1.

Introduction
The word diagnosis is derived from the Greek words dia which means "by", and gnosis which
means "knowledge". The verb is diagnose and a person diagnosing could be considered a
diagnostician.
Diagnosis or diagnostics is the process of identifying a veterinary medical condition or disease
by its signs, symptoms, and from the results of various diagnostic procedures and also is "the
recognition of a disease or condition by its outward signs and symptoms". The conclusion
reached through this process is called a diagnosis. The term "diagnostic criteria" designates the
combination of symptoms which allows the doctor to ascertain the diagnosis of the respective
disease.
Diagnosis covers a broad spectrum or spectra, of testing in some form of analysis; collective
reasoning using such tests is called the method of diagnostics, leading then to the results of those
tests by ideal (ethics) would then be considered a diagnosis, but not necessarily the correct one.
Diagnosis can be subdivided in to three as clinical diagnosis, differential and laboratory
diagnosis.
1.1 Purpose of Clinical diagnosis:
To diagnose, to treat and to control of diseases and diagnosis is the key element in the veterinary
medical approaches.
Diagnosis is a process of establishing the nature (peracute, acute, sub acute, and chronic) and the
etiology of a disease, i.e. diagnosis is performed by * Using clinical signs * Using laboratory
examination and * Identification of the nature of diseases and their etiologies. Generally the
objectives of this course are:
To provide students with knowledge on how to obtain a history of the patient animal’s illness
and examine it for signs of disease up on the physical and systemic examination procedures.
To demonstrate the commonly performed veterinary medical tests like measuring blood
pressures, checking the pulse rate, listening to the heart with a stethoscope, urine tests, fecal
tests, blood tests, veterinary medical imaging, electrocardiogram, and occasionally biopsy.
To direct students formulate a hypothesis of likely diagnoses and in many cases will obtain
further testing to confirm or clarify the diagnosis before providing treatment.

1.2 Broadly there are 2 types of diagnosis

1) Tentative (symptomatic) diagnosis 2) Definitive/final/confirmatory diagnosis
1) Tentative diagnosis: is made with out the identification of the etiology of a disease mainly on
the basis of clinical signs. Some times this also termed as symptomatic diagnosis.
There are very few clinical signs on the existence of which a definitive diagnosis can be made.
Such clinical signs are termed as pathognomonic signs.
E.g. Protrusion of the 3rd eye lid = Tetanus in equines/horses/
Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies in cells of the hippocampus = Rabies
Swelling of guttural pouch in horses = African Horse sickness
Crepitating (cracking) sound of the skin of gluteus muscles = Black leg in cattle

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WU, School of Vet Medicine, Vet. Clinical Diagnosis , by Dr. Andualem Y , 2015
2) Definitive/final/confirmatory diagnosis: is made on the basis of the identification of the
etiology of a disease. This involves laboratory examination (by taking samples) and
identification of the specific causative agent.
1.3 Objectives of Diagnosis
* To identify the nature (peracute, acute, sub acute, and chronic) and etiology of an infection so
that effective treatment and/or control measures are applied.
* To give a prognosis (opinion as to the out come of the diseased animal) as poor (poor tendency

to recover) and good prognosis (tend to recover).

1.4 Basic requirements for the clinician to make the diagnosis easily
Sound knowledge of anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and pathology
Application of clinical examination in systemic manner
1.5 Problems/difficulties/challenges/ in the process of Diagnosis
Diversification of animal species and birds that have different diseases and exhibit different
clinical signs
Existence of different farming system (intensive, extensive and small holder production systems)
that manifest different disease patterns.
The fact that animals couldn’t provide information to the professional regarding their illness (i.e.
no verbal/speak/ communication b/n the animal and the clinician).
Solutions of the above challenges/difficulties/
- Increasing the number of specialization of veterinarians on the basis of species, breeds, farming
systems…
Indication of Diagnosis
Diagnosis is indicated when there are changes in the structures of organs or tissues and/or
function as well as in the behavior of the whole living organisms.
2. Approaches for the diagnosis
1) General physical examination 2) Systemic/specific/ examination
1) General physical examination: Techniques of physical examinations are Inspection, Palpation,

Percussion, and Auscultation

2) Systemic/specific/ examination: Respiratory system, Circulatory system, Digestive system,
Musculoskeletal system, urinary system, Reproductive system (male& female)
I. Inspection: involves close visualization of the organ or part in question which involves
injuries, any change in size and anatomy, discharges, lacrymation, appearance, behavior, posture.
II. Palpation: is application of pressure on the tissue or organ by fingers and/or probe to detect
the presence of abnormality. Palpation mainly detects the presence of pain in tissues by noting an
increase in sensitivity. Other abnormalities that can be detected by palpation are variation in size,
shape, consistency and temperature. Two way of palpation: Direct & Indirect
Direct palpation: is handling or palpating the tissue by means of fingers
Indirect palpation: is palpation by using probe (using any material)
Conditions that can be identified by palpation
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WU, School of Vet Medicine, Vet. Clinical Diagnosis , by Dr. Andualem Y , 2015
- Hard consistency: when the structure possess bone-like consistency
- Dough: when pressure palpation causes pitting which persists for some time (this is mainly a
characteristics of edema)
- Firm: when resistance to pressure is similar to that of normal liver (no pitting formation)
- Emphysematous: when the pressure cripitation (crackling) sound. E.g. as in case of black leg.

III. Percussion: is a physical method of examination which involves striking on part of the body
for obtaining information about the condition of the deeper lying tissue on the audible sound it
produces. It is mainly used for the examination of the thorax (lung and heart, some times for
para-nasal sinuses and subcutaneous emphysema).

Types of percussion
Hammer-pleximeter percussion: hammer & pleximeter are required and it is used in large
animals.
Finger-finger percussion: is used in small animals and in man. It is performed by using both
hands and the middle finger of one hand acting as a pleximeter and the flexed middle finger of
the other hand as a hammer.
NB: The diagnostic value percussion in large animal is limited because the internal organs are
too large and the over lined tissue (muscle and fat deposition) in many cases they are too thick to
recognize the extent of the abnormality. In pigs, finger-finger percussion is very difficult because
of the fat beneath the skin.
Procedure:
a) The pleximeter/back of the finger must be placed firmly against the body surface, so as to
avoid the existence of air.
b) The hand holding the hammer must be at higher level than the hand holding the pleximeter.
c) The handle of the hammer must not be held too firmly.
d) The blow of the hammer should be perpendicular to the pleximeter.
e) The whole area requiring examination should be percussed in a systematic way.
f) The force of the blow should be optimum to percus the area.
Quality of the sounds produced by the percussion are classified as
1. Resonant = a characteristic sound emitted by air containing organs (mainly by a normal lung).
This sound is simulated with the drum sound (is sound of normal lung).
2. Tympanic sound = a characteristic sound produced by striking of hollow organs containing
gas under pressure. E.g. tympanic rumen or caecum
3. Dull sound = a characteristic sound produced by striking of solid organs such as heart, liver
etc
IV. Auscultation: listening the sound produced by the functional activity of an organ located
with in a particular part of the body. It is mainly used for the examination of lungs, trachea,
heart, rumen, reticulum and caecum. It is performed either by direct or indirect method.
* The indirect method employs the stethoscope while the direct method is performed by placing
the ear in contact with the body surface over the organ to be examined. The indirect method is
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WU, School of Vet Medicine, Vet. Clinical Diagnosis , by Dr. Andualem Y , 2015
more preferable, and with adequate experience give reliable information (result) and the direct
method is using the hand and then hear the sound.
Disadvantage of using direct auscultation
a) Difficulty in maintaining close contact in less rest animals
b) The production of fractional sounds which a rise from opposing movement b/n the clinician
and the hair coat (i.e. difficulty in excluding extraneous sounds).
c) The skin may harbor ectoparasites, bacteria and fungi that are potentially pathogenic to human

and the skin coat may be dirty.

3. Procedures and prerequisite for diagnosis
History (anamnesis):
It is the process of collecting information regarding disease problems from the owner/attendants
of diseased animals and is the most important procedure. Because of the daily contact with the
patient the farm staff may know about the course of the disease than the owner or the farm
manager. History is a very important facet of the whole procedure of clinical examination for a
clinician to get information from the owner of the animals regarding their symptoms.
3.1 History and its influencing factors
The following factors influence the outcome of history taking or the information obtained by
history: -
i. The Knowledge or personality or ability of the attendant to provide the correct information
ii. The time taken to collect all the relevant information (all the three types of anamnesis)
iii. The knowledge of the clinician regarding the prevalence of diseases in the area
3.2 Types of anamnesis
There are three types of history:
a) Immediate history: used to generate information regarding the sequences of events associated
with the period of time that the animal has been ill. Specific questions should be directed to the
attendants. Such questions must be emphasized on the following:
- When the disease has started?
- Appetite for feed & water?
- Defecation (consistency, color, frequency)?
- GIT motility?
- Urination (manner (dripping/normal flow), color, frequency, transparency)?
- Posture and Gait?
- Milk production?
- Normal physiological parameters (pulse, T o, respiration rate, heart rate, rumenal motility,
mucus membrane)?
N.B: when a proportion of a group/flock/ of animals is affected by a disease of herd, we have to
examine the group and sample should be selected as a basis for establishing the history.
: Leading questions must be avoided.

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WU, School of Vet Medicine, Vet. Clinical Diagnosis , by Dr. Andualem Y , 2015
* Immediate history is to determine whether any treatment has been given or not. If so, the
nature of the substance, the amount and the time that has been elapsed since the last dose, have to
be determined.
* The type of treatment previously given by the farmers should be known: e.g. drenching,
branding, cauterization, etc.
b) Past history: used to generate information regarding the nature and timing of any previous
diseases which had affected the individual animal or the group.
Details regarding the clinical features, diagnosis, laboratory tests, treatments, mortality and
morbidity, postmortem examinations and the ultimate outcome should be obtained.
- How did the animal dead?
- Recent information on introduction of new animals in to a herd?
- If there is information of introduction of carrier animals in to a herd, we have to critically asses
the specific causative agent.
c) Environmental/managemental/ history:
I. Housing: slippery floor, rough concrete surface (bruising, lameness)
II. Ventilation: low environmental temperature, high humidity and inadequate ventilation are
important predisposing factors to enzootic pneumonia in housed pigs and calves.
Enzootic pneumonia is common in chilling (cold) areas like Debre-Birhan, Illubabor etc,
III. Hygiene: high incidence of enteric infections such as colibacillosis, salmonellosis, rota virus
infections are associated with a failure to clear and disinfect the house or rooms prior to
farrowing, calving, lambing and foaling.
IV. Geography and season: relatively high rainfall areas with dense low shrub can be associated
with vector-borne diseases including babesiosis, anaplasmosis, trypanosomosis, AHS, RVF.
- Low lying, poorly drained marshy areas provides suitable conditions for the appearance of snail
borne diseases/parasitic infections like paramphistomosis, schistosomosis (bilharziasis in
human), fasciolosis. On the other hand, sandy soils are likely to give rise to copper (Cu) and
cobalt (Co) deficiencies.
4. Approaches for clinical examination of diseases in domestic animals
There are two arbitrary approaches of clinical examination in domestic animals: i) Routine
approaches for General examination and ii) Systemic/specific/regional/ examination.
2.2. GENERAL EXAMINATION OF THE PATIENT
In all cases the history of the patient is thoroughly elucidated in the manner previously described,
and a general inspection of the animal and its environment is carried out prior to the general and
physical parts of the clinical examination.
The procedure involved in making a clinical examination can usefully be classified into two
phases:
a. The general examination that involves the general inspection
b. The regional and/or systemic examination.
The general clinical examination involves detailed consideration of distinguishing marks,
physical condition, general appearance and demeanour, posture, gait, normal behaviour,
examination of body temperature, pulse, and respiration.
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The regional or systemic clinical examination on the other hand involves the application of the
various clinical methods (sensory and physical) to the various regions or systems of the body as
follows: skin and coat, head and neck, thorax, abdomen, urinary system, reproductive system,
blood and blood forming organs, nervous system and musculoskeletal system.
The necessity to perform a detailed examination of any particular part of the body may have been
indicated by the information obtained during the general clinical examination. If otherwise, all
the component regions and systems as indicated may have to be thoroughly explored for
evidence of disease.
A. General examination of the Patient

I. Distinguishing marks

The distinguishing features of an animal should be carefully noted at the beginning of the
examination when the general inspection is made, in order to establish its identity. Accurate
identification of the patient is essential for group disease records and in situations where a
different veterinarian may make a subsequent visit. The data required include: name and address
of the owner, species, breed, sex, age, height or size, colour, horned or polled, brands, tattoo, ear
marks, etc.
II. Physical condition
It is recognizing body build of an animal and judged by inspection and digital palpation by
giving attention to all body prominences, ribs, shoulder, blade, spinous process of cervical,
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. Besides, dewlap, brisket, thigh muscles and perineal regions
should be viewed and judged. From the patho-physiological and nutritional stand point the
physical condition can be demarcated as follows:
Normal-in normal animals, all the body prominences of the skeleton are adequately covered
with well developed muscles and cushioned fat. The body has normal symmetry.
Fatty (obese): it is a pathological deposition of a fat. There is abdominal protrusion and body
assumes round shape.
Lean (thin): in lean or thin animals, various parts of the skeleton are prominent (eg, ribs and
pelvis) and the supra orbital fossa are deepened.
Emaciation- in emaciated animals, there is wasting or atrophy of the muscles and bones are very
much prominent with depression of supra-orbital fossa. The difference between thinness and
emaciation is only of degree.
Hide bound:-there is prolonged emaciation, lustreless with dry leathery skin and reduced
elasticity of the skin.
Cachectic (walking skeleton): - prolonged muscular atrophy with deeply sunken eyes is the
feature of this state of health. The animal remains with skin and bones, due to this fact it is also
termed as “the walking skeleton”.

III. General Demeanour

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General demeanour of animals is a useful indication of nature of disease and it is the response of
the animal to external stimuli. In the case of animal in a herd or flock, separation of an individual
may be an indication of disease.
Classification of demeanour: 1. Normal (bright) demeanour 2. Abnormal demeanours

Normal (bright): when, on being approached, an animal make a normal response to external
stimuli, such as movement and sound, the demeanour is said to be normal (bright). Normal
reaction under these circumstances may consist of elevating the head and ears, turning towards
and directing the attention at the source of stimuli, walking away and evincing signs of attack or
flight.
Abnormal demeanour
1. Decreased response (depression): this has three stages.
 Dull (apathetic):- this state is appreciated by the reactions to normal stimuli being
sluggish or retarded, or even somewhat suppressed.
 Dummy state- this state is an advanced degree of failure to respond to external stimuli
although the animal remains standing, and is capable of movement. Encephalomyelitis in
horse, and Listeriosis and occasional cases of lead poisoning and ketosis in cattle have
these signs.
 Comma- the most advanced degree of apathy (depression) is comma, in which the
animal is unconscious and fails to respond to painful stimuli, as in the cow in the
advanced stages of parturient paresis (hypocalcaemia) and pregnancy toxaemia.
2. Excitation or increased response
 Apprehension (mildly anxious): the animal appears alert, looks about constantly, but
exhibits normal movements. It may arise due to slight constant pain, in serious defects of
vision and the early stage of parturient paresis or hypocalcaemia.
 Restlessness: it is a more severe state in which movement is almost constant, consisting
of lying down, rolling, getting up again, looking at the flanks, kicking at the belly and
groaning or bellowing. This form of behaviour is usually caused by sharp intermittent or
constant pain, as in colic syndrome in horse.
 Mania: in mania the behaviour aberrations appear to compulsive and include vigorous
licking of some specific parts of the body surface (ketosis, pseudorabies). Pressing
forwards with the head (meningitis) or licking or chewing inanimate objects.
 Frenzy: when frenzied, the animals’ actions are uncontrolled as in acute lead poisoning,
hypomagnesaemic tetany and rabies.

IV. Gait

It indicates the locomotory (movement) process of an animal.

Table: diseases that affect locomotion

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 Gait Disease/disorder
Walking in circle Coenurousis (gid) , Otitis (dog/cat)
Goose stepping gait Heart water in calf
Painful limb movement Laminitis, Foot rot
(lameness)
Locomotors disturbances are seen when the animal moves about voluntarily, or is led or driven at
various paces, towards or away from the clinician.
V. Posture

It denotes the anatomical configuration when the animals remain in stationary situation. How
does it stand? How does it sit? How does it lie?
Examples that indicate abnormalities of posture
 Kyphosis – it is dorsal bending of the spinal column.
 Lordosis – it is ventral bending of the spinal column.
 Dog-sitting-position in acute gastro-distension in the horse, pain and pressure on the
diaphragm cause the animal to adopt the “dog-sitting-position”.

4. TEMPERATURE, PULSE AND RESPIRATION TAKING

4.1. TEMPERATURE TAKING

 Thermoregulation
Based on thermoregulatory mechanism animals can be categorized as homeothermic and
poikilothermic.
Homoeothermic animals (warm blooded, mammals and birds) have the ability to maintain
constant body temperature independent of external environmental temperature. This is largely
due to the interaction of physical and chemical thermo-regulation properties. The constant
body temperature results from a balance between heat generation and heat dissipation.
Heat is generated in the body through the intra-cellular oxidation of cells. Liver and heart can
produce heat at a fairly uniform rate, but muscles, when active, can contribute some 80%
heat.

Heat dissipates from the body through the physical process of conduction, radiation and
convection, mainly by the organs or activities of skin and coat, respiration, urination and
defecation.

The temperature regulation against either cold or hot is governed by the combined action of
thermo receptors located in the anterior hypothalamus. Heat regulation is dependent on both
neural and hormonal components. It implies regulation of various metabolisms. In response to
a drop in surrounding temperature, the process of heat production in the body is intensified at

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 all level and in the other hand, in response to a rise in surrounding temperature, the process of
heat production is diminished.
Drop in temperaturestimulation of anterior pituitaryrelease of thyrotrophic
hormonerelease of thyroxinincreased basic metabolism ratemore heat.

Poikilothermic animals (cold blooded animals like reptiles, fish) have a body temperature which
is variable with the external environment.

BODY TEMPERATURE

The To of the body of different animals varies widely. The T o of the body surface is usually less
than the To of the deeper parts. During the process of examination of mucous membrane, skin
and mouth, the clinician may appreciate the rise or fall of body T o, but the exact To has to be
recorded with the help of a clinical thermometer. Recording of temperature helps in establishing
a diagnosis of febrile disease from afebrile ones. T o chart (T curve), if maintained properly, may
help in determining the process and fate of a disease.
Site of recording
The temperature in domestic animals is recorded in the rectum. In female animals, the vaginal
temperature may also be considered but it should be remind that vaginal temperature may remain
high during oestrus; vaginal temperature is 0.5 oc higher than the rectal temperature of healthy
animal.
3. 2 Procedures of Temperature Taking

The temperature is recorded with the help of clinical thermometer which consists of a mercury
reservoir communicating with a thin capillary channel. A range should be from about 36 oc
degrees centigrade to 42.5oc
Procedure
(A) The thermometer should be sterilized by disinfectant (antiseptics) before use;
(B) It should be well shaken before recording of T o to bring the mercury column down below the
lowest point likely to be observed in different species of animals.
(C) The bulb end of the thermometer should be lubricated with liquid paraffin or glycerine or
soap especially in case of small pup and kitten.
(D) Care should be taken so that the bulb of the thermometer remains in contact with the rectal
mucous membrane.
(E) The thermometer should be kept in site for at least 3-5 minutes.
(F) Read the thermometer

Table: Normal Rectal Temperatures

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Animal Range Average
Adult equine 37.2-38.0 37.6
Foal 37.5-38.6 38.0
cattle over 1 year 37.8-39.2 38.5
Calf, up to 1 year 38.6-39.8 39.2
Sheep/Goat 38.9-40.0 39.5
Pig, adult 37.8-38.9 38.3
Piglet 38.9-40.0 39.4
Chicken/fowl 40.8
Camel 35.0-38.6 37.8
Dog/Cat 37.9-39.9 38.9

Factors which influence the change of body temperature

(A) Temperature at Exercise>at rest
(B) Environmental temperature and humidity and ventilation
(C) Age, species:- in smaller animals >larger; younger animals >older
(D) Female>male; pregnant>non-pregnant
(E) Sweating
(F) Feeding
(G) Stimuli (including the operation of clinical examination)
(H) Local inflammation of the rectum (higher T o) but diarrhoea/cold fluid enema/anal sphincter
flaccid, lower

4.1.2 Hypothermia & Hyperthermia (Overheating)

Hyperthermia results from retention of excess heat as a consequence of disturbed
thermoregulation & impeded heat elimination into the surroundings. This condition develops due
to the ff: Less humid conditions reduce heat loss
Reduced air current leading to poor body cooling
When there is reduction or complete loss of sweating
In the presence of thick body coat
Defects in thermoregulation of the body

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Hypothermia or subnormal rectal To is a condition, which is caused by two reasons: 1.
Pseudohypothermia (diarrhoea, enema)
2. True hypothermia (shock and prior to death). Thus true hypothermia shows poor prognosis of
the patient.

4.1.3 Fever
The word “fever” is used to describe any sort of elevation of body temperature by the layman,
but it is not so from clinical standpoint. “Hyperthermia’ is a broader term that includes fever and
any other conditions which increase body temperature. The term “fever” has been affixed against
some diseases where there is no elevation of body temperature, e.g., milk fever.
Fever is a general reaction of animals and man to the action of harmful and most frequently
infectious agents known as pyrogens.
Pyrogens (exogenous or endogenous) disturb the heat regulation mechanism resulting to
elevation of body temperature regardless of the temperature of the external environment.
Hyperthermia supervenes under the influence of the elevated temperature of the external
environment whereas fever may appear under prevailing usual atmospheric temperature.
Pathogens that cause fever include specific (infectious) agents: viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa;
and non-specific agents: foreign protein, substances which cause tissue damage, protein
degradation products, necrotic tissue, and damaged blood.
Stages of fever and signs
1st stage (initial stage) (increment)— temperature of the body rises, ratio of heat production
increases to heat loss. Signs include: dullness, drowsiness, disinclination to move, inappetance,
erection of hair, arched back, rapid respiration, shivering, heavy urine colour (deep yellow).
2nd stage (hot stage, fastigium)— temperature remains on its acme, i.e., in a period of maximum
temperature. Here the ratio between heat productions to heat loss remains at a definite level. The
temperature remains more or less constant. Signs include: profound dullness, dropping of ears,
lowering of head, frequent respiration, rapid pulse, congested mucous membrane, hot breath, dry
muzzle, anorexia, drop in milk yield, increased thirst, constipation, scanty urine.
3rd stage (decrement)—there is decline of body temperature. Heat loss is ensued as a result of
profuse sweating or dilatation of peripheral vessels. The ratio of heat production to heat loss
becomes reverse to the first stage. Body regains its normal temperature. The signs include:
respiration less frequent, regain of appetite, skin and coat appears normal, muzzle becomes
moist, urine turns normal.

4.1.4. Temperature of skin and its appendages

The external temperature of the skin is best judged by palpation, passing the palmer surface of
the hand from the ears over the horns (in cattle), neck and trunk, to the extremities of the
cutaneous capillaries. The environmental temperature and functional activity of the heat-
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regulating areas in the anterior hypothalamus have a significant effect on skin temperature.
Normally the skin temperature shows regular gradations: Ear > muzzle > feet > tip of the tail, on
account of the poorer blood supply. In disease, the external temperature may be variably
irregular, and may be generally, or locally, raised or lowered.
Irregular variation of skin temperature occurs in hyperpyrexia, severe illness, generally cardiac
insufficiency, collapse, etc. in these conditions, the extremities of the body are either cold or
abnormally warm. A generalized rise in the temperature of the skin occurs during exertion, after
unaccustomed exposure to sunlight (heat stroke in pig) or high environmental temperature, also
in the early stages of hyperpyrexia. The temperature over the whole body surface is lowered
shortly before death, in extreme emaciation, and following severe haemorrhage, and other forms
of vascular shock.

4.2. PULSE TAKING

Pulse is the elongation and expansion of the arterial wall imparted by arterial blood due to
contraction of the left ventricle. It tells us useful information about the cardio-vascular system.
The techniques of taking the pulse consists of placing the ball part of one or more fingers on the
skin over the selected artery, and applying gentle pressure until the pulse wave can be detected.
In an examination of the pulse, the following properties should always be considered: pulse rate,
pulse rhythm, and pulse quality.
Sites of pulse taking:
Horse –External maxillary artery
-Transverse facial artery
-Median artery
-Great metatarsal artery
Cattle –facial artery
-Transverse facial artery
-Median artery
-Middle coccygeal artery
Sheep/goat, dog, cat, pig, calf-femoral artery
Pulse rate
Pulse rate is the number of elongation and expansion of arteries per minute.
When determining the pulse rate, a watch with a second hand should be used, and the waves
counted for a minimum of 30 seconds, where the number obtained should be multiplied by 2.

Physiological factors affecting the pulse rate in normal animals:

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A. Species—in general, the smaller the species, the more frequent the pulse rate is.
B. Size—within species the pulse rate is usually higher in larger individuals
C. Age—the pulse rate in very young animals is much higher than in adolescent and adult
individuals of the same species. The neonatal calf, for example, has a pulse rate in the region of
120 times per minute compared with the rate of over 80 for yearling cattle and 50-80 for adult
animals.
D. Physical condition—athletic animals have a less frequent pulse than non-athletic animals of
the same species and type.
E. Sex—in most species male animals have a slightly lower pulse rate than females.
F. Pregnancy—pregnant animals have more frequent pulse than non-pregnant ones.
G. Parturition—as parturition becomes imminent, there is a further increase in pulse frequency.
H. Lactation—lactating animals have a higher pulse rate than comparable ones not lactating.
I. Excitement—this may cause a considerable increase in the pulse frequency, particularly in
animals unaccustomed to being handled.
J. Exercise—physical exertion increases the pulse rate to an extent that varies according to the
severity of the exercise and fitness of the animal.
K. Ingestion of food—eating a large quantity of food will cause a very considerable increase in
the frequency of the pulse.
L. environmental temperature—exposure to either very high or very low temperature produces
an increase in the rate of pulse

Table: Normal pulse rate (beats/minute)

Animal Range Animal Range
Horse 28-40 Cat 110-130
Cattle 55-80 Rabbit 120-250
Calf 100-120 Chicken 250-300
Sheep/goat 70-90 Chick 350-450
Pig (adult) 60-90 Camel 25-32
Dog (large) 65-90 Ass 40-56
Dog (small) 90-120 Elephant 22-53

Abnormal types of pulse

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Abnormal pulse rates are classified as increased (tachycardia) and decreased (bradycardia)
number of beats per minute.

Abnormal pulse rhythms

Rhythm denotes regularity of successive “pulse waves” within a definite intervals of time. In a
regular pulse, the beats are separated by intervals of equal duration. In irregular pulse, duration
of intervals between successive beats varies. In most instances an irregular pulse is noted as a
sign of disease. It may be due to a lacking or aberrant conduction system as in partial or
complete heart block, or myocarditis, valvular disease, or heart failure from most any cause.
An intermittent pulse is an irregularity in which a beat fails or is dropped now and then. If this
occurs at regular intervals, it is referred to as regularly intermittent, while if no certain beat fails,
irregularly intermittent. If the heartbeat fails too, it is said to be a pulse deficit (as in partial heart
block).

Abnormal Pulse Quality

The quality of the pulse is assessed by the degree of digital pressure required to obliterate the
pulse wave in the artery. This is the only practical method readily available to the veterinary
clinician where by blood pressure variations and cardiac output can be assessed.
Changes in normal qualities of the pulse may be caused by structural or functional disease of the
heart or by abnormalities of the blood vessels (arterial thrombosis, embolism, passive venous
congestion), which only have a local or indirect influence on the pulse. The normal pulse wave is
regular in sequence, amplitude and strength, and the artery is well filled, the wall being distended
and exhibiting a degree of tone, which is readily appreciated by digital palpation.

4. 3. RESPIRATION

Respiration includes both the chemical and physical process that enables an organism to
exchange gases with its environment.
The physical features of respiration involve the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, which are in
action during breathing. The volume and frequency of the respiratory movements are controlled
by centres in the brain stem, which maintain inspiration and expiration.

The exchange of gases takes place by simple diffusion and is dependent on the pressure gradient
(partial pressure) of the gas across the membrane separating the alveolar air and the blood in the
alveolar capillaries.
This part of clinical examination is best performed in conjunction with the general inspection,
prior to physical procedures, or the application of restraint. In selected cases, exposing the
animal to physical effort may be a necessary part of the examination, as a means for determining
respiratory efficiency. The clinician should stand behind and to one side of the animal, so that
both the thoracic and abdominal areas of the body are in view. It is advisable to observe the

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animal from both sides, in order to determine whether the respiratory movements are bilaterally
similar. In quiet animals, determining the frequency and rhythm of the respirations is facilitated
by placing one hand on the lower part of the flank. The respiratory rate may also be determined
by observing nostril movements, or more efficiently by auscultation over the thorax or trachea.

Table: Normal respiration rates (breathes/minute)

Animal Range Animal Range
Horse 10-14 Dog 15-30
Ox (adult) 10-30 Cat 20-30
Ox (yearling) 15-40 Rabbit 90-100
Sheep/goat 15-30 Cock 12-20
Pig 8-20 Hen 20-36

Clinical Assessment Of Respiration

Types of respiration: there are three types of respiration based on the external muscles
predominantly involved in the respiratory movement
a. Costal respiration: in dogs and cats
b. Costo-abdominal: in equine
c. Abdominal: in cattle, sheep and goats

Respiratory rate: -refers to the number of breathes per minute

The state of normal quiet breathing is called eupnoea. Increased respiratory frequency occurs
wherever there is an increased demand for oxygen by tissues. Hence, it is seen when the animal
is excited, after exercise or exposure to high environmental temperature or humidity and as in
obesity. It is also a regular concomitant of fever and is observed in various pulmonary diseases,
severe cardiac disease, obstruction of the upper respiratory passages, conditions making
respiration painful (pleurisy, peritonitis) and anaemia (deficiency of erythrocytes producing
hypoxia). Increased respiratory rate, with or without an increase in the amplitude of the
movements, is termed hyperpnoea. When there is increased respiratory frequency with
reduction in depth of the associated movements the term polypnoea is applied.
Decreased or retarded respiratory frequency (oligopnoea) is rare. It occasionally occurs in
animals with space-occupied lesions of the brain (chronic acquired and congenital
hydrocephalus), in stenosis of the upper respiratory tract and in uraemia.

Respiration Rhythm: - there are three phases in respiration: expiration inspiration and pause.
Respiratory rhythm refers to the regularity of time between the intervals of inspiration and

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expiration. Normally equal intervals between respirations, with expiration being of slightly
longer duration than inspiration is universal.

Pathological alterations of respiratory rhythm include:

--Prolongation of inspiration is observed when there is partial obstruction of the upper
respiratory tract.
--Prolongation of expiration is observed when there is pulmonary emphysema.
--Cheyne-stokes abnormal type of respiration in which a period of respiratory arrest (apnoea)
occurs for 15-30seconds, followed by a gradual increase and then a gradual decrease in the
amplitude of the movements which are regularly succeeded by a further respiratory hiatus. It is
characteristic of advanced renal and cardiac diseases, and severe toxaemia.
--Biot’s respiration is characterized by recurring series of relatively shallow rapid breaths
(polypnoea), alternating with periods of apnoea; the intervals of respiratory arrest and periods of
activity vary in length. It occurs in meningitis affecting particularly the region of medulla
oblongata.
--Syncoptic respiration: in this case deep breathing (hyperpnoea) follows a pause that gradually
becomes shallow until apnoea prevails.
Cheyne-stokes, biot’s and syncoptic respirations are indicative of unfavourable prognosis. In
addition they reflect decreased sensitivity of the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata to
CO2 in the circulating blood.

Respiratory depth: refers to amplitude of movement of external respiratory organs indicating

the volume of air taken in and the capacity of the lung. Normally there is great variation in the
amplitude of the respiratory movements. Any form of exercise increases the depth of respiration.
Because of temporary hypoxia at rest, amplitude is reduced. In deep breathing (hyperpnoea) the
considerable movements of both the thoracic and abdominal walls are clearly visible. Very deep
respiration is said to be “laboured”, it occurs in dyspnoea. Irregularity in depth, and in the
intervals between successive respirations, is commonly seen in dyspnoea.
Dyspnoea
Any subjectively assessed difficulty in respiration, causing apparent distress to an animal, is
known as dyspnoea. Dyspnoea is a collective term embracing pathological alterations in
frequency, manner, and occurrence of abnormal sounds. It may be a physiological occurrence
following strenuous exercise but it more usually arises out of disease and is caused by hypoxia in
association with hypercapnia (excess CO2).
1. Inspiratory dyspnoea—it is a feature of all those diseases in which entry of air into the
lungs or transfer of oxygen to the blood or tissues is inhibited, e.g. in stenosis of air passages,
bronchopneumonia, pulmonary oedema, pulmonary congestion, ruptured diaphragm, pleurisy
and hydro cyanic acid poisoning. In this form of dyspnoea, there is dilation of the nostrils,
extension of the head and neck and opening of the mouth, costal type of respiration,
depression of the intercostals spaces, forward movement of the body during each inspiration.

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2. Expiratory dyspnoea—it occurs when the escape of air from the lungs is impeded, e.g. in
pulmonary emphysema and pleural adhesions. The clinical signs of this form of dyspnoea
are: development of a groove in the anterior part of the flank, protracted expiration, double
expiratory lift involving the abdominal muscles, pumping of the anus.
3. Indeterminate dyspnoea—it is the commonest type. It is seen to occur in pneumonia,
bronchitis, cardiac diseases such as failure of the left ventricle, severe anaemia, acidosis, etc.
diseases in which there is a fairly severe disturbance of tissue respiration (hypoxia) or
difficulty in both inspiration and expiration.

Abnormal Respiration Noises (stridosis)

1. Hiccup (singultus) is a short, jerky inspiration, caused by stimulation of the phrenic nerve
producing sudden contraction of the diaphragm.
2. Wheezing or blowing—stenosis of upper air passages, more pronounced on inspiration.
3. Snoring—due to fluttering of the soft palate in open mouth breathing, from various
interference of air flow through the upper respiratory tract (as nasal granuloma, tumours of
the pharynx, abscesses, etc)
4. Sneezing—an explosive expiration through the nose due to irritated nasal mucous membrane.
5. Rattling—accumulation of exudates in the upper air passages, fluttering of relaxed vocal
cords on inspiration, etc.
6. Stenotic laryngeal sound—due to narrowing or occlusion of the glottis, as in laryngeal
hemiplegia (roaring) in horses, also necrotic laryngitis (calf diphtheria), actinobacillosis,
oedema of the glottis, neoplasm and equine strangles.
7. Groaning or grunting—a long inspiration followed by a prolonged audible expiration through
a partially closed glottis. This sound is audible only on expiration. This sound occurs in
traumatic gastritis, peritonitis, and vaginal and rectal prolapse.

Respiratory failure
When there is serous interference with gaseous exchange (extreme range of respiratory
compensatory activities fail), respiratory insufficiency will develop and lead to hypoxia.
In respiratory insufficiency, the blood oxygen level decreases and the carbon dioxide
concentration increases (hypercapnia), leading to greater respiratory activity through the
overriding mediation of the respiration centres. The signs include changes in the character of
respirations, which may be manifest as hyperpnoea or dyspnoea; cyanosis, which is recognized
as a bluish discoloration of the skin and visible mucous membranes and depending on the nature
of the particular respiratory disease, coughing and nasal discharge.
Hypoxia (low level of oxygen in circulating blood)
1. Ambient hypoxia—in this type of hypoxia, the oxygen tension in the arterial blood is lower
than normal so that haemoglobin is not saturated with oxygen to the normal extent.
2. Anaemic hypoxia—occurs when there is a significant reduction in the blood haemoglobin
concentration, the total transporting capacity of the blood is inadequate to meet essential
demands, even though the percentage of saturation and oxygen tension of the available
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 haemoglobin are normal. This type of hypoxia occurs due to anaemia of any cause, nitrate,
chlorate and carbon monoxide poisonings.
3. Stagnant hypoxia—the blood flow rate through the capillaries is reduced so that a tissue
oxygen deficit occurs even though the oxygen saturation and tension of arterial blood and the
total oxygen load are normal.
4. Histotoxic hypoxia—occurs in cyanide poisoning. Tissue oxidation is inhibited by paralysis
of cytochrome oxidase even though the blood is fully oxygenated.

The terminal stage of respiratory insufficiency called respiratory failure is recognized clinically
by cessation of movement of the respiratory muscles following a period of diminishing activity
of the respiratory centres. The clinical signs may suggest the character of the respiratory failure,
which can be asphyxial, paralytic or tachypnoeic.
--Asphyxial (dyspnoeic) failure gives rise to hypercapnia and hypoxia of varying severity, so that
the respiratory movements are dyspnoeic, with alternating periods of apnoea, and gasping. It
occurs in upper respiratory tract obstruction, in pneumonia and pulmonary oedema.
--Paralytic failure in this type of respiratory failure, the respirations rapidly decrease in frequency
and amplitude, and finally cease, without dyspnoea supervening. Anaesthetic agents, nervous
shock, acute heart failure, and severe haemorrhages are the possible causes of paralytic
respiratory failure.
--Tachypnoeic respiratory failure in all forms of hypothermia, hyperventilation of the lungs
produces hypoxia and acapnia and because of the reduced carbon dioxide tension in the blood,
the respiratory movements becomes rapid and shallow. This type of failure characterized by
rapid and shallow respiration is known as tachypnoeic respiratory failure. This is the least
common form of the condition.

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WU, School of Vet Medicine, Vet. Clinical Diagnosis , by Dr. Andualem Y , 2015