Piston Engine

Introduction
A piston engine is a type of internal combustion engine that uses reciprocating pistons to convert fuel into mechanical
energy and the history of piston engines dates back to the mid-19th century
In 1862 Beau de Rochas developed an engine where the combustion process took place inside the engine, but in 1876
it was Nikolaus Otto who first succeeded in producing a working engine based on the principle (Otto cycle)
The principle of operation of the engine is accomplished by inducing a mixture of air and fuel into a cylinder, which is
then compressed by a piston
Internal Combustion Engines fall into three main categories, compression ignition engines (Diesels), two-stroke and
four-stroke spark ignition engines and Wankel rotary engines
Terms, definitions and theories will be required to understand working principle of otto cycle
Newton’s Laws of Motion
1. First Law (Inertia Law) “A body will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by an
external force”
2. Second Law (Momentum Law) “The acceleration of a body from a state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight
line, is proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to the mass”
3. Third Law (Reaction law) “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”

Thermodynamics Laws
1. First law “Heat and Mechanical energy are mutually convertible and the rate of exchange is constant and can be
measured”
2. Second Law “Heat cannot be transferred from a region at a lower temperature to one at a higher temperature
without the expenditure of energy from an external source”
The Gas Laws
o Boyle’s Law states that: “In a gas held at a constant temperature (K), the volume (V) is inversely
proportional to the pressure (P)”

P × V = (K)
o Charles’s Law Charles’s Law, or Gay-Lussac’s Law states that “If any gas is held at a constant pressure
(K), its volume (V) is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (T)”
 = (K)
o The Combined Gas Law is a combination of Boyle’s law and Charles’s Law and represents the relationship
between Volume, Pressure and Temperature
 = (K) constant

The changes in pressure, volume and temperature within the engine cylinder would be illustrated with piston
movement inside the engine
 Engine Layout
The cylinder arrangement selected for a particular engine will depend on the type of cooling of the engine, the
power required, and role of the aircraft
The piston travels linearly and is connected to the crankshaft
The crankshaft converts linear piston motion into rotary motion to drive
propeller and other auxiliary devices
Inlet valve opens to allow gas mixture (air + fuel) into the cylinder
Exhaust valve opens to allow burnt gases exit the cylinder
Stroke is defined as the linear distance that the piston moves in the cylinder
Top Dead Centre (TDC) is the maximum distance the piston can travel
upwards
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) is the maximum distance piston can travel
upwards
The internal diameter of the cylinder is called the Bore
 The Theoretical Otto Cycle
Constant volume engine, completing a cycle of 720° (four strokes)

Induction Compression
o Inlet valve o Adiabatic
open compression
o mix gases (air (gas heating)
+ fuel) enter

180 180
° °

Power
o Controlled Exhaust
combustion at o Constant
constant volume heat
volume rejection of
o Work done exhaust gas
(adiabatic (isochoric)
expansion)
180 180°
°
A Stroke is equal to Twice the Crank throw
 Adiabatic expansion

Isochoric combustion

Isochoric heat rejection

Adiabatic compression
 Theoretical Otto Cycle Practical Otto Cycle

Valve leads
Valve
lags

Valve Valve leads

lags
In practice the theoretical cycle proved to be inefficient and it was necessary to modify the times of valve
openings and closings and ignition
Inlet valve leads in induction stroke to ensure that no time-lag between the piston moving down and the
mixture flowing into the cylinder overcoming gas inertia
Inlet valve lags to ensuring maximum gas mixture is drawn into cylinder (volume) and this occurs when gas
pressure in the cylinder approximately equal to the gas pressure in the induction manifold
Ignition occurs before TDC to control combustion and prevent detonation
Exhaust valve leads, starting the scavenging to prevent a back pressure build up in cylinder due to residual
pressure in burnt gases which can resist piston upward movement after power stroke
Exhaust valve lags to permit the gases to scavenge the cylinder as completely as possible by their momentum
Valve Overlap is a period when both valves are partially open together
The valve timing for a particular engine is fixed, and does not vary with engine speed

Camshafts runs at twice

the crankshaft speed

Crankshaft runs at half the

camshaft speed
 Power in piston engine
Control of power in the piston engine is achieved by varying the quantity of air which enters the cylinder; this in turn
will vary the pressure rise during combustion
The pilot controls a valve (throttle) to vary the quantity of air

Pressure variation can be seen in the PV diagram

The blue area represent work done by piston during compression
and exhaust
Subtracting the area from the power column takes up the yellow
area

The red column remaining is an average reading of pressure on the piston during the working cycle being available
which is termed the Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP)
The pilot is not given a display in the cockpit of the IMEP but what can be displayed is manifold pressure which is
representative of cylinder pressure (MAP)

To calculate the power developed by the engine Indicated horsepower (IHP)

We need;
1. P = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (lb/in²)
2. L = Length of Stroke (ft)
3. A = Area of cylinder (in²)
4. N = The number of cylinders
5. E = Effective working strokes/min (rpm)
James Watt calculated that the average horse could move 1lb a distance of
33000 ft in 1 minute (550 ft/lb/second)
IHP is only a theoretical value of power IHP = 
In moving the piston and turning the crankshaft power is used, this is deducted from the IHP know as friction
horse power
The power then left to do useful work in driving a propeller is called Brake Horsepower (BHP) which is
deducted from FHP
Power output is directly proportional torque and RPM
Power to Weight Ratio
o (Specific Power Output) is a comparison of an engine’s power output per unit weight (kW/kg or
horsepower/lb) expressed as a ratio
o For example: Tecnam P2002 JF weighing 1367 lb (620 kg) and producing 98.5 hp (73.5 kW) would produce a
power to weight ratio of 0.11 kW/kg, or 0.072 hp/lb
 Engine Efficiencies
The term efficiency means simply a comparison of what is got out of a system, with what is put in to the system.
The efficiency of any mechanical device must be less than unity, it is usual to express it as a ratio
Mechanical Efficiency
o Mechanical efficiency =  also calculated as 
o A typical value of mechanical efficiency would be in the region of 80 - 85%
o The engine design will try to reduce these losses. As stated previously the IHP developed in the engine is
reduced by FHP, leaving BHP to do useful work
Thermal Efficiency
o Thermal Efficiency =  × 100%
o Engine design and the use of correct fuels increase thermal efficiency. Usually around 25 - 28%
o This means that over 70% of the heat energy released by the fuel is wasted, 40% via exhaust and 30% is
taken by the metallic structures of engine. Hence the need for cooling
Volumetric Efficiency
o Volumetric efficiency =  × 100%
o The volumetric efficiency of the engine is indicative of how well the engine is breathing. This is affected by
design of timing the valves
o A normally aspirated engine will have a volumetric efficiency of between 75-85%
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
o Engine designers strive to get as much power as possible from the engine, for the minimum weight of fuel
burnt
o The weight of fuel burnt in pounds (lb) for the power produced BHP in unit time (hours) is called the Specific
Fuel Consumption
o During operation a reduction in power for the same weight of fuel burnt is an Increase in Specific Fuel
Consumption
o Reduction in fuel burnt for the same or more power is a Decrease in Specific Fuel Consumption
o SFC is affected by engine design and pilot operation of the engine
 Compression Ratio
The work done on the mixture (air + fuel) by the piston during the compression stroke depends on the weight of
mixture induced and the pressure that it is raised to

Total Volume is the volume above the piston at BDC

Swept Volume = cylinder cross-sectional area × stroke
Clearance Volume is the volume above the piston crown
when the piston is at TDC (combustion chamber)

TV = CV + SV

The Compression Ratio (CR) is the ratio of the total volume enclosed in the cylinder with piston at BDC, to the
volume at the end of the compression stroke with the piston at TDC.
(CR) =  spark ignition engine CR is about 7:1 to 10:1 (14bars)
Engine capacity = swept volume × number of cylinders
 Diesel engine
It is known as compression ignition internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compressed air to initiate
ignition to burn fuel injected into the combustion chamber

This engine has the highest thermal efficiency due to high Compression
ratio
Only air is introduced into the combustion chamber and compressed to
about (15:1 to 22:1) 40bars, heating it up to 550°c
At the end of compression stroke, fuel is injected directly (atomized) into
the combustion chamber, vaporized and ignited by compression heat

The start of vaporization causes a delay during ignition and this is characterized by diesel knocking sound as vapour
reaches ignition temperature causing abrupt increase in pressure above piston during power stroke
The slow vaporization and abrupt pressure increase driving the piston down during the power stroke means that not all
fuel droplet have enough time to completely burn

This causes the engine to produce soot especially under load and at high
RPM
Diesel engine do not have throttle valve and mixture control
Power output is regulated by fuel control into engine

Diesel engines must operate at lower speeds because it needs heavier and strong parts to resist high pressure caused
by high compression ration
They have a poor power to weigh ratio when compared with a spark ignition engine but they are reliable and can
cope with heavy loads
 Engine construction
The crankcase
o Generally made of light alloy, it forms a sealed chamber for the lubricating oil and is provided with the means of
attaching the engine to its mounting frame in the aircraft
o It is made in two halves to make installation and removal of the crankshaft easier, it houses the main bearings for
the crankshaft and supports the cylinders
 The Crankshaft
o Converts reciprocating or linear motion of the pistons into rotary motion, and transmits torque to the propeller,
and provides the drive for accessories
o The Journals, main part of the shaft are supported by the main bearings in the crankcase to reduce friction
o Oil-ways are drilled through the shaft to transfer the lubricating oil onto the bearing surfaces

o They should be short as possible and supported by

counterweights to withstand torsional effects
o Crankshafts are balanced to withstand vibration and flex
due to twisting moment
In any event, many engines have rpm ranges which are prohibited for prolonged use (Critical rpm) to prevent
unnecessary vibration. This is indicated by a Red Arc on the rpm indicator

In other to increase engine power, we increase the number of cylinders

(4 cylinder) etc
If the engines where made to ignite one after the other, it will cause
rough running vibration
Firing order of 1-3-4-2 is used to reduce the rough running vibration
It can be found by dividing 720° by number of cylinders in the engine
 The piston
o Piston is divided into crown and connecting rod, they transmit forces of combustion to the crankshaft by linear
movement in the cylinder

o The crown and connecting rod are held together via gudegon pin. The crown is made aluminium alloy and
circumferential grooves which house piston rings
Compression ring to prevent gas leakage
Scrapper ring for lubrication & oil control between crown and cylinder walls
Cylinder block
o Made of alloy steel, the Cylinder resists the pressure of combustion and provides a working surface for the piston
and is bolted to crankcase
o About 30% of the heat generated during combustion is transferred to the cylinders. Cylinders have water jacket for
liquid cooling
o Air-cooled engines, have fins machined onto the cylinder to increase the surface area in contact with air, which is
used to dissipate heat

Fins
The Cylinder Head
o The cylinder head is generally made of aluminium alloy to improve heat dissipation
o It seals one end of the cylinder to provide a combustion chamber for the mixture. The cylinder head
accommodates the Valves, Valve Guides and Sparking Plugs, and supports the valve Rocker Arms. Valve Seats
 The Accessory Housing
For the engine to operate supporting systems are needed, and they may need power to drive them. Oil Pumps, Fuel
Pumps, Superchargers and Magneto Ignition systems are fitted to the Accessory Housing and driven via gears by the
crankshaft
Carburettors
The Basic Requirements of a Carburetor are;
I. Control the air/fuel ratio in response to throttle setting, at all
selected power outputs from slow-running to full throttle and
during acceleration and deceleration (speeds)
II. It must function at all altitudes and temperatures in the
operating range
III. It must provide for ease of starting and may incorporate a
means of shutting off the fuel to stop the engine
Constant Mass Flow (The Continuity Equation)
o The total energy per unit mass along any one streamline in a moving fluid is constant and the mass Flow is dependent on
the Area × Density × Velocity
o The fluid possesses energy because of its pressure, temperature and velocity, if one of these changes one or both of the
others must also change to maintain the same overall energy
 The Simple Float Chamber Carburettor
o employs two basic principles which are ‘U’ tube and the Venturi
o Engine suction provides a flow of air from the air intake through a Venturi in the carburetor to the induction manifold

o The U tube is filed with fuel and maintains the same level
on either said provided that the pressure acting on them
is equal
o At the venturi throat, the increased airflow, drop in
pressure (depression) and temperature creates a
pressure difference across the U tube
o This provides the force necessary to discharge fuel into
the airstream (atomization)
Modifications to the Simple Carburettor

The Pressure Balance Duct

o To maintain the correct rate of discharge of fuel through the main jet,
the pressure at float chamber and air intake must be equal
o Due to manoeuvres and speed changes of the aircraft
o Atmospheric pressure via a balancing duct is admitted into float
chamber

The Diffuser
o As engine speed and airflow through the Venturi increase, the
proportion of fuel to air rises (rich mixture)
o The diffusers uncovers more air holes by dropping fuel in the well
o This reduces the pressure differential to prevent enrichment of the
air/fuel mixture by maintaining constant mixture
Air Bleed Diffuser (barometric capsule)
o To prevent fuel enrichment same as the previous diffuser
o In this case, air bleed jet is ducted into discharge tube to introduce air
bubbles
o This causes smaller drops of fuel drawn up in the tube rather than a
continuous stream

Slow Running Systems

o At low engine speed, volume of air velocity is so small that the depression in
the venturi is insufficient to draw fuel through main jet
o Above the throttle valve some depression exist, so an idle jet is ducted from
discharge tube to throttle valve lip
o Idle jet supplies a rich mixture and air bleed assists for atomization
o Idle cut off valve is incorporated for engine stopping and this prevents pre-
ignition during engine shut down
Note : Carburettors must be carefully tuned in order to obtain a smooth progressive change over between the slow
running and the main system to prevent ‘flat spots’
A flat spot is a period of poor response to throttle opening caused by a temporary weak mixture, it normally makes
itself felt as a hesitation during engine acceleration

Mixture Control
o As altitude increases, density of air drawn in cylinder decrease and pressure
drops in venturi as ambient pressure drops for a given intake velocity
o However fuel flow due to pressure drop becomes richer and uneconomical
o Mixture control red lever opens or closes a needle valve to vary fuel flow
through the orifice to main jet to obtain correct air/fuel ratio
o In fully-down position will block fuel flow to the main jet, thus providing a
means of stopping the engine
Air bleed mixture control
o Operates by controlling the air pressure in the float chamber, thus varying
the pressure differential acting on the fuel

Power Enrichment
o At power settings above the cruising range, a richer mixture is required to
prevent detonation
o Rich mixture may be provided by an additional fuel supply via enrichment
jet whose needle is linked to throttle
Economizer (back suction)
o Economizer channel ducted from throttle valve position to float chamber
o Throttle in cruising position, air flowing past the throttle valve creates a
suction and is applied to the float chamber via economizer channel
o This reduces float chamber pressure and reduces fuel flow through the main
jet to provide the economical mixture required for cruising

The Accelerator Pump

o Rapid acceleration causes throttle valve to open quickly, airflow responds
almost immediately with large volume of air
o But the fuel metering systems responds slowly and temporary weakening of
mixture creates a flat spot risk
o An accelerator pump which is linked directly to the throttle forces fuel
temporarily via a separate delivery tube
Priming
o Priming pump would supply fuel to the induction manifold
close to the inlet valve for engine start
o On some aircraft to prime the engine by pumping the throttle
several times where no pump exist
o This practice must be discouraged in any other circumstance
because
1. Risk of flooding engine with fuel
2. Risk of engine fire
3. It fouls spark plus because of incomplete combustion
 Lubrication
Reciprocating piston engine components are generally made of metals, subjected to high loads, temperature and
speed as the moving parts of the engine slide against each other causing friction
Friction will generate heat and wear which causes destruction of the metal components and loss of engine efficiency
Lubricants used for lubrication can come in many forms like oils, greases, powders and some solid materials. We will
discuss oil lubricant system in details
We have two systems for oil lubrication wet sump and dry sump dependent on the power output of the engine, and
role of the aircraft
Note that the primary task for lubrication is to reduce friction and wear. We have secondary functions which are
cooling, cleaning, protection(corrosion), hydraulic services and indicating mediums about engine health
Wet sump system
o Most light, non-aerobatic aircraft engines use the Wet Sump
system
o In this system the oil is stored in the bottom or sump of the
engine

Problems with wet sump system

o Lubrication difficulties arise during manouvres
o The temperature of the oil is more difficult to control
o The oil becomes contaminated and oxidizes more easily because of the continual contact with hot engine
o The oil supply is limited by the sump capacity
Dry sump system

Scavenge pump capacity is 25% - 50% larger

than that of the pressure pump
The type of oil used in aircraft piston engines is normally mineral based. If the oil contains no additives it is called a
Straight oils and with additives like anti oxidant etc to meet certain requirements are called compound oil

Viscosity
o Viscosity is defined as the measure of a fluid’s internal friction or its resistance to flow a
function of oil thickness
o Oil will change with changes in Temperature, an increase in temperature will Reduce viscosity
and vice versa
o Too high oil viscosity at too low a temperature can cause problems during starting and increase
friction horse power when engine is running
o Too high temperature will reduce oil viscosity which adversely affects lubrication efficiency.
o The oil’s viscosity must stay within required temperature limits to do its job
o Oils are identified by the viscosity numbering system. (80) straight oil and (AD 80 or W 80)
compound oil (number + letter)
 Cooling
The piston engine is a heat engine, its purpose is to convert the energy released by the fuel into mechanical energy
The thermal efficiency is at best only 25-28%, exhaust gas takes 40% and the remaining 32% raises the temperature of
the engine components and must be controlled. Hence the need for cooling
Effects of high temperature are;
o Structural failure of the engine components
o Over temperature of the oil
o Uncontrolled combustion process (pre ignition and detonation)
Problems also occur if the engine operates at too low temperature which are low values of thermal efficiency, high oil
viscosity and vaporization issues with fuel in the intake manifold
To operate efficiently, the engine must operate at the Highest Temperatures Consistent with Safe Operation
Liquid cooling
o most efficient means of cooling, dissipates the heat from the
engine by pumping a mixture of Water (70%) and Glycol (anti-
freeze 30%) through passages built into the cylinders and
cylinder heads
o The liquid is then passed through an Air-cooled Radiator
mounted in slip stream of the propeller for cooling

Air cooling
This cooling method has few moving parts, maintenance free and
weight saving
Cooling air comes from propeller slipstreams and aircraft speed
blowing over cylinder fins
The engine is cowled to control air flow around engine and
baffles ensure equal cooling
Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge (CHT)
o is presented to the pilot in the cockpit, temperature thermocouple sensors are
fitted on the hottest cylinder
o Sensors provide a produces a Voltage which is directly proportional to its
temperature

Operational considerations
o At take off, high power setting means engine generates more heat but less airflow over engine therefore cowling flaps
should be open for increased flow rate and cooling
o

o Prolong climb at VY preferred to VX because of reduced forward speed and less airflow for cooling
o During decent, engine power is reduced and less heat generated in the engine. If aircraft is placed in prolong decent,
increased airflow will lead to rapid cooling which causes thermal shock
o In descent the cowl flaps are closed to reduce cooling and high power settings should be limited on the ground
 Ignition
All aero piston engines are fitted with dual ignition, that is to say, two electrically independent ignition systems
This reduces the risk of engine failure caused by faulty ignition and increases the power output of the engine by
igniting the cylinder charge at two points (reducing combustion time)
Magnetos are self-contained engine-driven electrical generators combined with a step-up transformer
Primary circuit coil with small number of turns is induced with EMF as magnet rotates. The circuit is made to collapse at
regulated intervals by the opening of a pair of cam-operated contact breaker points for control
The collapse causes the lines of magnetic force to cut thousands of turns of very thin wire which comprise the secondary coil
inducing extra high tension (EHT) voltage
The secondary circuit induced EHT voltage via a distributor distributes it to the sparking plugs in the correct firing sequence

The contact breaker cam and distributor rotor are geared together
to rotate at half engine speed
Capacitor connected in parallel stops arcing at the contact breaker
points and allows a rapid collapse of primary flux
The ignition switch in “OFF” completes the primary circuit “closed” by earthing the primary circuit
In the ‘ON’ position the switch is “open” and the primary circuit is controlled by the action of the contact breaker
The grounding wire is used to switch off the magnetos
o If the grounding wire breaks when the engine is running there will be no apparent changes in the engine’s performance
o If the grounding wire breaks and touches the engine-body or airframe then this is the equivalent of grounding the
primary circuit and the magneto is switched off
Magnetos check
o Dead Cut Check is carried out at slow running, one magneto is switched off in order to see if the engine will run on the
other one before carrying out further ignition checks at higher engine speeds. RPM MUST DROP BUT ENGINE MUST NOT
STOP WHILE SWITCHING ONE MAGNETO OFF AT A TIME
o Live mag check both magnetos are switched off momentarily in order to ensure that the engine does cease running.
This check ensures that the pilot has control of the ignition
o

o The Magneto rpm Drop Check is carried out at approximately 75% of the maximum engine speed. This checks that the
magneto and sparking plugs are functioning correctly and compares the drop in rpm that occurs
Auxiliary Starting Devices : During starting, most aero-engines are cranked at about 25 rpm and at this speed the magneto
will not produce a spark with adequate energy for ignition of the petrol/air mixture
o The High Tension (HT) Booster Coil which supplies a succession of high voltage electrical impulses to the main
distributor rotor (shower of sparks system). It is switched ‘ON’ for the starting and ‘OFF’ after start-up
o The Low Tension (LT) Booster Coil supplies a low voltage to the magneto primary during the starting sequence
o The Impulse Coupling uses a spring to temporarily increase the speed of rotation of the magneto giving a large
retarded spark during the starting cycle. Once started spring loaded clutch disengaged by centrifugal force
Diesel engine do not require ignition systems. For cold starting, diesel engines usually employ a system of glow-plugs or pre-
heaters which provide initial localized heating to the combustion-chamber area