Cellular

Adaptations
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
This PDF was created and uploaded by
www.medicalstudyzone.com which is one the
biggest free resources platform for medical
students and healthcare professionals. You can
access all medical Video Lectures, Books in PDF
Format or kindle Edition, Paid Medical Apps and
Softwares, Qbanks, Audio Lectures And Much
More Absolutely for Free By visiting our Website
https://medicalstudyzone.com all stuff are free
with no cost at all.

Furthermore You can also request a specific

Book In PDF Format OR Medical Video Lectures.
Cellular Response to Stress
• Stressors
• Pathologic: ischemia
• Physiologic: pregnancy
• Adaptation
• Reversible change in response to stress
• Injury
• Reversible → irreversible
• Cell death

Normal Adaptation Injury Death

Cellular Adaptations
• Hypertrophy
• Increase in cell size
• Hyperplasia
• Increase in cell number
• Often occurs with hypertrophy
• Atrophy
• Decrease in cell size
• Metaplasia
• Change in phenotype
Hypertrophy
• Increase in cell size
• More proteins, filaments
• May occur together with hyperplasia
• Muscle tissue: hypertrophy with more workload

Lin Mei/Flikr
Hypertrophy
• Physiologic examples
• Body builders (muscle hypertrophy for use)
• Uterus in pregnancy (hormone driven)
• Pathologic example:
• Left ventricular hypertrophy Øyvind Holmstad/Wikipedia
• Response to hypertension or increased workload

Patrick Lynch/Wikipedia
Hyperplasia
• Increase in cell number
• Often due to excess hormone stimulation
• Physiologic or pathologic
• Often accompanied by hypertrophy
Physiologic Hyperplasia
• Breast growth at puberty
• Hyperplasia and hypertrophy of glandular epithelial cells
• Liver regeneration
• Partial liver donation → liver grows back to full size
• Hyperplasia of remaining hepatocytes
• Bone marrow
• Anemia → hyperplasia of red cell precursors
• Red blood cell production may increase by 8x

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Pathologic Hyperplasia
• Endometrial hyperplasia
• Growth due to estrogen
• Prostatic hyperplasia
• Excessive response to androgens
• Human papilloma virus
• Skin warts (epidermal hyperplasia)
• Genital warts (mucosal hyperplasia)

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Malignancy
• Often develops from hyperplasia
• Increased cell division
• More chances for error in cell cycle control
• Uncontrolled growth

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
• Pathologic hyperplasia
• Does not lead to malignancy

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Hypertrophy vs. Hyperplasia
• Permanent/non-dividing cells
• Myocytes, skeletal muscle cells, nerves
• Permanent G0 state (“terminally differentiated”)
• Hypertrophy
• Cells capable of growth/division
• Epithelial cells (GI tract, breast ducts, skin)
• Commonly undergo hyperplasia
• May lead to dysplasia/cancer
Atrophy
• Reduction in size of organ/tissue
• Decrease in cell size and/or number of cells
• Physiologic examples:
• Embryonic structures (notochord)
• Uterus after childbirth (loss of hormone stimulation)
• Breast/uterus at menopause

Flikr/Public Domain
Pathologic Atrophy
• Unused skeletal muscle
• Bed rest
• Immobilization (cast after fracture)
• Cachexia
• Poor nutrition
• Decreased blood supply
• Senile atrophy of brain (atherosclerosis)
• Loss of innervation
• Neuromuscular disorders

CDC/Public Domain
Atrophy Mechanisms
• Ubiquitin-proteasome pathway
• Proteins tagged by ubiquitin
• Transported to proteasomes for degradation
• Stressors may activate ligases that attach ubiquitin
• Autophagy
• “Self eating”
• Cellular components fused with lysosomes
Metaplasia
• Change in cell type to adapt to stress
• New cell type able to withstand stress
• Commonly from one epithelial cell type to another
• Potentially reversible
• Can lead to dysplasia/malignancy
Metaplasia
• Respiratory tract in smokers
Pixabay/Public Domain
• Normal columnar epithelium in trachea/bronchi
• Changes to squamous epithelium (most common metaplasia)
• Squamous epithelium more durable
• Loss of cilia → more vulnerable to infections

Ciliated, PS columnar Stratified squamous epithelium

OpenStax College/Wikipedia
Metaplasia
• Barrett’s esophagus
• Gastric acid (stressor) in esophagus
• Normal stratified squamous epithelium
• Changes to columnar epithelium (intestines)

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Metaplasia
• Myositis Ossificans (heterotopic ossification)
• Muscle metaplasia to bone (not epithelial cells)
• Mesenchymal cells → osteoblastic tissue
• Forms lamellar bone in muscles
• Follows trauma (hip arthroplasty)
• Muscles become stiff

Tdvorak/Wikipedia
Vitamin A Deficiency
• Important for maintaining epithelial cells
• Deficiency: epithelial metaplasia and keratinization
• Upper respiratory tract
• Epithelial metaplasia
• Epithelium replaced by keratinizing squamous cells
• Abnormal epithelium → pulmonary infections
• Xerophthalmia (dry eyes)
• Normal epithelium secretes mucus
• Replaced by keratinized epithelial cells
Apocrine Metaplasia
• Form of fibrocystic change in breast
• Also called “benign epithelial alteration”
• Alterations to lobular epithelial cells
• Take on appearance of apocrine (gland) cells
• Does not lead to dysplasia/cancer
Dysplasia
• Disordered proliferation
• Non-neoplastic but can be pre-cancerous
• Mild dysplasia may resolve
• Severe dysplasia may be irreversible → cancer
• Usually occurs in epithelial tissues
• Usually preceded by hyperplasia or metaplasia

Stressor

Normal Hyperplasia Dysplasia

Metaplasia
Dysplasia
• Pleomorphism
• Abnormal nuclei (hyperchromatic, large)
• Mitotic figures (clumped chromatin)

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Cervical Dysplasia

Normal

Dysplasia

Ed Uthman/Wikipedia
Cellular
Injury
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Cell Injury
• Four general causes of cell injury
• Capacity for adaptation exceeded
• Exposure to toxic/injurious agents
• Deprived of nutrients
• Mutation disrupts metabolism
Pixabay/Public Domain
• Reversible to a point
• Severe or persistent injury may be irreversible
• May lead to cell death
Cell Death
• Two ways cells die:
• Necrosis: inflammatory process
• Apoptosis: non-inflammatory
• Necrosis preceded by classic cellular changes
• Reversible changes → irreversible changes
Reversible Cell Injury
• Cellular swelling
• Major feature of most forms of reversible injury
• Hydropic change = water accumulation in cell
• Hard to see under microscope
• ↓ Na/K ATPase pumps
Reversible Cell Injury
• Fatty change
• Seen only in systems that heavily metabolize fatty acids
• Liver, heart, skeletal muscle
• Lipid vacuoles appear in cytoplasm

Public Domain
Reversible Cell Injury
• Mitochondrial swelling
• Membrane blebbing
• Disruption of cytoskeleton
• Dilation of endoplasmic reticulum
• Ribosomes detach from ER
• ↓ protein synthesis
• “Polysomal detachment”
• Polysome = cluster of ribosomes
Irreversible Cell Injury
Necrosis

• Membrane damage
• Contents leak
• Causes inflammation
• Serum detection of cell contents (troponin, lipase)
• Calcium-dependent phospholipases
• Rupture of lysosomes
• Enzymes degrade cellular contents

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Irreversible Cell Injury
Classic Nuclear Changes

• Karyolysis (loss of basophilic/dark color)

• Pyknosis (nuclear shrinkage)
• Karyorrhexis (fragmented nucleus)

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Mechanisms of Injury
• ATP depletion
• Calcium
• Mitochondrial damage
• Free radicals
ATP Depletion
• Many causes
• ↓ oxygen supply
• Mitochondrial damage
• Direct effect some toxins
• Loss of membrane pumps
• Loss of protein synthesis

ATP
Calcium
• Normally very low compared with outside cell
• Calcium influx: hallmark of injury
• Released from intracellular storage
• Influx across cell membrane
• Causes cellular injury
• Calcium-dependent phospholipases
• Activated by increased calcium
• Breakdown of membrane phospholipids
• Damages mitochondria
Mitochondrial Damage
• Lack of oxygen
• Reactive oxygen species
• Mitochondrial permeability transition pore
• Opened by calcium
• Loss of membrane potential
• Failure of oxidative phosphorylation

Blausen gallery 2014". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine

Free Radicals
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Mechanisms of Injury
• ATP depletion
• Calcium
• Mitochondrial damage
• Free radicals
Vocabulary
• Free radical
• Single, unpaired electron in outer orbit
• Highly reactive
• May damage many cellular components
• Reactive oxygen species
• Oxygen free radicals
• Several forms
• Superoxide (O2·)
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• Hydroxyl radical (OH-)
Free Radicals
• Generated in cells under normal conditions
• Inactivated in cells
• Cell maintain low level under normal conditions
• High level → cell injury

Low level
Free Radicals Inactivation
Generation
Free Radical Generation
• Normal metabolism involving oxygen
• Oxidative phosphorylation
• Yields small levels of superoxide (O2·)
• Converted to H2O2 by superoxide dismutase
• H2O2 more stable and can cross membranes
• Converted to H2O

O2 → O2· → H2O2 → OH- → H2O

Superoxide
Dismutase
Free Radical Generation
• Radiation (UV light, X-rays)
• Mechanism of radiation therapy for cancer
• Metabolism of drugs
• Transition metals
• Respiratory burst

Dina Wakulchik/Wikipedia
Drug Metabolism
• Phase 1: drug modification
• Phase 2: conjugation
• Phase 3: additional modification and excretion
• Cytochrome P450 enzymes
• Smooth ER in liver
• Part of phase 1 metabolism
• Generate “bioactive intermediates” (free radicals)

P450
Drug Drug-Free-Radical
Liver Zones P450 Enzymes
Hepatic Artery

Hepatic Vein
Portal Vein
Bile Duct

Zone I Zone II Zone III

Periportal Mid Zone Centrilobular

Liver Lobules

1
2
3

Reytan /Wikipedia
Acetaminophen
Tylenol

• Metabolized in liver to NAPQI

• N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine
• NAPQI is a reactive oxygen species (ROS)
• Causes free radical liver damage

CYP450
Transition Metals
• Superoxide (O2-) converted to H2O2 for inactivation
• Fenton Reaction forms hydroxyl radical (OH·)
• H2O2 + Fe2+ → Fe3+ + OH·
• H2O2 + Cu+ → Cu2+ + OH·
• Hemochromatosis/Wilson’s
• Iron and copper toxicity

O2 O2- H2O2 OH·

Inactivation
Transition Metals
• Metal storage and transport proteins:
• Transferrin/Ferritin/Lactoferrin (Fe)
• Ceruloplasmin (Cu)

Tomihahndorf
Public Domain
Respiratory Burst
• Phagocytes engulf bacteria in phagosome
• Generate H2O2 in phagosome to kill bacteria
• Uses three key enzymes:
• NADPH oxidase
• Superoxide dismutase
• Myeloperoxidase

Graham Colm/Wikipedia
Respiratory Burst
O2
NADPH

NADPH
Oxidase
NADP+
O2-

Superoxide
Dismutase
Bacterial
H2O2
Death
Cl-
Myeloperoxidase

HOCl
Free Radical Inactivation
• Spontaneous decay
• Antioxidants
• Free radical scavengers
• Vitamin E, A, C, glutathione

Low level
Free Radicals Inactivation
Generation
Free Radical Inactivation
• Enzymes
• Catalase (peroxisomes)
• Superoxide dismutase (mitochondria)
• Glutathione peroxidase (cytoplasm of cells)
• Requires glutathione: GSH + H2O2 → H2O

Catalase

O2 → O2· → H2O2 → OH- → H2O

Superoxide Peroxidase
Dismutase
CGD
Chronic Granulomatous Disease

• Loss of function of NADPH oxidase

• Phagocytes cannot generate H2O2
• Catalase (+) bacteria breakdown H2O2
• Host cells have no H2O2 to use → recurrent infections
• Catalase (-) bacteria generate their own H2O2
• Phagocytes use despite enzyme deficiency
• Five organisms cause almost all CGD infections:
• Staph aureus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Nocardia, Aspergillus

Source: UpToDate
G6PD Deficiency
• Limited supply of glutathione
• RBC damage by free radicals → hemolysis
• Classic trigger: fava beans
• Contain vicine
• Converted to divicine → ROS
• Depletes glutathione
Free Radical Cell Damage
• Peroxidation of lipids
• Peroxide: O-O Lipid Peroxidation
• Damages membranes
• Oxidation of proteins
• Damage enzymes
• Disruption of DNA
• Breaks, crosslinking
Reperfusion Injury
• Myocardial infarction → ↓ blood flow (ischemia)
• Reperfusion → ↑blood flow
• Some reversibly injured cells recover (good)
• Some cells damaged by reperfusion (bad - paradoxical)
• Several mechanisms
• ↑ oxygen supply → generation of free radicals
• Antioxidants lost from injury
• Damaged mitochondria incompletely reduce oxygen
Carbon Tetrachloride
CCL4

• Industrial solvent
• Historically used for dry cleaning
• Liver highly sensitive to damage
• Converted to CCL3 free radical (CYP450 enzymes)
• Lipid peroxidation
• Inhibition of lipoprotein synthesis/secretion
• Accumulation of lipids
• Result: fatty liver
Lipofuscin
• Insoluble cellular pigment
• Yellow-brown color
• Contain oxidized lipids
• Thought to be derived from lipid peroxidation
• Accumulates over time in lysosomes
• Not pathological
• Seen with aging
Lipofuscin

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Apoptosis
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Apoptosis
• Programmed cell death
• Cell activates its own enzymes to destroy cell
• Membrane remains intact
• No inflammation
• Cell ultimately consumed by phagocytes

Pixabay/Public Domain
Apoptosis
• Active process
• ATP-dependent
• Contrast with necrosis
• Some stimuli cause apoptosis and necrosis
• Example: myocardial ischemia
• Evidence for both forms of cell death
• Initial cellular response: apoptosis (avoids inflammation)
• Later response: necrosis (ATP depleted)
Apoptosis
Causes

• Embryogenesis
• Hormone withdrawal
• Occurs in hormone-dependent tissues
• Endometrium with progesterone withdrawal
Flikr/luncar caustic
• Immune cells
• T-cells in thymus
• B-cells in germinal centers
• Death of self-reactive immune cells
• Immune cells after inflammation resolves
Apoptosis
Causes

• DNA damaged cells

• Abnormal cells
• Infected cells (especially viral)

Wikipedia/Public Domain

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Apoptotic Mechanisms
• Caused by caspase enzymes
• Inactive enzymes in cytosol
• When activated → apoptosis
• Two “pathways” for caspase activation
• Intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway
• Initiated by mitochondria
• Extrinsic (death-receptor) pathway
• Membrane death receptors activated
Intrinsic Pathway
• Opening of mitochondrial membranes
• Release of cytochrome c
• Binds to APAF-1 (apoptosis-activating factor)
• Activation of caspases
• Controlled by BCL2 family of proteins
• Some pro-apoptotic; some anti-apoptotic
• Balance determines if cell undergoes apoptosis
Pro-apoptosis

Anti-apoptosis
 Electron Transport
Cytosol

Outer
Membrane

Inner
Membrane H+ e- Cyt c e-
Space

Inner
III IV Membrane

H+
Intrinsic Pathway
• Many, many BCL2 family proteins
• Anti-apoptosis: BCL-2, BCL-XL, MCL1 proteins
• Found in mitochondrial membranes
• Prevent cytochrome c from entering cytosol
• Pro-apoptosis: BAX and BAK proteins
• Bind to anti-apoptotic proteins
• Open pores in mitochondrial membranes
• Promote apoptosis
• As are for Apoptosis
Intrinsic Pathway
Caspase

Cytosol

BAX
BAK

BCL-2
Mitochondrial
BCL-XL
Membrane
MCL1

Cyt c
Intrinsic Pathway
Caspase

Cyt c
APAF
1 Cytosol

BAX
BAK BCL-2
BCL-XL
MCL1
Mitochondrial
Membrane
Follicular Lymphoma
• Subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphoma
• B-cell malignancy
• Overexpression of BCL-2
• Mitochondrial pores will not open
• Caspases cannot activate
• Cell will not undergo apoptosis
• Result: Uncontrolled cell growth
Intrinsic Pathway
Triggers

• Withdrawal of growth factor

• Hormones for hormone-sensitive tissue (uterus)
• Cytokines for immune cells
• Embryogenesis
• DNA damage
• DNA damage (radiation, chemotherapy)
• P53 can active BAK and BAX
• Abnormal proteins
• Caused by heat, hypoxia, low glucose
Extrinsic Pathway
• Death receptors
• All part of TNF family of receptors
• Span plasma membrane into cytoplasm
• FAS (CD95)
• Well-described death receptor found on many cells
• Binds FAS-ligand
• Triggers sequence that leads to activation of caspases
CD8 T-cells
Killing of virus infected cells

• Activated by presentation of foreign antigens (MHC1)

• Release perforin and granzymes
• Lead to activated caspases
• Produce Fas ligand
• Binds to Fas (CD95) on surface of cells

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Extrinsic Pathway
• Thymic medulla
• T-cells that bind to self-antigens die (negative selection)
• Death occurs via extrinsic pathway
• FAS-FAS-ligand interactions

Public Domain/Wikipedia
Extrinsic Pathway
• Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome
• Defective FAS-FAS-ligand pathway for apoptosis
• Poor negative selection (more T-cell survival)
• Overproduction of lymphocytes
• Lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly
• High risk of lymphoma
• Autoimmune diseases
Apoptosis
Cellular Changes

• Cell shrinkage
• Contrast with necrosis/swelling
• Chromatin condensation
• Pyknosis
• Hallmark of apoptosis

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Apoptosis
Cellular Changes

• Membrane blebbing
• Formation apoptotic bodies
• Membrane fragments
• Cell organelles
• Ligands for phagocyte receptors
• Consumed by phagocytosis

Wikipedia/Public Domain
DNA Laddering
• Apoptotic caspases cleave DNA at specific regions
• Forms pieces in multiples of 180-185 kbp
• Forms a “ladder” of sizes on gel electrophoresis
• Necrosis: random fragments
Apoptosis and Necrosis
Necrosis
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Necrosis
• Form of cell death
• Cell membrane loss
• Leakage of cellular contents
• Elicits inflammatory response
• Affects tissue beds
• Results in gross and microscopic changes

Pixabay/Public Domain
Necrosis
• Two major types
• Coagulative
• Liquefactive
• Other types
• Caseous
• Fibrinoid
• Fat
• Gangrenous

Pixabay/Public Domain
Coagulative Necrosis
• Preservation of tissue architecture for days
• Injury damages cells and enzymes
• Major difference from liquefactive necrosis
• Loss of enzymes limits proteolysis
• Tissue architecture remains intact for days
• Phagocytosis of cell remnants (takes time)
Coagulative Necrosis
• Gross: tissue becomes firm
• Microscopic:
• Architecture preserved
• Cell nuclei lost
• Red/pink color on H&E stain (cell takes up more stain)
• Inflammatory cells
Coagulative Necrosis

Ryan Johnson/Flikr
Coagulative Necrosis

Normal Heart Post myocardial infarction

Ryan Johnson/Flikr
Coagulative Necrosis
• Seen with infarctions and ischemia
• Myocardium
• Kidney
• Spleen
• Key exception: brain (liquefactive necrosis)

RobinH/Wikipedia
Liquefactive Necrosis
• Abscesses (bacterial/fungal) and brain infarctions
• Cause in brain infarctions poorly understood
• Infection draws inflammatory cells
• Tissue is “liquefied” into thick, liquid mass
• Enzymes from microbes
• Enzymes from lysosomes of dying cells
Liquefactive Necrosis
• Gross: liquid/pus or abscess cavity
• Microscopic: numerous neutrophils
Liquefactive Necrosis
Brain after stroke

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Liquefactive Necrosis
Brain after stroke

R. Geetha/Slideshare
Caseous Necrosis
• “Cheese like”
• Rarely occurs outside of tuberculosis infection
• Mycobacteria resist digestion
• Macrophages form giant cells
• Slow breakdown of infection
• Mycolic acid and lipids give cheese-like appearance
Caseous Necrosis
• Gross: Cheesy-like (caseating) substance
• Microscopic: granulomatous inflammation
• Necrotic center
• Ring of lymphocytes and macrophages
• Epithelioid cells
• Giant cells (fused activated macrophages)
Caseous Necrosis

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Caseous Necrosis

Public Domain
Fat Necrosis
• Necrosis of fat
• Classic example: acute pancreatitis
• Cause: lipases released from pancreatic cells
• Breakdown of peritoneal fat
• Fatty acids combine with calcium (saponification)
• “Chalky-white” tissue
Fat Necrosis

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Fat Necrosis
• Fat necrosis of breast
• Results from trauma
• Often biopsy, surgery
• Sports injury, seatbelt injury
• Can mimic breast cancer

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Fat Necrosis

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Gangrenous Necrosis
• Subtype of coagulative necrosis
• Caused by ischemia
• Lost blood supply to limbs or bowel
• Multiple tissue layers involved
• Dry gangrene: dry, black, shrunken tissue
• Wet gangrene:
• Superimposed bacterial infection
• Coagulative and liquefactive necrosis
• Moist, soft, swollen
• Pus, foul smelling
Dry Gangrene

James Heilman, MD/Wikipedia

Wet Gangrene

S Anand/Slideshare
Fibrinoid Necrosis
• Occurs in blood vessels
• Only visible under microscope (no gross findings)
• Occurs in autoimmune disorders
• Antibody-antigen complexes deposit in vessel walls
• Type III hypersensitivity reaction
• Fibrin leaks into vessel wall (pink on microscopy)
Fibrinoid Necrosis

Nephron/Wikipedia
Fibrinoid Necrosis
• Classic disorder: polyarteritis nodosa
• Purpura
• Renal failure
• Neuropathy
• Severe hypertension/preeclampsia
• Not autoimmune
• Damage to vessel wall → fibrin leak
Inflammation
Principles
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Inflammation
• Process for eliminating:
• Pathogens
• Damaged tissue
• Commonly seen with infections, trauma, surgery
• May cause damage to host:
• Excessive inflammation (sepsis)
• Prolonged (infection fails to resolve)
• Inappropriate (autoimmune disease)
Inflammation
• Acute inflammation
• Rapid onset (minutes to hours)
• Quick resolution (usually days)
• Chronic inflammation
• May last weeks, months, or years
Cardinal Signs
• Described by the ancient Romans
• Rubor (redness) and calor (warmth)
• Caused by vasodilation and increased blood flow
• Tumor (swelling)
• Increased vascular permeability
• Brings cells/proteins (complement) to site of inflammation
• Dolor (pain)
• Loss of function
• Caused by other cardinal features
James Heilman, MD/Wikipedia
Vasodilation
Rubor and Calor

• Arteriolar vasodilation → increased blood flow

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Vasodilation
Rubor and Calor

• Histamine
• Mast cells, basophils, platelets
• Preformed → released quickly
• Prostaglandins Wikipedia/Public Domain
• Mast cells, leukocytes
• Synthesized via arachidonic acid

Histamine PGE2
Eicosanoids
Lipids (cell membranes)
Arachidonic acid
Phospholipase A2

Arachidonic acid
Lipoxygenase
Cyclooxygenase

Leukotrienes
Thromboxanes

Prostaglandins
Factor XII
Hageman Factor

• Component of clotting cascade (minor role)

• Also produces bradykinin via the kinin system

XII XIIa

Prekallikrein (PK) Kallikrein

High molecular weight kininogen

Bradykinin
HMWK
Bradykinin
• Vasodilator
• Increases vascular permeability
• Pain (B is for boo-boo)
• Degraded by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
• ACE inhibitors can raise bradykinin levels
• Dangerous side effect: angioedema
• Also degraded by C1 inhibitor (complement system)
• C1 inhibitor deficiency → hereditary angioedema
Vascular Permeability
Tumor

• May be caused by direct injury

• Also many mediators
• Leukotrienes: LTC4, LTD4, LTE4
• Histamine, bradykinin
• Contraction of endothelial cells creates gaps
• Occurs in post-capillary venules

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Oncotic Pressure
Tumor

• Oncotic pressure (∏) changes drive fluid into tissue

• Rises in interstitial space (protein influx)

Capillary
Pc ∏c

Interstitial
Space
Pi ∏i
Tissue Edema
• Exudate
• Inflammatory edema from high vascular permeability
• Seen in infection, malignancy (leaky vessels)
• High protein content (similar to plasma)
• High specific gravity (concentrated)
Tissue Edema
• Transudate
• Cause: ↑ hydrostatic pressure or ↓ oncotic pressure
• Fluid leak NOT due to inflammation
• Low protein content (albumin remains in plasma)
• Low specific gravity (dilute, not concentrated)

Capillary
Pc ∏c

Interstitial
Space
Pi ∏i
Pleural Effusion
• Causes:
• Exudate (infection, malignancy)
• Transudate (heart failure, low albumin) James Heilman, MD

• Thoracentesis
• Fluid tested for protein, LDH
• Light’s Criteria – Exudate if:
• Pleural protein/serum protein greater than 0.5
• Pleural LDH/serum LDH greater than 0.6
• Pleural LDH greater than 2/3 upper limits normal LDH
Pain
Dolor

• Key mediator: PGE2

• Increases skin sensitivity to pain
• Also causes fever

PGE2 V
A
I E
N R
Systemic Inflammation
• Fever
• Leukocytosis
• Acute phase reactants
 F
Fever
PGE2V
• Pyrogens A
• ↑ cyclooxygenase activity in hypothalamus I E
• ↑ prostaglandins in hypothalamus N R
• Lipopolysaccharide: exogenous pyrogen
• IL-1 and TNF: endogenous pyrogens
• Prostaglandins alter temperature set point
• Especially PGE2

PGE2
Leukocytosis
• Normal WBC: <11.000/mm3
• Infection: 15,000-20,000/mm3
• Raging infection: 40,000-100,000/mm3 BruceBlaus/Wikipedia

• “Leukemoid reaction”
• Resembles leukemia
• Cytokines (TNF and IL-1) → cells from bone marrow
• Bacterial infections: neutrophils (neutrophilia)
• Viral infections: lymphocytes (lymphocytosis)
Left Shift
• Normal response to infection
• More bands and neutrophils
Acute Phase Reactants
• Serum proteins
• Levels rise with inflammation (acute or chronic)
• Mostly produced by liver
• Synthesis increased by cytokines often IL-6
• C-reactive protein
• Serum amyloid A
• Ferritin
• Hepcidin
• Fibrinogen

Pixabay/Public Domain
C Reactive Protein (CRP)
• Liver synthesis in response to IL-6 (macrophages)
• Binds bacterial polysaccharides
• Activates complement system
• Chronic increased levels associated with CAD
Serum Amyloid A Proteins
SAA Proteins

• Apolipoproteins
• Many roles in inflammatory response
• Causes AA (secondary) amyloidosis
• Occurs in chronic inflammatory conditions
• Rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, IBD

Ed Uthman, MD
Ferritin
• Binds iron
• Iron storage protein
• Stored intracellularly as ferritin
• Stored in macrophages of liver and bone
• Clinical significance:
• Diagnosis of iron deficiency during infection

Tomihahndorf
Hepcidin
• Anti-bacterial properties
• Inhibits iron transport
• Binds to ferroportin in enterocytes, macrophages
• Iron trapped in cells as ferritin
• Contributes to anemia of chronic disease

Public Domain
Fibrinogen
• Factor I of the clotting cascade
• Promotes cellular adhesions
• Platelets, endothelial cells
ESR
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate

• Rate of RBC sedimentation in test tube

• Normal 0-22 mm/hr for men; 0-29 mm/hr for women
• Increased by acute phase reactants in inflammation

MechESR/Wikipedia
ESR
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate

• Determined by balance of factors

• Pro-sedimentation: APRs, especially fibrinogen (sticky)
• Anti-sedimentation: negative charge of RBC
• High levels APRs → red cells stick together
• Faster sedimentation → increased ESR
ESR
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate

• ESR > 100 (normal <30) seen in:

• Endocarditis
• Temporal arteritis
• Polymyalgia rheumatica
• Trauma/surgery
• Malignancy
• Anemia: Increased ESR
• Sedimentation of red cells slower with more red cells
• Red cells impeded one another’s sedimentation
• Renal disease (some due to anemia)
ESR
Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate

• Reduced ESR (<5)

• Hypofibrinogenemia
• Heart failure (controversial; mechanism unclear)
• Abnormal red cell shapes
• Sickle cell anemia
• Spherocytosis
• Microcytosis
• Polycythemia (opposite of anemia)
• Result: ESR may be normal despite inflammation
Negative APRs
• Levels fall in inflammation
• Synthesis inhibited by cytokines
• Albumin
• Transferrin
• Transthyretin
Acute & Chronic
Inflammation
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Inflammation
• Acute inflammation
• Rapid onset (minutes to hours)
• Quick resolution (usually days)
• Chronic inflammation
• May last weeks, months, or years
Acute Inflammation
• Part of innate immunity
• Three hallmark features
• Increased blood flow (vessel dilation)
• Increased vascular permeability
• Emigration of neutrophils into tissues
• Rapid onset/short duration
• Occurs within minutes of trigger
• Resolves in minutes/hours/days
Innate Immune System
• Phagocytes (debris clearing)
• Macrophages
• Neutrophils
• Complement
• Natural Killer Cells
• Eosinophils
• Mast cells and Basophils
Macrophages
• Macrophages: guardians of innate immunity
• Found in tissues; capable of phagocytosis
• Recognize cellular damage, microbes, foreign bodies
• Initiate acute inflammatory response
• Similar role played by mast cells, dendritic cells

Dr Graham Beards/Wikipedia
Macrophages
• Recognize molecules that are “foreign”
• “Damage-associated molecular patterns” (DAMPs)
• Present only when tissue damage occurs
• Example: mitochondrial proteins, DNA
• “Pathogen-associated molecular patterns” (PAMPs)
• Present on many microbes
• Not present on human cells
Macrophages
• Key receptors: “Toll-like receptors” (TLRs)
• Macrophages, dendritic cells, others
• Found on cell membrane and endosomes
• Pattern recognition receptors
• Recognize PAMPs/DAMPs → secrete cytokines
• Activation → cytokines, inflammatory signals
• Other activators:
• Fc portion of antibodies
• Complement proteins
Inflammasome
• Cytosolic protein complex found in many cells
• Key for recognition of cell damage
• Activated by components of damaged cells:
• Uric acid
• Extracellular ATP
• Free DNA
• Leads to production of IL-1
• Leads to release of inflammatory mediators
Inflammatory Mediators
• “Vasoactive amines”
• Histamine
• Serotonin
• Lipid products (arachidonic acid derived)
• Prostaglandins
• Leukotrienes
• Complement
Neutrophil
• Derived from bone marrow
• Circulate ~5 days and die unless activated
• Drawn from blood stream to sites of inflammation
• Enter tissues: phagocytosis
• Provide extra support to macrophages

Dr Graham Beards/Wikipedia
Neutrophil
Blood stream exit

• Exit vascular system at post-capillary venules

• Four steps to extravasation (exit vessels to tissues)
• Rolling, crawling, transmigration, migration

Wikipedia/Public Doainm
Acute Inflammation
Typical Timeline

• Neutrophils dominate early (<2 days)

• Many in blood stream
• Attach firmly to adhesion molecules
• Apoptosis after 24-48hrs
• Monocytes/macrophages dominate late (>2 days)
• Live longer
• Replicate in tissues
Acute Inflammation
Typical Timeline
Macrophages &
Edema Neutrophils Monocytes
Activity

1 Days 2
Acute Inflammation
Typical Timeline: Exceptions

• Pseudomonas infection
• Neutrophils dominate for days
• Viral infections
• Lymphocytes often appear first
• Hypersensitivity reactions
• Eosinophils dominate
Acute Inflammation
Resolution

• Three potential outcomes

• #1: Resolution of inflammation
• Removal of microbes/debris
• Tissue returns to normal
• #2: Healing/scar
• Tissue damage too extensive for regeneration
• Connective tissue growth
• #3: Chronic inflammation
Chronic Inflammation
• Prolonged inflammation (weeks/months)
• May follow acute inflammation
• May begin slowly (“smoldering”) on its own
• Tissue destruction and repair occur at same time
Chronic Inflammation
Causes

• Persistent infections
• Difficult to clear microbes
• Mycobacteria
• Parasites
• Prolonged infection → type IV hypersensitivity reaction
• Autoimmune diseases
• Prolonged exposure
• Silica
• Cholesterol (atherosclerosis)
Chronic Inflammation
Cells

• Mononuclear cells
• Macrophages
• Lymphocytes (T and B cells)
• Plasma cells
• Macrophages are dominant cell type
• Secrete cytokines
• Activate T-cell response
• Two forms activated macrophages
• M1: Activated via classical pathway to destroy microbes
• M2: Activated via alternative pathway for tissue repair
Chronic Inflammation
Macrophage Activation M
• “Classical” activation (M1)
A
• Microbes activate macrophages C
• Example: endotoxin → TLRs on macrophages R
• T-cell release IFN-γ
• Activated macrophage response
O
• Reactive oxygen species P
• More lysosomal enzymes
• Secrete cytokines → drive inflammation
H
• Tissue destruction may occur A
IFN-γ
E
Chronic Inflammation
Macrophage Activation

• “Alternative” activation (M2)

• Cytokines other than IFN-γ
• Produced by T cells
• IL-4, IL-13
• Activated macrophage (M2) response
• Inhibit classical activation
• Main role is tissue repair
• Growth factors → angiogenesis
Chronic Inflammation
Outcomes

• Scarring
• Chronic HBV → liver cirrhosis
• Secondary amyloidosis
• Malignancy
• Lots of cell stimulation/growth
• Similar to hyperplasia → dysplasia/neoplasia
• Chronic hepatitis → liver cancer
• H. pylori → gastric cancer
Acute Inflammation Chronic Inflammation
Neutrophils Mononuclear cells
Multi-lobed nuclei Single, round nuclei
Granulomatous
Inflammation
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Inflammation
• Acute inflammation
• Rapid onset (minutes to hours)
• Quick resolution (usually days)
• Chronic inflammation
• May last weeks, months, or years
Granulomatous Inflammation
• Subtype of chronic inflammation
• Macrophages transform to :
• Epithelioid cells
• Langhans giant cells
• T-cell mediated hypersensitivity reaction
• Type IV (delayed-type) hypersensitivity reaction
• Cell mediated immune process
Granulomas
• “Epithelioid” macrophages
• Large, pink, activated macrophages (look like epithelial cells)
• Surrounded by lymphocytes (sometimes plasma cells)
• Some epithelioid macrophages fuse → giant cells
• May contain 20 or more nuclei

Public Domain
Public Domain
Granulomatous Inflammation
• Accumulation of TH1 CD4+ T cells
• High CD4:CD8 ratio
• Secrete IL-2 and interferon-γ
• IL-2 stimulates T-cell proliferation
• IFN-γ activates macrophages
• Ultimately leads to granuloma formation

I
F
N I
granuloma
2
Granulomatous Disease
• Tuberculosis
• Sarcoidosis (granulomas = diagnostic criteria)
• Crohn’s disease
• Leprosy (mycobacterium leprae)
• Cat-scratch disease (bartonella henselae)
• Schistosomiasis
• Syphilis
• Temporal arteritis
• Many others
CGD
Chronic Granulomatous Disease

• Loss of function of NADPH oxidase

• Phagocytes cannot generate H2O2
• Recurrent catalase (+) bacteria infections
• Five organisms cause almost all CGD infections:
• Bacteria: Staph aureus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Nocardia
• Fungi: Aspergillus
• Granuloma formation

Source: UpToDate
Caseating Granuloma
• Gross pathology : cheesy-like (caseating) necrosis
• Microscopy: Granulomas with necrotic core
• Classically seen in tuberculosis infection
• Most granulomas: non-caseating (e.g., sarcoid)

Public Domain

Public Domain
Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha
TNF-α
• Maintains granulomatous inflammation
• Released by macrophages and T-cells
• Attracts and stimulates macrophages
• TNF-blocking drugs
• Used in rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease
• Infliximab: anti-TNF antibody
• Etanercept : decoy receptor TNF-α
• PPD testing done prior to starting therapy
Hypercalcemia
• Seen in many granulomatous diseases
• Best described in sarcoidosis
• Activated vitamin D produced only in kidney
• Responds to PTH
• Macrophages: high 1-α hydroxylase activity
• Leads to increased vitamin D levels (calcitriol)

1α - hydroxylase 1,25-OH Vitamin D

25-OH Vitamin D 2
Pathologic
Calcification
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Pathologic Calcification
• Abnormal deposition of calcium in tissues
• Dystrophic calcification
• Local process
• Metastatic calcification
• Systemic process
Dystrophic Calcification
Carotid Artery
• Result of necrosis
• Occurs in diseased tissues
• Examples:
• Atherosclerotic vessel lesions
• Damaged heart valves
• Lung nodules
• May indicate prior necrosis
• May also cause disease
• Aortic stenosis

Ed Uthman
Dystrophic Calcification
• Purple deposits on H&E staining

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Chronic Pancreatitis
• CT scan: classic finding is calcified pancreas

Hellerhoff/Wikipedia
Psammoma Bodies
• Calcifications with an layered pattern
• Seen in some neoplasms (e.g., thyroid cancer)

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Dystrophic Calcification
Dystrophic Calcification
• Serum calcium levels normal
• Damage to phospholipid membranes in cells
• Calcium binds phospholipids
• Enzymes add phosphate
• Similar to calcium-phosphate of hydroxyapatite in bone
• Generates microcrystals
• Crystals propagate → calcification
Metastatic Calcification
• Seen in hypercalcemia and/or hyperphosphatemia
• Occurs in normal tissues
• Mostly tissues that secrete acid
• Create high pH internally
• Favors calcium phosphate precipitation
Metastatic Calcification
• Classic locations:
• GI mucosa
• Kidneys
• Lungs
• Arteries
• Pulmonary veins
Metastatic Calcification
Alveolar Walls

Yale Rosen/Flikr
Calciphylaxis
• Seen in chronic hyperphosphatemia in CKD
• Excess phosphate taken up by vascular smooth muscle
• Smooth muscle osteogenesis
• Vascular wall calcification
• Increased systolic blood pressure
• Small vessel thrombosis
• Painful nodules, skin necrosis

Niels Olsen/Wikipedia
Nephrocalcinosis
• Calcium deposition in kidney tubules
• Cause: ↑ urinary excretion of calcium and phosphate
• Seen in hypercalcemia and hyperphosphatemia
• e.g., hyperparathyroidism, sarcoidosis
• Common in patients with kidney stones
Nephrocalcinosis

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Nephrocalcinosis
• Often asymptomatic
• May cause polyuria/polydipsia
• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
• Impaired urinary concentrating ability
• Collecting duct cannot resorb water normally
• More urine → polyuria → volume depletion → polydipsia
Wound Healing
and Scar
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Wound Healing
• Necessary after inflammation/cell death
• Regeneration
• Occurs in tissues capable of replacing damaged cells
• Must have surviving cells capable of division
• Scar formation
• Tissues not capable of regeneration
• Or if severe damage that destroys regenerative capacity
• Lost cells replaced by connective tissue
• “Fibrosis”: scar tissue left at sites of inflammation
Tissue Types
• Labile tissues
• Continuously dividing to replace lost cells
• Hematopoietic stem cells
• Most epithelial cells
• Easily regenerate
• Stable tissues
• Inactive (“quiescent”) cells
• Normally replicate minimally
• Can proliferate in response to injury
• Many solid organs: liver, kidney, pancreas
Tissue Types
• Permanent tissues
• “Terminally differentiated”
• Generally do not proliferate (very limited ability)
• Cannot significantly regenerate
• Neurons, cardiac myocytes
• Damage leads to scar

Quasar Jarosz
Stem Cells
• Mature cells of many tissues have short lifespan
• Stem cells replace lost cells
• Self-renewal and asymmetric division
• Two daughter cells
• One becomes mature cell
• Other becomes stem cell
Stem Cells
• Embryonic stem cells
• Found in blastocyst
• Undifferentiated
• Can form many different cells types
• Important for embryogenesis
• Adult stem cells
• Found in tissue beds
• More differentiated
• Produce cells for one tissue (e.g., skin, epithelial lining)
• Important for homeostasis (replacing lost cells)
Scar Formation
• Sequence of three processes
• #1: Angiogenesis (new blood vessel growth)
• #2: Fibroblast activation
• Migrate to injure site
• Proliferate
• Lay down fibrous tissue
• #3: Scar maturation
• Changes to scar composition/structure
• Produces stable, stronger scar tissue
Growth Factors
• Drive scar formation
• Many, many factors described
• FGF
• TGF-B
• VEGF
• PDGF
• Metalloproteinases
• EGF
• Most trigger chemotaxis, angiogenesis, fibrosis
Angiogenesis
• First process in healing/scar formation
• New vessel growth from existing vessels
• Usually new vessels grow from venules
• Key growth factors:
• VEGF
• FGF
VEGF
Vascular endothelial growth factor

• Family of signal proteins

• Several forms (VEGF-A/B/C/D)
• VEGF-A: Stimulates angiogenesis
• Secreted by tumors → vascular growth
• VEGF Inhibitors
• Bevacizumab (cancer)
• Ranibizumab (retinopathy)
FGFs
Fibroblast Growth Factors

• Sources: macrophages, mast cells, endothelial cells

• Attract fibroblasts (“chemotactic”)
• Stimulates angiogenesis
• Also stimulates extracellular matrix protein synthesis
Fibroblasts
• Fibroblasts migrate to injury site
• Extracellular matrix proteins synthesized/secreted
• Initially secrete type III collagen and fibronectin
• Later collagen type III broken down
• Followed by secretion of type I collagen occurs
• Key growth factors:
• TGF- β
• PDGF
Vitamin C
Ascorbic Acid

• Found in fruits and vegetables

• Necessary for collagen synthesis
• Poor wound healing in deficiency state

Jina Lee/Wikipedia
TGF-β
Transforming Growth Factor Beta

• Released by many cell types:

• Platelets, T cells, macrophages, endothelial cells, others
• Promotes healing/scar
• Stimulates collagen production
• Inhibits collagen breakdown
• Anti-inflammatory
• Inhibits lymphocyte proliferation/activity
• Knock-out mice (no TGF- β): widespread inflammation
PDGF
Platelet-derived growth factor

• Sources: platelets, macrophages, endothelial cells

• Stimulates fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells
• Growth, migration of fibroblasts
• Synthesis of collagen
• Implicated in myelofibrosis, scleroderma

P
D
G
Fibroblast
Granulation Tissue
• Develops 3 to 5 days after injury
• Early stages healing/scar formation
• Made of collagen and new blood vessels
• Histology:
• Proliferating fibroblasts
• Small, new capillaries from angiogenesis
• Extracellular matrix
• Some inflammatory cells especially macrophages
• Eventually becomes scar
Granulation Tissue

Public Domain
Myofibroblasts
• Fibroblasts with contractile proteins
• Share similarities with smooth muscle cells
• Contract wound (pull edges together)
• Wound size shrinks
• Develops around day 5 after injury
• Lost by apoptosis as scar matures
Remodeling
• Modification of connective tissue
• Occurs after initial synthesis/deposition
• Key features:
• Breakdown of type III collagens
• Cross-linking of collagen
• Key enzymes:
• Metalloproteinase (zinc)
• Lysyl oxidase (copper)
Metalloproteinases
• Zinc containing enzymes
• Degrade proteins in extracellular matrix
• Important for maturation phase of wound healing
• Breakdown type III collagen
• “Collagenase” activity
• Zinc deficiency: poor wound healing (maturation)

Public Domain
Wound Healing

Collagen I

Fibronectin

Collagen III

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Months
Lysyl Oxidase
• Copper-dependent enzyme
• Cross-links collagen
• Cu deficiency: poor wound healing (maturation)

Public Domain
 Surgical Wound Pressure Ulcer

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Carsten Niehaus/Wikipedia
Skin Wound Healing
• First intention
• Tissue surfaces “approximated” (i.e., closed together)
• Common method of healing for surgical incision sites
• Sutures, staples, skin glue, tape
• Requires relatively small amounts of tissue loss
• Main mechanism of healing: epithelial regeneration
• Minimal scar
• Minimal wound contraction
Skin Wound Healing
• Second intention
• Large wounds
• Cannot approximate edges
• Classic example: pressure ulcer
• Significant scar formation
Healing by 1st Intention
• Injury site:
• Tissue loss
• Blood loss (damaged vessels)
• 1st 24 hours
• Inflammation and hemostasis
• Clot formation (platelets)
• Neutrophil invasion (via increased vascular permeability)
Healing by 1st Intention
• 3-7 days
• Neutrophils replaced by macrophages
• Angiogenesis
• Fibroblast infiltration
• Granulation tissue formation
• Type III collagen
• Wound contraction via myofibroblasts
• Weeks
• Remodeling
• Type III collagen → type I collagen
• Lysyl oxidase
Cells in Healing

Fibroblasts

Macrophages

PMNs

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Healing by 2nd Intention
• More inflammation
• More granulation tissue
• More tissue contraction
• More scar tissue
Long Term Outcomes
• Scar remodeling may continue for 6-12 months
• Eventually a “mature” scar forms
• Avascular
• Acellular
• Mechanical strength grows
• Type 1 collagen content grows
• Collagen synthesis stops after a few weeks
• Collagen cross-linking persists long after
• Scar gets stronger over time
• Tensile strength never equal that of normal tissue
Keloid
• Raised scars
• Extend beyond borders of original wound
• Caused by excessive healing/scar
• More fibroblasts, more growth factors, more collagen
Keloid
• Contain type I and III collagen
• Disorganized collagen
• Contrast with normal skin: collagen parallel to epithelium
• More common in certain locations
• Common in earlobe, deltoid, upper back
• Rare on eyelids, palms, soles
• High recurrence rate if surgically removed
• Treatment: corticosteroid, 5-FU injections
Hypertrophic Scars
• Also excessive scar formation
• Usually develop about 4 weeks after injury
• Remains within wound borders
• Mostly type III collagen
• Parallel (not disorganized) fibers
• May occur anywhere
• Often regress spontaneously

Cgomez447 /Wikipedia
Wound Infections
• Disrupt healing process
• Prolonged inflammation phase
• Pus = bacteria plus dead neutrophils
• Inflammatory cytokine release continues
• Poor formation of growth factors

Public Domain
Wound Infections
• Staph Aureus
• Clostridium tetani (vaccination after injury)
• Pseudomonas (burns)
• Rabies virus (vaccination after animal bites)
• Vibrio vulnificus (contaminated water)

Public Domain
Neoplasia
Jason Ryan, MD, MPH
Neoplasia
• “New growth”
• Cancer, malignancy
Pixabay/Public Domain
• Genetic disorder
• Cell cycle normally tightly controlled
• Signals → growth/cell divisions
• Signals → prevention of growth/cell division
• Mutations → uncontrolled growth
Clonality
• Single cell develops mutation
• Gives rise to daughter cells (clones)
• All clones carry same mutation

Emaze/Public Domain
Tumor Locations
• Rapidly dividing cells
• Stop/start for cell division
• Lots of DNA replication
• Many chances for mutation
• Increased likelihood of cancer
• GI epithelium: common site of cancer
• Myocardium: very rare site of cancer
Tumor Progression
• Change in tumor over time
• Become more aggressive
• Accumulate more mutations
• Less responsive to chemotherapy
• Large tumors often heterogenous
Warburg Effect
• Glucose metabolized to lactate for ATP
• “Aerobic glycolysis” Glucose
• Less ATP than oxidative phosphorylation
• Occurs even in presence of oxygen
• Result: High glucose uptake
• Basis for PET scanning
• Radiolabeled glucose scan Pyruvate

Lactate TCA Cycle

PET Scan
Dysplasia
• Description of tissue morphology
• Disordered but non-neoplastic growth
• Precedes neoplasia
• Progresses to cancer
• Described in epithelial tissues
• Carcinoma in situ
• Dysplasia of entire epithelial layer
• No invasion of basement membrane (contained)
Anaplasia
• Undifferentiated cell growth
• Cells do not look like cells of origin
• Metabolic activity to growth
• Little/no other functions
• Seen in malignant, aggressive tumors
• Usually poor prognosis
• Well-differentiated tumors: resemble tissue or origin
• Anaplastic tumors: lack of distinguishing features
Cancer Progression

Danielah67/Wikipedia
Hallmarks of Malignant Cells
• Autonomous growth
• Not sensitive to growth factors/inhibitors
• Evasion of cell death
• Do not undergo apoptosis
• Evade the immune system
• Unlimited ability to replicate (“immortal”)
• Normal cells become “senescent” after XX replications
• Angiogenesis
• New blood vessels to fuel growth
• Ability to invade tissues and spread
Telomerase
• Normal cells capable of 60-70 divisions only
• Thereafter become senescent
• Caused by shortening of telomeres
• Telomeres: nucleotides at end of chromosomes
• Telomerase: avoids loss of genes with duplication
• Active in stem cells
• Little activity in other cells
• Telomerase upregulation in almost all cancers

Wikipedia/Public Domain
Grade
• Degree of differentiation
• Determined by pathologist
• Requires biopsy for microscopic tissue analysis
• Grades I, II, III, IV
• Well-differentiated: low grade
• Anaplastic/undifferentiated: high grade
Stage
• Degree of tumor extension/spread
• Local, lymph nodes, metastasis
• Usually done by radiology/imaging
• Early stage: localized growth
• Advanced stage: spread, metastasis
TNM Staging System
• T: primary tumor size
• T1, T2, T3, T4
• N: degree of regional lymph node spread
• N0, N1, N2, N3
• M: metastases
• M0=no mets; M1 = mets

TNM
Nomenclature
• Benign
• Likely to remain localized without spread
• Amenable to surgical removal
• May still cause problems (e.g., compression)
• Well-differentiated
• Low mitotic activity
• Malignant
• Invades and spreads
• May cause death
Non-neoplastic Growths
• Hamartoma
• Mass of mature but disorganized cells
• Example: lung hamartoma contains disorganized lung tissue
• Developmental anomalies
• Choristoma
• Mature, well-differentiated tissue in the wrong place
• Example: Meckel’s diverticulum (gastric tissue in ileum)
• Both are benign (i.e., do not invade/metastasize)
Tumor Naming
Benign Tumors

• Naming: cell/tissue type of origin plus –oma

• Fibroma: benign fibrous tumor
• Chondroma: benign cartilage tumor
• Adenoma
• Benign epithelial tumors
• Often forming gland structures
• Papilloma
• Benign epithelial tumors on surfaces with “finger-like”
projections
Tumor Naming
Malignant Tumors

• Mesenchymal tissues
• Connective tissue, bones, blood, lymph
• Solid tumor: sarcoma (e.g., osteosarcoma)
• Blood/lymph: leukemia or lymphoma
• Epithelial cells: carcinoma
• Glandular tumors: adenocarcinoma
• Colon adenocarcinoma, lung adenocarcinoma
• Skin: squamous cell carcinoma
Tumor Spread
• Sarcoma: spread via blood (hematogenous)
• Arteries (thick walls) difficult to penetrate
• Veins (thin walls): easily penetrated
• Liver and lungs most common sites of hematogenous spread
Tumor Spread
• Carcinoma: usually spread via lymphatics
• Key exceptions:
• Four carcinomas spread via bloodstream
• Choriocarcinoma (“Early hematogenous spread”)
• Renal cell carcinoma (renal vein)
• Hepatocellular carcinoma (portal vein)
• Follicular thyroid carcinoma
Teratoma
• Cells from multiple germ layers
• Ectoderm (skin, hair follicles)
• Endoderm (lung, GI)
• Mesoderm (muscle, cartilage)
• Arise from germ cells in ovaries and testes
• Cells of origin capable of forming multiple germ layers
Epidemiology
• Cancer is 2nd leading cause of death
• Heart disease #1
• Respiratory disease #3 (e.g., COPD)
• Accidents/trauma #4
• New cases (incidence)
• Breast/prostate → lung → colorectal
• Mortality (death rate)
• Lung → breast/prostate → colorectal

Source: American Cancer Society Statistics, 2017

Epidemiology
Children

• Causes of death
• Accidents → cancer → congenital disorders
• Incidence/mortality
• Leukemia → CNS tumors → neuroblastoma
Carcinogenesis
• Nonlethal DNA damage → cancer
• Mutations in two types of genes lead to cancer
• Tumor suppressor genes
• Oncogenes
Tumor Suppressor Genes
• Limit cell growth
• Classic examples:
• P53 gene: blocks progression through cell cycle
• Retinoblastoma gene: inhibits transcription factors
• Need mutations in both alleles to shut down activity
Germline Mutations
• One gene mutated in all cells at birth
• Occurs in some tumor suppressor genes
• Leads to increased cancer risk at early age
• BRCA1/BRCA2 (breast cancer)
• Hereditary retinoblastoma
• HNPCC (Lynch syndrome)
• Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP)
• Li-Fraumeni syndrome
Oncogenes
• Promote uncontrolled cell growth
• Proto-oncogenes: normal cellular genes
• Growth factors, growth factor receptors, signal transducers
• Proto-oncogene mutation → oncogene → cancer
• Single gene mutation → malignancy
Carcinogens
• Substances that cause cancer
• Chemicals
• Asbestos → mesothelioma
• Viruses
• HPV → cervical cancer
• Radiation
• Sunlight → skin cancer