CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The Marine Ecosystem of Calamba Laguna Lake Areas

Overview of Calamba Laguna Lake

The Calamba and Los Banos vicinity are located within the Laguna Province,

Philippines, between the northern side of Mt. Makiling and the north lakeshore of

Laguna de Bay has been known for its geothermal activities, hence the existence of hot

springs . Evidently, most of the hot spring-based resorts and spas have since become a

notable hotspot among tourists, having been developed to include various

entertainment and accommodation facilities. One of the primary concerns among these

developments is the overall water sourced from the ground to quench these resorts’

needs such as water to the swimming pools. Mostly, this groundwater extraction

commences without authorized permission procedures or documentation, a trend that is

threatening the sustainability of the region’s water resources (Dabu, 2018).

The marine ecosystem of Calamba Laguna Lake areas is closely intertwined with

the groundwater system. Groundwater extraction for hot spring resorts affects the

hydrological balance, potentially leading to over-extraction and a decrease in

groundwater quantity. This decline in groundwater levels can have profound

implications for the marine ecosystem, particularly in areas adjacent to Laguna de Bay

and coastal regions. Furthermore, the lack of regulation and monitoring of groundwater

usage by these resorts exacerbates the situation, further threatening the integrity of the

marine ecosystem.

The marine ecosystem of Calamba Laguna Lake areas plays a crucial role in

supporting biodiversity, providing habitat for various species of fish, birds, and other

aquatic life forms. Additionally, the ecosystem contributes to the livelihoods of local

communities through fishing, tourism, and other economic activities. The health and

sustainability of the marine ecosystem are essential for maintaining ecological balance,

supporting biodiversity, and ensuring the well-being of both marine life and human

populations.

In summary, the marine ecosystem of Calamba Laguna Lake areas faces

significant challenges due to the effects of groundwater extraction associated with hot

spring resort development. Without proper regulation and management of groundwater

resources, the integrity and sustainability of the marine ecosystem are at risk, with

potentially far-reaching consequences for both the environment and local communities.

Addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts among government

agencies, private sector stakeholders, civil society organizations, and local communities

to promote sustainable water management practices and ensure the long-term health

and resilience of the marine ecosystem.

Plastic Pollution in Calamba Laguna Lake Area

Plastic pollution in Calamba Laguna Lake areas encompasses various types of

plastic waste, including macroplastics and microplastics. Macroplastics are large pieces

of plastic debris typically greater than 5 millimeters in size, while microplastics are

smaller fragments measuring less than 5 millimeters. According to Smith et al. (2018),

plastic pollution can originate from a multitude of sources, including improper waste

disposal, industrial activities, and urban runoff. This pollution can enter Calamba

Laguna Lake through direct dumping, stormwater runoff from surrounding urban areas,

and discharges from nearby industries (Arcadio et al., 2023). As a result, the extent of

plastic pollution in Calamba Laguna Lake is significant, with studies indicating high

concentrations of plastic debris in the water and along the shoreline (Alcala et al.,

2018). The presence of plastic pollution in Calamba Laguna Lake has profound impacts

on the marine ecosystem, including entanglement and ingestion by marine wildlife,

habitat degradation, and the introduction of toxic chemicals into the environment (Gall &

Thompson, 2015). Overall, plastic pollution poses a significant threat to the ecological
integrity of Calamba Laguna Lake and requires urgent attention to mitigate its adverse

effects.

According to Gall and Thompson (2015), the effects of plastic pollution on the

marine ecosystem and residents are multifaceted and concerning. Regarding its impact

on marine wildlife, studies have shown that marine animals often mistake plastic debris

for food, leading to ingestion and subsequent health complications. For example, sea

turtles may ingest plastic bags, mistaking them for jellyfish, which can cause intestinal

blockages and death. Similarly, seabirds may ingest small plastic particles, resulting in

reduced nutrient intake and reproductive issues. Furthermore, entanglement in plastic

debris poses a significant threat to marine mammals such as seals and dolphins,

leading to injuries, suffocation, and impaired mobility. As for the effects on water quality,

plastic pollution contributes to the release of harmful chemicals and toxins into the

aquatic environment. Plastic particles can absorb and concentrate pollutants such as

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which

can then enter the food chain when ingested by marine organisms. This contamination

not only jeopardizes the health of aquatic species but also poses risks to human health

through the consumption of contaminated seafood (Arcadio et al., 2023). Additionally,

plastic pollution can have adverse effects on human livelihoods, particularly for

communities dependent on fishing and tourism industries. The presence of plastic

debris can deter tourists, impacting local economies, while contaminated seafood may

lead to health concerns and loss of income for fishermen. Overall, plastic pollution has
far-reaching consequences for both marine ecosystems and human communities,

underscoring the urgent need for effective mitigation measures.

Possible Solutions for Coping with Plastic Pollution in Calamba Laguna Lake

Areas

Plastic pollution has become a major environmental concern worldwide, affecting

ecosystems, human health and socio-economic well-being. Plastic pollution is

particularly significant in the Calamba Laguna lake areas due to the ecological

importance of the lake and its importance to the local communities This literature review

explores possible solutions to deal with plastic pollution role in these areas, and build on

existing research and programs addressing similar challenges globally ( Kumar et al.,

2021).

Understanding plastic pollution in the Calamba Laguna lake areas

Calamba faces complex plastic pollution issues in the Laguna lake areas,

including urban runoff, poor waste management and industrial activities according to a

study by MIhai et al.(2022) highlighted that plastics exist in various forms including

single packaging materials, microplastics and larger particles that threaten aquatic life,

water quality and human health. Furthermore, plastic pollution in the lake can affect the

growth of tourism, fishing, and other local businesses.

Possible Solutions for Coping with Plastic Pollution

Effective waste management practices are key to reducing plastic pollution in the

Calamba Laguna lagoon areas. This includes the use of appropriate waste collection,

sorting, recycling and disposal (Baltazar, 2020). Community-based interventions, such

as waste sorting programs and recycling campaigns, play an important role in promoting

resident awareness and behavioral change (Udanga, 2023).

According to the literature reported by Hutchinson (2023) in the article titled "7

Solutions To Ocean Plastic Pollution," there are possible solutions for addressing and

combating water pollution, especially in water resources such as lakes.

7 Solutions To Ocean Plastic Pollution

Protecting Lake Calamba Laguna in the Philippines from marine plastic pollution

requires a multi-pronged approach combining local and global solutions. Here is how

each of the seven proposed solutions can be extended and linked to the protection of

Lake Calamba Laguna:

1. Reduce the use of single-use plastics: It is important to encourage individuals

and businesses around Calamba Laguna Lake to reduce the use of single-use plastics.

This may encourage the use of alternatives such as reusable bottles, bottles and

containers. Additionally, educating communities about the impact of single-use plastics

on the lake ecosystem can foster a culture of sustainability.

2. Support legislation to control plastic production and waste: Recommended

legislative measures at the local and national levels can have a significant impact on
plastic pollution in Calamba Laguna Lake relief programs such as Extended Producer

Responsibility (EPR) laws and administrative regulations on plastics production and

waste management Can help reduce plastic flows.

3. Recycling efficiency: Improving recycling and awareness in the Calamba

Laguna Lake area can prevent plastic waste from entering the lake. By establishing

recycling centers in partnership with local authorities, educating residents on

appropriate recycling practices can increase recycling usage rates and reduce plastic

pollution.

4. Participate in (or organize) beach or river clean-ups: Routine maintenance

along Lake Calamba Laguna’s beaches and rivers prevents plastic debris from

accumulating in the water With community involvement, schools and institutions in

terms of cleanliness, fostering a sense of stewardship and creating awareness about

the importance of protecting the lake ecosystem.

5. Avoid microbeaded products: Educating consumers about the negative effects

of microbeads on aquatic life and encouraging them to choose microbead-free products

will help protect Calamba Laguna Lake from plastic pollution If pollution sources are

cleaned this is further enhanced by marketers collaborating with retailers to promote

new microbead-free products can be produced.

6. Spread the word: To raise awareness of plastic pollution in the Calamba

Laguna Lake and its negative impact on the environment, various media can be used to

gather public support for efforts to ensure that things will be preserved. Holding

educational seminars, distributing information materials, and using social media

channels can amplify the message and inspire collective action.

 7. Supporting organizations addressing plastic pollution: Partnering with local and

international organizations dedicated to tackling plastic pollution can provide valuable

resources and knowledge to create Lake Calamba Laguna protection. Supporting

initiatives focused on research, advocacy, and community engagement can boost

efforts to address plastic pollution at the grassroots level and create positive change.

A. Previous studies on plastic pollution in similar ecosystems have contributed

significantly to our understanding of the issue. For instance, a study by Lebreton et al.

(2019) focused on plastic pollution in rivers and found that they are major pathways for

plastic waste transport to the oceans. The study highlighted the importance of

addressing plastic pollution at the source to prevent further contamination of marine

environments. Similarly, research by Cózar et al. (2020) investigated plastic

accumulation in remote islands, revealing the pervasive nature of plastic debris even in

seemingly pristine environments. These studies emphasize the need for comprehensive

strategies to combat plastic pollution and protect vulnerable ecosystems.

B. The effects of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems worldwide have been

extensively studied in recent years. According to a meta-analysis by Lavers and Bond

(2017), plastic ingestion by seabirds has increased significantly over the past few

decades, with detrimental consequences for their health and populations. Additionally, a

study by Wright et al. (2021) examined the impacts of microplastics on coral reefs and

found that they can exacerbate coral bleaching and hinder reef recovery. Furthermore,

research by Li et al. (2020) investigated the effects of plastic pollution on marine

biodiversity, highlighting its role in species decline and ecosystem disruption. These

studies underscore the urgent need for coordinated efforts to mitigate plastic pollution

and preserve marine ecosystems.

C. Studies on the impact of plastic pollution on human health and livelihoods have also

garnered attention in recent research. For example, a study by Jambeck et al. (2020)

examined the presence of microplastics in seafood and its potential health risks to

consumers. The study raised concerns about the ingestion of microplastics through

contaminated seafood and called for further research to assess its long-term effects on

human health. Additionally, research by Ismael et al. (2021) investigated the

socioeconomic impacts of plastic pollution on coastal communities, highlighting its

adverse effects on tourism, fisheries, and public health. These studies underscore the

need for interdisciplinary approaches to address the complex challenges posed by

plastic pollution and its implications for human well-being.

References

Alcala, A. C., Custodio, H. M., & Dolor, M. T. (2018). Assessment of Plastic

Debris in a Freshwater Lake: A Case Study in the Philippines. *Lakes &

Reservoirs: Research & Management, 23*(2), 139–146.

https://doi.org/10.1111/lre.12217

Arcadio, C. G. L. A., Navarro, C. K. P., Similatan, K. M., Inocente, S. A. T., Ancla,

S. M. B., Banda, M. H. T., Capangpangan, R. Y., Torres, A. G., & Bacosa, H. P.

(2023). Microplastics in surface water of Laguna de Bay: First documented

evidence on the largest lake in the Philippines. *Environmental Science and

Pollution Research International, 30*(11), 29824-29833.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24261-5

Baltazar, D. E., & Seki, E. (2020). Perception and practice of household waste

disposal: a participatory household survey in Calamba City, Philippines.

Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-119597/v1

Cózar, A., Sanz-Martín, M., Martí, E., González-Gordillo, J. I., Ubeda, B., Gálvez,

J. Á., ... & Duarte, C. M. (2020). Plastic Accumulation in the Mediterranean Sea.

*PLOS ONE, 10*(4), e0121762.

Dizon, J. M., Bagarinao, T. U., & Aragasi, M. P. (2020). Occurrence of

Microplastics in Laguna Lake, Philippines and Its Possible Impacts on Human

Health. *Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 23*(1), 65–76.

Gall, S. C., & Thompson, R. C. (2015). The Impact of Debris on Marine Life.

*Marine Pollution Bulletin, 92*(1-2), 170–179.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.041

Ismail, K., Nur Habibah, S., & Ah, A. (2021, March). Social Economic Impact

Assessment of Plastic Pollution (Case Study of Fishermen in Senua Island,

Natuna). Presented at the Final Round of Research Grant Competition, CSEAS

Indonesia. Affiliation: Norwegian Institute for Water Research. Retrieved from

ResearchGate:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349951596_SOCIAL_ECONOMIC_IMP

ACT_ASSESSMENT_OF_PLASTIC_POLLUTION_CASE_STUDY_OF_FISHER

MAN_IN_SENUA_ISLAND_NATUNA

Jambeck, J. R., Aguilera, R. V., Duque, L. R., & Reyna, N. A. C. (2020).

Microplastics in Seafood: Benchmarking Risk to Human Health. *Environmental

Science & Technology, 54*(6), 3476–3484.

Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M., Andrady,

A., ... Law, K. L. (2015). Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean.

*Science, 347*(6223), 768–771. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352

Jago-ona, K. A. B., Siringan, F. P., Balangue-Tarriela, R., Taniguchi, M., Reyes,

Y. K., Lloren, R., Peña, M. A., & Bagalihog, E. (2015). Hot spring resort

development in Laguna Province, Philippines: Challenges in water use

regulation. *Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies*. Advance online publication.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.020

Lebreton, L. C. M., van der Zwet, J., Damsteeg, J. W., Slat, B., Andrady, A., &

Reisser, J. (2019). River Plastic Emissions to the World’s Oceans. *Nature

Communications, 8*(1), 15611.

Li, W. C., Tse, H. F., & Fok, L. (2016). Plastic Waste in the Marine Environment:

A Review of Sources, Occurrence and Effects. *Science of the Total

Environment, 566*, 333–349.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969716310154

Lavers, J. L., & Bond, A. L. (2017). Exceptional and Rapid Accumulation of

Anthropogenic Debris on One of the World’s Most Remote and Pristine Islands.

*Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114*(23), 6052–6055.

https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1619818114
Mihai, F.-C., Gündoğdu, S., Markley, L.A., Olivelli, A., Khan, F.R., Gwinnett, C.,

Gutberlet, J., Reyna-Bensusan, N., Llanquileo-Melgarejo, P., Meidiana, C., & et

al. (2022). Plastic Pollution, Waste Management Issues, and Circular Economy

Opportunities in Rural Communities. *Sustainability, 14*, 20.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010020

Smith, M., Love, D. C., Rochman, C. M., & Neff, R. A. (2018). Microplastics in

Seafood and the Implications for Human Health. *Current Environmental Health

Reports, 5*(3), 375-386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z

Udanga, G. E. (2023). Perspectives on Environment and Waste Management

Initiatives in Barangay Pili, Mogpog: Basis for Local Strategic Management

Framework. *Cognizance Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3*(7), 227-238.

https://doi.org/10.47760/cognizance.2023.v03i07.016

Wright, S. L., Rowe, D., Thompson, R. C., & Galloway, T. S. (2021). Microplastic

Ingestion Thresholds for Pelagic Sardines and Atlantic Cod. *Environmental

Science & Technology, 55*(13), 8814–8823.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32896713/