creep at the crack tips, which facilitates rupture of pipe steel at 35°C in a simulated near-neutral pH cracking elec-
the passive films. trolyte „NS4… sparged with gas containing 5 percent CO2 –95
percent N2 ; scan rate 0.17 mVÕs; after †10‡
Near-Neutral-pH SCC
Environmental Factors. The environmental aspects of SCC
appeared to be reasonably well understood until one pipeline com-
pany started experiencing SCC on their polyethylene tape and the soil. However, in the case of near-neutral pH SCC, cathodic
asphalt-coated pipelines in the 1980s. An extensive field investi- protection current cannot flow to the pipe either because of shield-
gation program showed that the occurrence of SCC correlated ing of the current by coatings such as polyethylene tapes, high
with near-neutral-pH 共pH⬍8兲 dilute CO2 containing electrolytes resistance soils, or a poor cathodic protection system design. As a
and that cracking was not observed where higher pH electrolytes result, a dilute carbonic acid solution develops.
were detected 关2兴. Metallurgical Factors. Near-neutral-pH SCC has been ob-
There is significantly less laboratory information on the near- served on a number of pipelines having different grades and yield
neutral-pH form of cracking. Initial attempts to reproduce near- strengths. They do all appear to be carbon-manganese steels with
neutral-pH SCC in the laboratory met with limited success. In a ferrite/pearlite microstructure. Near-neutral-pH SCC failures
these initial studies, the test techniques used were similar to those with the newer micro-alloyed very low-carbon steels have not
that had been successfully used or developed for the evaluation of been reported. This may simply reflect the fact that these are
high-pH SCC. For example, negligible cracking has been ob- newer steels 共have not been in service as long兲 and have better
served in tapered tensile tests performed in near-neutral-pH envi- coatings. In any case, there are no laboratory or field data indicat-
ronments under cyclic load conditions that simulate pipeline op- ing that one particular microstructure or grade of steel is signifi-
erating conditions. Cracking has been reported in slow strain rate cantly more resistant to near-neutral pH SCC.
共SSR兲 tests, but the cracks generally are confined to the necked Results of constant displacement rate tests performed in a near-
regions of the specimens where extreme mechanical loading con- neutral pH cracking environment 关13兴 on compact-type specimens
ditions are encountered 关10兴. Other related studies have been of an X-65 line pipe steel demonstrated that the heat-affected zone
somewhat more successful, although they shed only limited light 共HAZ兲 adjacent to the weld is more susceptible to cracking than
on the cracking mechanism. For example, electrochemical studies the base material. Average crack velocities were about a factor of
of line pipe steels clearly demonstrate that the near-neutral pH two higher in the HAZ than in the base material, based on frac-
environments do not promote the active-passive transitions that tography of the test specimens. The through-wall precrack in the
are observed with the high-pH cracking environment; compare compact-type specimen was located partially in the HAZ and par-
Figs. 1 and 3. tially in the base metal and the crack front advanced further in the
More recently, significant advances have been made in repro- HAZ microstructure in the stress corrosion tests. Higher crack
ducing near-neutral pH SCC, although additional research is velocities also have been observed at the bond line of the electric
needed to fully understand the mechanism of cracking. Parkins resistance weld than in the base metal in an X-52 line pipe steel.
关11兴 reported that environmentally induced cracks can be initiated
in the surfaces of line pipe steels in the near-neutral-pH cracking Mechanical Factors. The mechanical conditions for near-
environments under cyclic loading conditions. The cracks initiate neutral pH SCC appear to be more restrictive than those for
most readily on natural, corroded, mill-scaled surfaces. However, high-pH SCC. In SSR tests, cracking is generally only observed
the cyclic-load conditions 共stress ranges, frequencies, and number within the necked region of the specimen where plastic deforma-
of cycles兲 required to obtain crack initiation in a reasonable length tion and true stresses are very high, as previously described. In
of time are generally more severe than those encountered in the testing of compact-type specimens 关13兴, crack growth was only
field. Harle et al. 关12兴 produced transgranular crack propagation in detected where dynamic loading conditions were used.
a near-neutral-pH environment using precracked compact-type A threshold stress for crack initiation in the near-neutral pH
specimens of line pipe steels. The fractography of the specimens environment has not been established. A strong relationship has
was very similar to that observed in the field and the crack propa- been established between the occurrence of SCC on one pipeline
gation rates were consistent with field observations. system and class location. On that system, SCC has led to about
The results of these studies and field observations all indicate 20 failures in Class I locations, operating at 62 to 77 percent of
that the environment responsible for near-neutral pH cracking is SMYS, while only minor cracking and no failures have occurred
dilute groundwater containing dissolved CO2 . As is the case with on Class II or III locations, which operate at 64 and 53 percent of
high-pH SCC, the source of the CO2 is decay of organic matter in SMYS, respectively 关14兴. This relationship suggests that either the

Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering AUGUST 2001, Vol. 123 Õ 149

Downloaded From: http://offshoremechanics.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 02/27/2015 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 threshold stress for SCC initiation is above about 65 percent of dence of environmental cracking also has been observed in deion-
SMYS or that crack growth rates at these stresses are too low to ized water in which carbon dioxide was bubbled. In contrast, the
cause significant problems. potential range for cracking in the concentrated carbonate-
bicarbonate environment 共high-pH cracking environment兲 is very
Mechanistic Considerations narrow as previously described. In the high-pH environment, both
carbonate and bicarbonate species must be present and cracking
A number of mechanisms has been proposed for SCC of metals occurs over a limited range of pH and potential, as shown in Fig.
关15兴. Three well-accepted mechanisms, at the present time, are the 2.
anodic dissolution mechanism, the film induced cleavage 共FIC兲 Finally, evidence of crack propagation was not detected in con-
mechanism, and hydrogen-related mechanisms. Normally, a dis- stant load and interrupted constant displacement rate tests on line
tinction is not made between initiation and propagation mecha- pipe steels in a near-neutral pH cracking environment 关13兴. In
nisms. In the anodic dissolution mechanism, the applied stress contrast, alloy-environment systems where the anodic dissolution
causes plastic deformation and rupture of films on the metal sur- mechanism is thought to operate all exhibit crack growth under
face. The rupture of the film exposes bare metal to the environ- constant load or constant displacement conditions.
ment that undergoes rapid anodic dissolution. The crack actually The characteristics of near-neutral pH SCC also do not appear
propagates by dissolution, but the passive film prevents corrosion to be consistent with a film-induced cleavage 共FIC兲 mechanism.
of the crack walls so a crack geometry is maintained. This mechanism requires the presence of a brittle coherent oxide
Very specific conditions, with respect to film formation behav- film, dealloyed layer, or some other brittle film or layer. There is
ior, film properties, metal creep rate, and corrosion rate of the bare no evidence that a film or layer with the required properties is
metal surface must be present for this mechanism to operate. present. One could argue that the iron carbonate/magnetite corro-
Where film formation rates are slow or creep rates are high, one sion products that are present on the fracture faces are responsible
would expect crack tip blunting. At the other extreme 共high pas- for FIC of the metal but fundamental studies to investigate this
sivation rates and/or low creep rates兲, one would expect the pas- hypothesis have not been performed.
sive film to maintain coverage of the metal surface, preventing The most plausible mechanism for crack propagation in the
crack advance. These properties also affect behavior within the near-neutral pH environment is a hydrogen-related mechanism. It
ranges where cracking occurs. Where creep rates are high and is well established that hydrogen can cause several types of dam-
repassivation rates are low, one would expect a continuous pro- age to steels including H2S cracking, delayed hydrogen embrittle-
cess. Where creep rates are low and repassivation rates are high, ment of high strength steels, and hydrogen effects on the plasticity
one would expect a more discontinuous process. Intergranular of low-strength steels 关17兴. The mechanisms for these different
SCC failures are frequently attributed to this mechanism since forms of hydrogen embrittlement all involve the entry of hydro-
impurities at the grain boundaries have pronounced effects on gen into the lattice of the metal and its concentration at crack tips
repassivation and creep behavior. and other stress raisers because of the high triaxial stresses at
Alloy-environment systems where the anodic dissolution those locations. A number of effects of hydrogen at the crack tip
mechanism is thought to operate include carbon steel and low- have been postulated, including reduction in the cohesive strength
alloy steels in caustic, nitrates, phosphates, and in concentrated of the lattice, the formation of unstable brittle hydrides, the for-
carbonate-bicarbonate. In these systems, cracking is intergranular mation of strain-induced martensite, the pinning of dislocations,
and the steel exhibits active-passive behavior. Anodic dissolution and hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity 共HELP兲. Cracking in
rates of bare steel are high in these environments and maximum H2S is normally associated with sulfides since they poison the
cracking velocities can be accurately predicted based on these recombination of hydrogen atoms on the surface of the metal and,
rates. in so doing, enhance the entry of hydrogen into the metal.
The information available on near-neutral pH SCC propagation The most likely source of hydrogen in near-neutral pH SCC is
is not consistent with this mechanism. The cracking in the near- carbonic acid, formed by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in the
neutral pH environment is transgranular, whereas the anodic dis- groundwater 关18兴
solution mechanism is most commonly associated with inter-
granular cracking. As described in the foregoing, line pipe steels CO2⫹ H2O⫽H2CO3 共 sol兲 (2)
do not exhibit active passive transitions in the near-neutral pH
cracking environments. The maximum anodic current densities The carbonic acid can further react with water to produce a hy-
also are low for the observed cracking velocities. With the anodic dronium ion and a bicarbonate ion
dissolution mechanism, one can estimate the maximum crack ve-
locity based on Faraday’s law H2CO3 共 sol兲 ⫹ H2O⫽H3O⫹ ⫹ HCO⫺
3 (3)

da/dt⫽i * The hydronium ion is then reduced to generate hydrogen at the

a M /z*F*d (1)
metal surface. Schmidt 关18兴 also identified a second mechanism
where da/dt is the crack velocity, i a is the anodic current density, for hydrogen generation involving adsorbed species on the metal
M is the atomic weight, z is the oxidation state of the solvated surface. Corrosion potential measurements 关13兴 are consistent
species, d is the density, and F is Faraday’s constant. In research with this mechanism for hydrogen generation. Typical corrosion
performed at CC Technologies 关16兴, typical anodic current densi- potentials for X-65 steel in a dilute groundwater solution 共NS4兲
ties are of the order of 20 ␮A/cm2 for X-65 line pipe steel in a containing 5 percent CO2 共pH of about 6.75兲 is ⫺785 mV CSE
near-neutral pH SCC environment that was sparged with 5 percent 共⫺485 mV SHE兲. See Table 3 for NS4 composition. On a Pour-
CO2 . This current density corresponds to a crack velocity of about baix diagram for CO2 , this pH and potential lie slightly below the
7⫻10⫺9 mm/s. In contrast, Harle 关12兴 observed that crack veloci- hydrogen reduction line.
ties were at least two orders of magnitude higher in constant dis- The foregoing discussion has not distinguished between SCC
placement rate testing of precracked specimens of line pipe steels initiation and SCC propagation. For many of the systems where
in this near-neutral pH cracking environment. the anodic dissolution mechanism is thought to operate, it is gen-
The lack of specificity of the conditions for crack propagation erally considered that both initiation and propagation occur by the
in the near-neutral pH environment also is not consistent with an same mechanism. There are some exceptions, such as situations
anodic dissolution mechanism for crack propagation. For ex- where stress corrosion cracks initiate at pits. It is probably more
ample, near-neutral pH cracking appears to be relatively less sen- common for hydrogen-related growth mechanisms to work in con-
sitive to potential than high-pH SCC 关10兴. The severity of near- cert with other initiation mechanisms.
neutral pH SCC does appear to increase with increasing negative In the case of near-neutral pH SCC, other possible initiation
potential 关11兴 in bulk solutions. In more recent work 关12兴, evi- mechanisms include fatigue, pitting, or even high-pH SCC. A

150 Õ Vol. 123, AUGUST 2001 Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://offshoremechanics.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 02/27/2015 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

 Table 3 Compositions of simulated near-neutral pH cracking rosion cracks may occur by a hydrogen embrittlement mechanism
electrolytes †11‡ and cyclic loading is important in the crack propagation process.

References
关1兴 Wenk, R. L., 1974, ‘‘Field Investigation of Stress Corrosion Cracking,’’ 5th
Symposium on Line Pipe Research, American Gas Association, Inc., Arling-
ton, VA, Catalog No. L30174, Paper No. T.
关2兴 Justice, J. T., and Mackenzie, J. D., 1988, ‘‘Progress in the Control of Stress
Corrosion Cracking in a 914 mm O.D. Gas Transmission Pipeline,’’ Proc.
NG-18/EPRG Seventh Biennial Joint Technical Meeting on Line Pipe Re-
search, Pipeline Research Committee of the American Gas Association, Ar-
lington, VA, Paper No. 28.
关3兴 Sutcliffe, J. M., Fessler, R. R., Boyd, W. K., and Parkins, R. N., 1972, ‘‘Stress
Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steel in Carbonate Solutions,’’ Corrosion
共Houston兲, 28, pp. 313–320.
关4兴 Koch, G. H., Beavers, J. A., and Berry, W. E., 1985, ‘‘Effect of Temperature
on Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Precracked Pipeline Steels,’’ NG-18 Report
number of the features of near-neutral pH SCC suggest that these No. 148, American Gas Association, Arlington, VA, Catalog No. L51491.
关5兴 Parkins, R. N., 1974, ‘‘The Controlling Parameters In Stress Corrosion Crack-
other mechanisms may be involved with the initiation process. ing,’’ 5th Symposium on Line Pipe Research, American Gas Association, Ar-
Near-neutral pH SCC is frequently associated with discontinuous lington, VA, Catalog No. L30174, Paper U.
features on the pipe surfaces such as pits, gouges, and welds 关19兴. 关6兴 Barlo, T. J., 1979, ‘‘Stress-Corrosion Cracking Steel Susceptibility, ’’6th Sym-
Where near-neutral pH SCC occurs in the pipe body away from posium on LinePipe Research, American Gas Association, Arlington, VA,
Catalog No. L30175, Paper P.
these defects, the appearance of the crack colonies is nearly iden- 关7兴 Beavers, J. A., and Parkins, R. N., 1986, ‘‘Recent Advances in Understanding
tical with high-pH colonies, suggesting that they may have similar The Factors Affecting SCC of Pipe Steels,’’ 7th Symposium on Line Pipe
origins in some cases. In the laboratory, it is very difficult to Research, American Gas Association, Inc., Catalog No. L51595, p. 25-1.
initiate or propagate colonies of near-neutral pH cracks in the 关8兴 Beavers, J. A., Christman, T. K., and Parkins, R. N., 1987, ‘‘Some Effects of
Surface Condition on the Stress Corrosion Cracking of Line Pipe Steel,’’
absence of stress concentrators and fatigue loading, such as that CORROSION/87, NACE International, Katy, TX, Paper No. 178.
used by Parkins 关11兴. 关9兴 Beavers, J. A., Parkins, R. N., and Berry, W. E., 1985, ‘‘Test Method for
Defining Susceptibility of Pipeline Steels to Stress Corrosion Cracking,’’
Conclusions American Gas Association, Arlington, VA, NG-18 Report Number 146, Cata-
log No. L-51484.
The results of this analysis indicate that at least two mecha- 关10兴 Beavers, J. A. and Thompson, N. G., 1988, unpublished research performed at
nisms of cracking are responsible for the SCC observed on oper- CC Technologies for TransCanada Pipelines Limited.
关11兴 Parkins, R. N., Blanchard, Jr., W. K., and Delanty, B. S., 1994, ‘‘Transgranu-
ating natural gas pipelines. The first type is associated with lar Stress Corrosion Cracking of High-Pressure Pipelines in Contact with So-
high-pH SCC, which was first reported in the mid-1960s. The lutions of Near Neutral pH,’’ Corrosion 共Houston兲, 50, No. 5, pp. 394–408.
environment responsible for this form of SCC is a concentrated 关12兴 Harle, B. A., Beavers, J. A., and Jaske, C. E., 1994, ‘‘Low-pH Stress Corro-
carbonate-bicarbonate electrolyte that forms at the pipe surface as sion Cracking of Natural Gas Pipelines,’’ CORROSION/94, NACE Interna-
tional, Katy, TX, Paper No. 242.
a result of CO2 in the soil and application of cathodic protection 关13兴 Harle, B. A., Beavers, J. A. and Jaske, C. E., 1995, ‘‘Mechanical and Metal-
on the pipe. Identifying characteristics for high-pH SCC include lurgical Effects on Low-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking of Natural Gas Pipe-
the intergranular crack path and the absence of significant corro- lines,’’ CORROSION/95, NACE International, Katy, TX, Paper No. 646.
sion associated with the failure. The underlying mechanism for 关14兴 Anonymous, 1992, ‘‘TransCanada PipeLines Responses to National Energy
Board Information Requests Regarding TransCanada Pipelines Maintenance
crack propagation with high-pH SCC is most likely an anodic Program and Stress Corrosion Cracking,’’ National Energy Board Inquiry
dissolution mechanism. Concerning Stress Corrosion Cracking, Proceeding MHW-1-92, National En-
The second mechanism of cracking is associated with near- ergy Board of Canada, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
neutral pH SCC, first reported in the 1980s. The environment 关15兴 Jones, R. H. and Ricker, R. E., 1992, ‘‘Mechanisms of Stress-Corrosion
Cracking,’’ Stress Corrosion Cracking, ed., R. H. Jones, ASM International,
responsible for this form of cracking is a dilute carbonic acid Materials Park, OH, pp. 1–40.
solution that forms at the pipe surface when CO2 in the soil dis- 关16兴 Johnson, J. T., Durr, C. L., Beavers, J. A., and Delanty, B. S., ‘‘Effects of O2
solves in groundwater in the absence of cathodic protection on the and CO2 on Near-Neutral pH Stress Corrosion Crack Propagation,’’
pipe. Identifying characteristics for near-neutral pH SCC include CORROSION/2000, NACE International, Katy, TX, Paper No. 00356.
关17兴 Okada, H., 1977, ‘‘Stress Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Cracking of
the transgranular crack path, with significant corrosion of the Structural Steels,’’ Stress Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Embrittlement of
crack faces. The underlying mechanism共s兲 for near-neutral pH Iron Base Alloys, Proc. Conference, Firminy, France, June, National Associa-
SCC have not been conclusively established and the mechanism tion of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, NACE-5, pp. 124-134.
for initiation and propagation may be different. Initiation may 关18兴 Schmidt, G., 1983, ‘‘Fundamental Aspects of CO2 Corrosion,’’ Corrosion/83,
NACE International, Katy, TX, Paper No. 43.
occur by a combination of pitting and corrosion fatigue. It is pos- 关19兴 Anonymous, 1996, ‘‘Public Inquiry Concerning Stress Corrosion Cracking on
sible, although less likely, that the cracks initiate by an anodic Canadian Oil and Gas Pipelines’’, Report of the Inquiry, MH-2-95, National
dissolution mechanism. Propagation of near-neutral pH stress cor- Energy Board of Canada, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, Nov.

Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering AUGUST 2001, Vol. 123 Õ 151

Downloaded From: http://offshoremechanics.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 02/27/2015 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms