How to Manage

People
CREATING SUCCESS
SERIES

Dealing with Difficult People Roy Lilley

Decision Making and Problem Solving John Adair
Develop Your Leadership Skills John Adair
Develop Your Presentation Skills Theo Theobald
How to Manage People Michael Armstrong
How to Manage Projects Paul J Fielding
How to Organize Yourself John Caunt
How to Work Remotely Gemma Dale
How to Write a Business Plan Brian Finch
How to Write a Marketing Plan John Westwood
How to Write Reports and Proposals Patrick Forsyth
Improve Your Communication Skills Alan Barker
Successful Time Management Patrick Forsyth

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Fifth edition

How to Manage
People
Fast, effective management skills
that really get results

Michael Armstrong
 Publisher’s note
Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in
this book is accurate at the time of going to press, and the publishers and author
cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions, however caused. No
responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting, or refraining
from action, as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by the
editor, the publisher or the author.

First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2008 by Kogan Page Limited
Fifth edition 2022

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism
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ISBNs
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Names: Armstrong, Michael, 1928- author.
Title: How to manage people : fast, effective management skills that really
get results / Michael Armstrong.
Description: 5th edition. | London ; New York, NY : Kogan Page, 2022. |
Series: Creating success series | Includes bibliographical references
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Identifiers: LCCN 2022011526 (print) | LCCN 2022011527 (ebook) | ISBN
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 CONTENTS

Preface xi

PA R T 1 Managing people

01 What managers do 3

02 Treating people right 7

Treat people with respect 8
Treat people fairly 8
Create the right work environment 8
Help people to develop their capabilities and skills 9
Provide leadership 10
Get to know team members 10
Define expectations and ensure they are met 10

PA R T 2 Leading, motivating and

engaging people

03 Leadership 15
What leaders do 15
Leadership styles 17
What makes a good leader? 18

04 Motivating people 25
Motivation defined 26
Motivation theories 28
vi Contents

05 Enhancing engagement 33
Drivers of engagement 33
What managers can do 35

PA R T 3 Organizing people

06 The process of organizing 43

The formal process 43
Aim 45
Organizational guidelines 46

07 Defining roles 51
Designing roles 51
Developing role profiles 54
Giving out work 58

08 Team building 61
What is a team? 61
What are the factors that contribute to team
effectiveness? 62
How should team performance be assessed? 63
How should team performance reviews be conducted? 63

09 Managing remote workers 69

Ten tips for managing remote workers 69

PA R T 4 Managing performance

10 Performance leadership 75
Introduction 75
What is performance leadership? 76
 Contents vii

11 Performance leadership skills 79

Defining objectives 79
Feedback 80

PA R T 5 Approaches to people
management

12 Delegating 87
What is delegation? 87
Approaches to delegation 88

13 Selection interviewing 95
The purpose of a selection interview 95
Preparing for the interview 96
Conducting the interview 98
Coming to a conclusion 102

14 Developing people 105

How learning happens in the workplace 105
How managers help people to learn 106

15 Rewarding people 113

Reward systems 114
Approaches to rewarding people 114
Managing without a reward system 115

16 Managing change 119

The change process 119
Resistance to change 120

17 Managing conflict 125

Handling inter-group conflict 126
Handling interpersonal conflict 127
viii Contents

PA R T 6 Handling people problems and

issues

18 Approaches to handling people problems 133

Principles 133
Approach 134

19 Dealing with disciplinary problems 139

Taking disciplinary action 140
Dismissing an employee 141

20 Managing under-performers 145

21 Dealing with negative behaviour 151

Causes of negative behaviour 152
Dealing with the problem 152
Discussing the problem 153
Establishing causes 154
Taking remedial action 155

22 Dealing with absenteeism and timekeeping

issues 159
Absenteeism 159
Handling poor timekeeping 162

23 Handling challenging conversations 167

24 Giving bad news 171

How to give bad news 172

25 Managing bias 175

Minimizing bias in organizations 176
Minimizing bias at the individual level 177
 Contents ix

26 Dealing with bullying and harassment 183

What the organization can do 183
What actually happens 184
What you can do about it 185

Appendix: Notes on exercises 187

References 213
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
PREFACE

T he aim of this book is to give practical advice to managers

and team leaders on how to manage the people in their
departments or teams – getting the best results from them and
dealing with any problems that may arise.
The book focuses on what front-line managers, i.e. those directly
controlling teams of people, have to do themselves. A business may
have all sorts of progressive human resource (HR) policies but it is
managers who bring them to life. Many managers have to do their
job without HR advice and this book is particularly designed to
meet their needs.
The 36 exercises in this book are designed to test understanding
and to explore issues in greater depth. The appendix contains notes
on each exercise.
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Part 1
Managing
people
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
01
What managers
do

T he role of managers is to get things done through people. To do

this they:

● see that the members of their teams understand what they are
expected to do and then ensure that they do it;
● ensure that people with the right skills are in the right jobs and
that they perform well in exercising their skills in those jobs;
● exercise leadership;
● motivate their staff;
● treat people right – that is, fairly and with respect and
consideration;
● deal effectively with the problems that inevitably arise in
managing people.

But managing can be hard. There are the pressing demands from
above to deliver results. Much management activity is messy and
managers carry out their work on a day-to-day basis in conditions
of turbulence and variety. It may not be clear what they are ex-
pected to do or how they are expected to do it. They have to be
specialists in ambiguity. Unexpected events ambush them – stuff
happens. Decisions lead to unforeseen consequences. And they
spend a lot of their time dealing with people who can be difficult,
unpredictable or uncooperative.
4 Managing People

Exercise 1.1
Qualities required by managers

Research by The Commission on the Future of Management and

Leadership produced the following list of the top 10
characteristics that managers need:

1 Clear sense of purpose

2 Strong values and personal integrity
3 Commitment to developing others through coaching and
mentoring
4 Champion of diversity
5 Ability to engage and communicate across all levels
6 Self-awareness and taking time to reflect
7 Collaborative, networked and non-hierarchical
8 Agile and innovative, technologically curious and savvy
9 Personal resilience and grit
10 Excellent track record of delivery

Rate yourself from 1 (inadequate) to 10 (exceptional) for each of

these characteristics.

Perhaps it is the managing people aspect of a manager’s work

that provides the greatest challenge. How can line managers ensure
that their team members are ‘on board’ and stay on board? How
do they get willing cooperation rather than grudging submission?
These and other questions will be addressed in later chapters of
this book.
 What Managers Do 5

Exercise 1.2
Effective managers

The managers’ effectiveness is significantly influenced by

their insight into their own work. Performance depends on
how well a manager understands and responds to the
pressures and dilemmas of the job. Thus managers who can
be introspective about their work are likely to be effective at
their jobs. (Mintzberg 1990)

Reflect on your own strengths and weaknesses as revealed by

your analysis in Exercise 1.1. To what extent do these impact on
how you manage people? Are there any particular aspects of
managing people in which you think you can improve?

Exercise 1.3
The manager’s role

Conduct an investigation to establish what are the most typical

features of a line manager’s role. The investigation can be carried
out by reviewing your own work if you are a manager or a team
leader and over three or four days analysing what you do under
such headings as:

● planning ahead
● communicating with superiors, colleagues or customers
● organizing the work
● making decisions
● dealing with members of your team, e.g. giving instructions,
reviewing performance, training or handling grievances,
personal problems or problems of performance or discipline.
6 Managing People

If you are not a manager try to get your own line manager to do
this analysis for her or his job.
When you have completed the analysis consider what it tells
you about the manager’s role.

Key points

Managers:

● get things done through people;

● have to treat people right – that is, fairly and with respect and
consideration;
● have to exercise leadership, motivate their staff and enhance
their engagement.
02
Treating people
right

T reating people right means treating them fairly and with re-
spect. But it is not about going soft on them. It is necessary to
be firm as well as fair, to set standards and to ensure that they are
met. Ed Lawler, a leading American management expert, wrote
that ‘Treating people right is a fundamental key to creating organ­
izational effectiveness’. He also noted that the concept of treating
people right recognizes the fact that ‘Both organizations and indi-
viduals need to succeed. One cannot succeed without the other. To
put it bluntly, how people are treated increasingly determines
whether a company will prosper or even survive’ (Lawler, 2003).
It is indeed morally correct to treat people right but it also benefits
managers individually and, therefore, the organization as a whole.
You ‘can do well by doing good’.
The seven principles of treating people right are:

1 Treat people with respect

2 Treat people fairly
3 Create the right work environment
4 Help people to develop their capabilities and skills
5 Provide leadership
6 Get to know team members
7 Define expectations and ensure they are met
8 Managing People

Treat people with respect

To respect someone is to recognize a person’s qualities and their
rights for self-esteem, privacy and autonomy. It also means ensuring
that they feel valued and are treated with dignity and courtesy – no
belittling, no bullying.
It involves being sensitive to the differences between people,
taking this diversity into account in any dealings with them. It
means honouring their contribution and listening to what they
have to say. It also means recognizing that people may have
legitimate grievances and responding to them promptly, fully and
sympathetically. You need to treat people with respect but you also
need to earn that respect.

Treat people fairly

Treating people fairly involves being even-handed and dealing with
them justly, consistently, with consideration and without bias. To
be unfair to someone is to deal with them less favourably than
others or treat them arbitrarily without considering their needs.
Fairness is associated with what is known as procedural justice.
This is concerned with the perceptions employees have about how
they are treated and the fairness with which company policies are
put into practice.

Create the right work environment

People should feel that their work is worthwhile. Their jobs should
make good use of their skills and abilities and as far as possible
provide some autonomy so that they have a reasonable degree of
control over their activities and decisions. Employees also need
feedback – information about how well they are doing, preferably
obtained for themselves from their work rather than from their
 Treating People Right 9

manager. As described in Chapter 4, these are all factors that, if

they are present in jobs, will increase intrinsic motivation – motiv­
ation from the work itself. They can be considerably influenced by
the ways in which work is organized – the design of the work system.
The fundamental requirement is for the work system to operate
efficiently and flexibly. It is necessary to provide for the smooth
flow of processes and activities and ensure that resources – people,
materials, plant, equipment and money are used effectively. But in
designing or managing a work system it is also necessary to
consider what needs to be done to treat people right. The system
should enable employees to gain fulfilment from their work by as
far as possible allowing scope for variety, challenge and autonomy.
It should provide a good environment in terms of working
conditions and a healthy and safe system of work, bearing in mind
the need to minimize stress and pay attention to ergonomic
considerations in the design of equipment and work stations.

Help people to develop their

capabilities and skills
It is in your own interest and that of your organization to enhance
the skills and capabilities of the people you manage through
coaching, training and, importantly, giving them scope to learn or
develop skills by providing new work opportunities or challenges.
In doing so you will be ‘treating them right’. They will be equipped
with the means to gain greater fulfilment from their work by
achieving more in their existing jobs and by obtaining the
experience and skills that will further their careers.
Furthering development means noticing when formal training
experiences or opportunities for on-the-job training can help
someone. You should give your people time and space to learn new
skills. Your role as a coach is particularly important. Every time
you give somebody a new task to do you are creating a learning
opportunity.
10 Managing People

Provide leadership
Leadership is about treating people right. It helps them by giving a
sense of direction and by providing support when necessary.
Effective leadership means that people know where they are going
and are guided on how to get there.

Get to know team members

You can’t treat individual members of your team right unless you
get to know them. You need to know their strengths and weaknesses,
their ambitions and their concerns about work. Performance
management systems that provide for regular review meetings
between managers and their staff aim to do this. But it should be
an everyday affair. The more you are in contact with your people
the better you will get to know them. It’s no good hiding in your
office or behind a desk. You have to get out and talk to people. It’s
called management by walking about. It’s one of the best ways of
building good relationships.

Define expectations and ensure they

are met
You treat people right when you make sure that they understand
and accept what is expected of them – standards of performance
and behaviour. You need to clarify roles – what has to be achieved
and how it is to be achieved. And this should be a matter for mutual
agreement. You are not there as a manager simply to order people
around.
But you have to ensure that the standards are met. If they are
not, this is when you need to be firm. Treating people right is not
about being soft with them. It is right to take a firm line if someone
under-performs without good reason or misbehaves.
 Treating People Right 11

Exercise 2.1
Treating people right

Think of any examples from your own experience where you

believe that you were treated unfairly by your manager. If you
can recall any, consider the circumstances and explain how you
think the situation should have been dealt with.

Key points

● Treating people right means treating them fairly and with

respect, among other things. But it is not about going soft on
them. It is necessary to be firm as well as fair.
● The seven principles of treating people right are:
a Treat people with respect
b Treat people fairly
c Create the right work environment
d Help people to develop their capabilities and skills
e Provide leadership
f Get to know team members
g Define expectations and ensure they are met
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Part 2
Leading,
motivating and
engaging
people
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
03
Leadership

A s a manager of people your role is to ensure that the members

of your team give of their best to achieve the result you want.
In other words, you are a leader – you set the direction and ensure
that people follow you.
Some people believe that leadership is simply telling people
what to do and then making them do it. This sort of autocratic
approach may seem right but it doesn’t work in the end. People do
not like being coerced. A good leader takes people where they don’t
necessarily want to go but ought to be.
Leadership is the process of developing and communicating a
vision for the future, motivating and guiding people and securing
their engagement. Leaders know where they want to go and make
sure that everyone in their teams goes in the same direction.
To be an effective leader you need to:

● know what leaders do;

● be aware of the different styles of leadership;
● appreciate the qualities that make a good leader;
● know how best to develop your leadership abilities.

What leaders do
The most convincing analysis of what leaders do was produced by
John Adair (1973). He explained that the three essential roles of
leaders are to:
16 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

1 Define the task – they make it quite clear what the group is
expected to do.
2 Achieve the task – that is, why the group exists. Leaders ensure
that the group’s purpose is fulfilled. If it is not, the result is
frustration, disharmony, criticism and, eventually perhaps,
disintegration of the group.
3 Maintain effective relationships – between themselves and the
members of the group, and between the people within the group.
These relationships are effective if they contribute to achieving
the task. They can be divided into those concerned with the
team and its morale and sense of common purpose, and those
concerned with individuals and how they are motivated.

He suggested that demands on leaders are best expressed as three

areas of need that they must satisfy. These are: (1) task needs – to
get the job done, (2) individual needs – to harmonize the needs of
the individual with the needs of the task and the group and (3)
group maintenance needs – to build and maintain team spirit.
As shown in Figure 3.1, he modelled these demands as three
interlocking circles.

Figure 3.1 John Adair’s model of what leaders do

Task needs

Group
Individual
maintenance
needs
needs
 Leadership 17

This model indicates that the task, individual and group needs
are interdependent. Satisfying task needs will also satisfy group
and individual needs. Task needs, however, cannot be met unless
attention is paid to individual and group needs, and looking after
individual needs will also contribute to satisfying group needs and
vice versa. There is a risk of becoming so task orientated that
leaders ignore individual and group or team needs. It is just as
dangerous to be too people orientated, focusing on meeting
individual or group needs at the expense of the task. The best
leaders are those who keep these three needs satisfied and in
balance according to the demands of the situation.

Leadership styles
Leadership style is the approach managers use in exercising
leadership. It is sometimes called management style. There are
many styles of leadership. To greater or lesser degrees, leaders can
adopt any one of the styles described in Figure 3.2.
It should not be assumed that any one style is right in any
circumstances. And there can be intermediate points between the
extremes shown in Figure 3.2. There is no such thing as an ideal
leadership style. It all depends. The factors affecting the degree to
which a style is appropriate will be the type of organization, the
nature of the task, the characteristics of the individuals in the
leader’s team and of the group as a whole, and, importantly, the
personality of the leader.
Effective leaders are capable of flexing their style to meet the
demands of the situation. Normally democratic leaders may have
to shift into more of a directive mode when faced with a crisis, but
they make clear what they are doing and why. Poor leaders change
their style arbitrarily so that their team members are confused and
do not know what to expect next.
Good leaders may also flex their style when dealing with
individual team members according to their characteristics. Some
people need more positive direction than others. Others respond
18 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

Figure 3.2 Leadership styles

Autocratic Democratic

Authoritarian – ‘do Forges consensus –

what you are told’. ‘let’s get together and
agree what to do’.

Controlling Enabling

Commanding – ‘I’m in Empowering – ‘I will

charge here’. give you the scope you
need to get your job
done’.

Task orientated People centred

Focus on results not Focus on people –

people – ‘the only ‘people come first’.
thing that matters is
getting the job done’.

best if they are involved in decision making with their boss. But
there is a limit to the degree of flexibility that should be used. It is
unwise to differentiate too much between the ways in which
individuals are treated or to be inconsistent in one’s approach.

What makes a good leader?

What makes a good leader? There is no universal answer to this
question. The following attempt to define a good leader is attributed
to Lao Tzu in the 6th century BC.
 Leadership 19

A leader is best
When people barely know that he exists;
Not so good when people obey and acclaim him;
Worst when they despise him.
Fail to honour people,
they fail to honour you.
But a good leader who talks little,
When his work is done, his aim fulfilled,
They will all say, ‘We did this ourselves’.

Effective leaders:

● are confident and know what they need to do;

● have the ability to take charge, convey their vision to their team,
get their team members into action and ensure that they achieve
their agreed goals;
● are trustworthy, effective at influencing people and earn the
respect of their team; are aware of their own strengths and
weaknesses and are skilled at understanding what will motivate
their team members;
● appreciate the advantages of consulting and involving people in
decision making; can switch flexibly from one leadership style
to another to meet the demands of different situations and
people;
● have the ability to analyse and read situations and to establish
order and clarity in situations of ambiguity;
● have a sense of purpose, and are able to influence others,
interpret situations, negotiate and express their views, often in
the face of opposition.
20 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

Exercise 3.1
Leadership qualities

Mike Brearley is generally considered to have been one of the

greatest English cricket captains. These are some of his thoughts
on leadership:

● Good leaders help their team members to be the best they can
be under the circumstances they find themselves in.
● You need to get the whole group playing as a team, you need
to get the best out of individuals. You can’t do it with everyone
but you can expect some to perform better than they would
otherwise.
● Good leaders need to be resourceful. This means having a
range of options in your mind to turn to in times of need. That’s
when you’ve got to make the most of your resources, have an
alternate plan, propose something different. You’ve got to keep
trying and you’ve got to keep it going. Sometimes all you’ve
got is keeping it going… ‘It could be even worse; it could be
slightly better’.
● Sometimes I’d say to a team member: ‘Let’s try your way for a
while. If nothing happens, we’ll try my way.’
● You have to say when necessary: ‘If this is the way you’re
going to go, you won’t succeed.’ You’ve got to be tough,
sometimes hard.
● Some leaders are good when they’re up against it, some are
good when they’re on top of things. Winston Churchill was a
great war leader, but I don’t think he was a good prime
minister during peace. So you’ve got to be able to deal with
different situations.

What leadership qualities are highlighted by these thoughts?

 Leadership 21

A 10-point plan for developing leadership skills

1 Understand what is meant by leadership.

2 Appreciate the different leadership styles available.
3 Assess what you believe to be your fundamental leadership
style.
4 Get other people, colleagues and indeed your own team
members, to tell you what they think your leadership style is
and how well it works.
5 In the light of this information, consider what you need to do
and can do to modify your style, bearing in mind that you
have to go on being the same person. In other words, your
style should still be a natural one.
6 Think about the typical situations and problems with which
you are confronted as a leader. Will your leadership style,
modified as necessary, be appropriate for all of them? If not,
can you think of any of those situations where a different
style would have been better? If so, think about what you
need to do to be able to flex your style as necessary without
appearing to be inconsistent to your team.
7 Examine the various explanations of the qualities that make
a good leader and assess your own performance using the
checklist set out in Exercise 3.2. Decide what you need to do
– what you can do – about any weaknesses.
8 Think about or observe any managers you know whom you
have worked for or with.
9 Assess each of them in terms of the qualities set out in the
leadership skills questionnaire in Exercise 3.2.
10 Consider what you can learn from them about effective and
less effective leadership behaviours. In the light of this,
assess where you could usefully modify your own leadership
behaviours.
22 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

Exercise 3.2
Assess your leadership skills

Assess your own leadership skills by completing the

questionnaire below. You should be as frank as possible with
yourself. Note your strengths and weaknesses and decide how
you can make the best use of the former and overcome the latter.
The questionnaire could also be used by your team members
to assess you – well worthwhile but it takes quite a lot of
courage and determination to do it. You could even use it to
assess your own boss but you would have to be sure that they
can take constructive criticisms. Circle the number that most
closely matches your opinion.

Strongly Strongly
Leadership behaviour agree Agree Disagree disagree

1 Makes clear to people 4 3 2 1

what they have to do
and achieve
2 Consistently gets good 4 3 2 1
results
3 Encourages people to 4 3 2 1
use their own initiative
4 Gives people sufficient 4 3 2 1
scope to do their job
5 Gives people the 4 3 2 1
guidance, coaching and
support they need to do
a good job
6 Gives regular feedback 4 3 2 1
to people on their
performance
 Leadership 23

Strongly Strongly
Leadership behaviour agree Agree Disagree disagree

7 Values the opinions of 4 3 2 1

team members
8 Recognizes the 4 3 2 1
achievements of the
team and its individual
members
9 Treats people with 4 3 2 1
respect
10 Treats people fairly 4 3 2 1

Key points

● Leadership is the process of developing and communicating a

vision for the future, motivating and guiding people and
securing their engagement.
● The three essential roles of leaders are to define the task,
achieve the task and maintain effective relationships –
between themselves and the members of the group, and
between the people within the group.
● Leadership style is the approach managers use in exercising
leadership. The main types of styles are autocratic or
democratic, controlling or enabling and task orientated or
people centred.
● Effective leaders are confident and know what they need to
do. They have the ability to take charge, convey their vision to
their team, get their team members into action and ensure
that they achieve their agreed goals.
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
04
Motivating
people

M otivation is the process of getting people to move in the

direction you want them to go. It is therefore very much a
part of leadership, which is about getting people into action and
ensuring that they continue taking that action in order to achieve
the required results.
While your organization can help to motivate people through
its reward policies and practices (its reward systems such as
performance pay), as a manager you still have a major part to play
in deploying your own motivating skills to ensure that people give
of their best. You cannot rely upon your organization to do it for
you. As the person in day-to-day contact with employees you are in
the strongest position to motivate them.
Remember that people often have a choice about how they
carry out their work and how hard they work. This is sometimes
called their ‘discretionary effort’. It can make the difference between
simply doing a job and instead doing a great job. Your role as a
motivator is to obtain the maximum amount of discretionary effort
from the members of your team.
Unfortunately, approaches to motivation are too often under­
pinned by simplistic assumptions about how it works. The process
of motivation is much more complex than many people believe
and motivational practices are most likely to function well if they
are based on proper understanding of what is involved.
This chapter therefore:
26 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

● defines motivation;
● explains the basic process of motivation;
● describes the two types of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic;
● explores in greater depth the various theories of motivation,
which explain and amplify the basic process;
● sets out the ten ways of motivating people.

Motivation defined
A motive is a reason for doing something. Motivation is concerned
with the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways. It
can be described as goal-directed behaviour. Motivation is initiated
by the conscious or unconscious recognition of an unsatisfied need.
A goal is then established which it is believed will satisfy this need
and a decision is made on the action that is expected will achieve
the goal. If the goal is achieved the need will be satisfied and the
behaviour is likely to be repeated the next time a similar need
emerges. If the goal is not achieved the same action is less likely to
be repeated. This process is modelled in Figure 4.1 below:

Figure 4.1 The process of motivation

Goal

Need Action
 Motivating People 27

This model illustrates the process of motivation, which involves

setting goals that are likely to meet individual needs and encouraging
the behaviour required to achieve those goals. But it is necessary to
remember three fundamental truths about motivation. First, that
there is a multiplicity of needs, goals and actions that depend on
the person and the situation. It is unwise to assume that any one
approach to motivation will appeal to all affected by it. Motivation
policies and practices must recognize that people are different.
Second, that while we can observe how people behave – the actions
they take – we cannot be certain about what has motivated them
to behave that way, i.e. what the needs and goals were that have
affected their actions. These factors mean that simplistic methods
of increasing motivation such as performance pay rarely work as
well as intended. Third, that there are basically two types of
motivation:

1 Intrinsic motivation – this takes place when the work someone

does is personally rewarding, i.e. motivation by the work itself.
2 Extrinsic motivation – what is done to or for people to motivate
them. This includes financial rewards, recognition (praise) and
promotion.

Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and strong effect, but

it will not necessarily last long. The intrinsic motivators, which are
concerned with the ‘quality of working life’, are likely to make a
deeper and longer term impact. This is because they are inherent in
the work and the work environment and are not imposed from
outside.
Managers can exert considerable influence on that work
environment and this can be a powerful motivational tool. Some
commentators, such as Daniel Pink, claim that only intrinsic motiv­
ation is effective and that extrinsic motivators such as financial
incentives never work. But while intrinsic motivation is clearly
crucial, to suggest that financial rewards are always useless is
far too sweeping a statement. They can be effective if they are
appropriate for the type of work or person involved and if they
28 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

are properly designed and managed. And the recognition of

achievements can be a potent motivator.

Motivation theories
A huge amount of research has provided the basis for the
development of motivation theories. These have proliferated over
the years. And there is nothing so practical as a good theory, i.e.
one that is based on extensive and rigorous research. Some theories
have been discredited although they still underpin the beliefs of
some managers about motivation. These include the crude ‘carrot
and stick’ approach to motivation, which states that people can
only be motivated to work by rewards and punishments. A
powerful attack on this method was made by Daniel Pink (2009).
He observed that:

Carrots and sticks can produce precisely the opposite of their

intended aims. Methods designed to increase motivation can
dampen it. Actions aimed at increasing creativity can reduce
it. Programs to promote good deeds can make them disappear.
Meanwhile, instead of restraining negative behaviour, financial
rewards can often set it loose – and give rise to cheating,
addiction, and desperately myopic thinking.

This leaves two significant motivation theories: goal theory and

expectancy theory. Both of them are based on rigorous research
and provide practical guidance on how to motivate. Goal theory
states that motivation and performance are higher when:

● individuals are set specific goals;

● goals are difficult but accepted;
● there is feedback on performance;
● feedback is given, particularly towards the achievement of even
higher goals.
 Motivating People 29

Expectancy theory states that people will be motivated when they:

● are clear about the goals they are aiming for;

● believe in their ability to reach those goals;
● are aware of the rewards they will get from achieving the goals;
● consider that these rewards will be worth the effort involved.

Ten ways of motivating people

1 Agree demanding but achievable goals.

2 Create expectations that certain behaviours and outputs will
produce worthwhile rewards when people succeed.
3 Provide feedback on performance.
4 Design jobs that enable people to feel a sense of
accomplishment, to express and use their abilities and to
exercise their own decision-making powers.
5 Make good use of the organization’s reward system to
provide appropriate financial incentives.
6 Provide recognition and praise for work well done.
7 Communicate to your team and its members the link between
performance and reward, thus enhancing expectations.
8 Provide effective leadership.
9 Give people the guidance and training that will develop the
knowledge and skills they need to improve their performance
and be rewarded accordingly.
10 Offer opportunities for learning and development, which will
enable them to advance their careers.
30 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

Exercise 4.1
What do you know about motivation?

Test your knowledge of motivation by selecting what you think is

the best answer for each of the following multiple-choice
questions. There may be some merit in each of the alternatives
but you should choose the one which, on balance, you prefer.

1 Motivation is:
a the goals individuals have
b the ways in which individuals choose their goals
c the ways in which others try to change their behaviour
d the strength and direction of behaviour
2 Intrinsic motivation:
a is motivation that arises from the work itself
b is caused by internal factors such as personality
c is always to be preferred to extrinsic motivation
d results from policies that recognize achievement
3 Extrinsic motivation:
a has an immediate, powerful and long-lasting effect on
performance
b takes place when things are done to or for people to
motivate them
c is provided by performance-related pay
d is generated by effective leadership
4 Which step in the motivational process follows after
identification of a need and a means of satisfying a need:
a performance
b goal-directed behaviour
c rewards or punishments
d reassessment of needs
 Motivating People 31

5 The key message of goal theory is that:

a people are only motivated when they agree their goals
b people will only be motivated if they are set challenging
goals
c the achievement of goals provides a highly effective form
of motivation
d feedback on performance is the best way to motivate
people
6 Expectancy theory:
a states that people are motivated when they expect that
their behaviour will produce a worthwhile reward
b provides a useful basis for assessing the effectiveness of a
performance pay scheme
c states that people expect to be rewarded financially in
accordance with their contribution
d states that people’s expectations determine the extent to
which they are motivated
7 Money is:
a the most effective method of motivation
b more effective as a motivator with some people than
others
c an unsatisfactory method of motivation because its impact
does not last long
d only effective as a motivator if it is distributed fairly
8 The best way to motivate people is to:
a design jobs that are intrinsically satisfying
b reward good performance and punish poor performance
c rely on an appropriate combination of financial and
non-financial motivators
d set people demanding (‘stretch’) goals
32 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

Key points

● Motivation is the process of getting people to move in the

direction you want them to go.
● A motive is a reason for doing something. Motivation is
concerned with the factors that influence people to behave in
certain ways.
● Motivation is initiated by the recognition of an unsatisfied
need. A goal is then established which it is believed will
satisfy this need and a decision is made on the action, which
it is expected will achieve the goal.
● The two types of motivation are intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation.
● People are motivated when they feel valued. It can be
achieved by both financial and non-financial means.
05
Enhancing
engagement

T he term ‘engagement’ has come to the fore fairly recently. It

is sometimes used very loosely as a powerful notion that
embraces pretty well everything the organization is seeking to do
about the contribution and behaviour of its employees in terms
of levels of job performance, willingness to do more and loyalty to
the organization. More precisely, employee engagement is defined
as what takes place when people at work are interested in and
positive, even excited, about their jobs. They are prepared to go
the extra mile to get their work done to the best of their ability by
exercising ‘discretionary effort’, i.e. doing more than is normally
expected of them – things that are not in their job description.

Drivers of engagement
Engagement is best enhanced when employees have meaningful
work that effectively uses their skills and provides them with
freedom to exercise choice. Engaged employees feel that their jobs
are an important part of who they are. Employees are also more
likely to be engaged when they are supported, recognized and
developed by their managers, and when they have a say in matters
that affect them.
34 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

CASE STUDY Telefónica O2 UK

The seven-point People Promise outlines O2’s commitment to creating

the best possible employee experience.
It promises its people a warm welcome, providing a full induction
programme and welcome day for all new starters.
People are given the opportunity to get on. Everyone forms a personal
development plan with their manager and talks through their career
goals at least twice a year. People can learn new skills by applying for
a matched contribution Learning Scheme or by using the online
academies, which offer training on a broad range of subjects.
O2 wants to create a workplace where people trust their senior
managers and their line manager. It invests heavily in the leadership
skills of its managers, affirming your manager will be there for you.
O2 people are trusted to do a great job. They’re encouraged to
suggest new ways of doing things in advisor forums, manager forums,
skip level meetings and Ignite, an online system enabling advisors to
capture customer insights and share their own.
O2 wants to be a great place to work. In the current economic climate,
it is focusing even harder on looking after its people, improving its total
reward offering by introducing new flexible benefits and a broad range
of discounts with high-street retailers. Vielife, an online health and
well-being programme, helps people manage their sleep, nutrition, stress
and physical activity. And O2 Confidential offers free 24-hour advice on
issues including benefits, debt, housing and other financial matters.
O2 people should feel part of something special. For example, people
are encouraged to volunteer for charities and may be afforded time out
for their chosen projects. And they can apply for awards or refer
friends and family under the It’s Your Community programme, which
gives grants of up to £1,000 to community projects all over the UK.
O2 says thanks for a job well done, praising its people and giving
them recognition for their work. A scheme launched in 2016 highlighted
outstanding individual and team contributions to strategic goals,
offering people high-street vouchers and the chance to attend a
glittering annual ceremony.
 Enhancing Engagement 35

What managers can do

Managers play a vital and immediate part in increasing levels of
employee engagement. They do this by exercising leadership and
ensuring that their team members are clear about what they have
to do, acquire the skills required and appreciate the significance of
their contribution. They have considerable influence over job and
work design and are there to provide support, encouragement and
coaching with the help of the performance management system.
Research for the Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development provided the basis for the construction of an analysis
of how an ‘engaging manager’ should behave (a competency
framework), shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Competency framework for an engaging manager

Competency Description

Autonomy and empowerment Trusts and involves employees

Development Helps to develop employees’
careers
Feedback, praise and recognition Gives positive feedback and praise
and rewards good work
Individual interest Shows concern for employees
Availability There when needed
Personal manner Positive approach, leads by example
Ethics Treats employees fairly
Reviewing and guiding Helps and advises employees
Clarifying expectations Sets clear goals and defines what
is expected
Managing time and resources Ensures resources are available to
meet workload
Following processes and Understands and explains
procedures processes and procedures

SOURCE Lewis, Donaldson-Feilder and Tharani (2012)

36 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

The following are some comments made by managers to Dilys

Robinson of the Institute for Employment Studies (2013) on the
approaches they used to enhance engagement. They come from a
revealing research project in which she arranged with seven large
organizations to interview 25 of their managers whose departments
had scored highly in engagement surveys. She drew some interesting
conclusions on how these managers dealt with engagement but
even more revealing were the quotations from managers she
interviewed included in her report:

I treat people the way I want them to treat me. If I want them
to achieve X, Y or Z they need to know what it is that I want
from them to start off with. I like to talk to them about what
the goals are and then how we are going to get there... And
through regular one-to-ones and coaching and observations
and feedback, that’s where I highlight any gaps and identify,
OK, you’re not performing in this area, so what are you going
to do?
I’ll go and buy some cakes on a Friday, little token bits
which basically staff receive very well, and there is kind of
a very team-orientated attitude. We all work very hard, we
work for each other and we support each other. What is quite
nice is that... we get a lot of comments... about what a nice
atmosphere it is in the office... generally it’s a fun place to
work, we work hard, but we break that up with elements of
fun. We go out together, trips... and it is quite nice that people
want to participate.
I do like to encourage people and give people praise when
they do a good piece of work. I don’t do it to excess, but I
make sure that if someone does something and they’ve done a
good job and they’ve done it within a tight timescale I make
a point of going and saying well done, thanks very much for
that.
 Enhancing Engagement 37

Ten steps to enhancing engagement

1 Delegate more.
2 Involve people in setting their targets and standards of
performance and in deciding on performance measures.
3 Allow individuals and teams more scope to plan, act and
monitor their own performance.
4 Involve people in developing their own solutions to problems.
5 Create self-managed teams – ones that set their own
objectives and standards and manage their own performance.
6 Give people a voice in deciding what needs to be done.
7 Help people to learn from their own mistakes.
8 Encourage continuous development so that people can both
grow in their roles and grow their roles.
9 Share your vision and plans with members of your team.
10 Trust people and treat them as adults.
38 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

Exercise 5.1
Dealing with engagement problems

You are the head of a major division of your large financial services
company. Your division has six departments, each controlled by a
senior manager, and there are 46 middle managers and team
leaders. There are 380 professional, administrative and support
staff working in the division.
There have been a number of problems in your division of
high staff turnover and absenteeism, and productivity has
declined. In discussions first with the HR director and then with top
management it has been agreed that this appears to be a case of
low levels of engagement. The HR director has therefore
organized an engagement survey with the results shown below;
83 per cent of staff completed the survey (a high response rate,
showing their concern) and the percentages expressing different
levels of opinion about the 10 statements are shown in the
appropriate boxes on the form.
You are now asked to comment on the results and make
suggestions to the management board about what needs to be
done.
 Engagement survey

Please indicate your department and section in the spaces below. This survey is anonymous so you do not need to give
your name. Please place a tick in the box which most closely fits your opinion.
Department:

Neither
agree Inclined
Strongly Inclined nor to Strongly
Opinion agree to agree disagree disagree disagree

1 I am very satisfied with the work I do 5% 15% 18% 40% 22%

2 My job is interesting 8% 12% 26% 44% 10%
3 I know exactly what I am expected to do 9% 16% 32% 39% 4%
4 I am prepared to put myself out to do my work 6% 14% 28% 40% 12%
5 My job is not very challenging 43% 31% 12% 10% 4%
6 I am given plenty of freedom to decide how to do my work 4% 17% 24% 31% 24%
7 I get plenty of opportunities to learn in this job 2% 4% 12% 52% 30%
8 The facilities/equipment/tools provided are excellent 15% 27% 45% 11% 2%
9 I do not get adequate support from my boss 12% 31% 34% 17% 6%
10 I like working for my boss 9% 12% 29% 41% 9%
40 Leading, Motivating and Engaging People

Key points

● Engagement is defined as what takes place when people at

work are interested in and positive, even excited, about their
jobs.
● Engagement is best enhanced when employees have
meaningful work that effectively uses their skills and provides
them with freedom to exercise choice – engaged employees
feel that their jobs are an important part of who they are.
● Managers play a vital and immediate part in increasing levels
of employee engagement. They do this by exercising
leadership and ensuring that their team members are clear
about what they have to do, acquire the skills required and
appreciate the significance of their contribution.
Part 3
Organizing
people
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
06
The process of
organizing

T he management of people constantly raises organizational

questions such as ‘Who does what?’, ‘How should activities be
grouped together?’, ‘What lines and means of communication need
to be established?’ and ‘Are we doing everything that we ought to
be doing and nothing that we ought not to be doing?’
As a manager or team leader you might have been promoted,
transferred or recruited into your post and have been presented
with an established organization structure – a framework for
getting things done. Very occasionally, you may have to set up your
own organization. More frequently, you may feel that there are
improvements that can usefully be made to the structure or to the
ways in which responsibilities and tasks are allocated to members
of your team. To do this it is necessary to understand the process
and aim of organizing and the guidelines for organizing, as
explained in this chapter.

The formal process

The formal process of organizing can be described as the design,
development and maintenance of a system of coordinated activities
in which individuals and groups of people work cooperatively
under leadership towards commonly understood and accepted
goals. This may involve the grand design or redesign of the total
structure, but most frequently it is concerned with the organization
44 Organizing People

of particular functions and activities and the basis upon which the
relationships between them are managed.
There are four important points to bear in mind about
organizations:

1 Formal organization structures are based on laid down hier­

archies (lines of command), which are represented in organization
charts. Use is sometimes made of closely defined job descriptions.
But to varying extents organizations function informally as well
as formally by means of a network of roles and relationships
that cut across formal organizational boundaries and lines of
command.
2 Organizations are not static things. Changes are constantly
taking place in the business itself, in the environment in which
the business operates, and in the people who work in the business.
3 Organizations consist of people working more or less co­
operatively together. Inevitably, and especially at managerial
levels, the organization may have to be adjusted to fit the
particular strengths and attributes of the people available. The
result may not conform to the ideal, but it is more likely to work
than a structure that ignores the human element. It is always
desirable to have an ideal structure in mind, but it is equally
desirable to modify it to meet particular circumstances, as long
as there is awareness of the potential problems that may arise.
This may seem an obvious point, but it is frequently ignored by
management consultants and others who adopt a doctrinaire
approach to organization, sometimes with disastrous results.
4 The form of organization will depend on its purpose, activities
and context. Thus a highly structured form of organization
would be right in a business where the work is regulated and
predictable. A different structure might be needed in organiza-
tions employing knowledge workers on research and develop-
ment projects or management consultancies in which operations
are conducted as a matrix with a number of disciplines from
which individuals are selected to operate in temporary groups.
 The Process of Organizing 45

Types of structured organizations include ‘line and staff’ (‘line

managers’ who are responsible for getting work done and staff
departments such as HR that provide advice and service to ‘the
line’), and ‘command and control’ in which there is a defined
hierarchy of positions with clearly defined limits to authority at
each level.

Aim
Bearing in mind the need to take an empirical approach, the aim
of organizing in a typical business or business unit could be defined
as being to optimize the arrangements for conducting its affairs. To
do this it is necessary, as far as circumstances require and allow, to:

● clarify the overall purposes of the organization or organizational

unit;
● define the key activities required to achieve that purpose;
● group these activities logically together to avoid unnecessary
overlap or duplication;
● ensure that the system of work provides for a logical flow of
activities without duplication;
● avoid the creation of ‘silos’, i.e. departments or sections that
focus too much on their own activities and take no account of
what other related organizational units do;
● provide for the integration of activities and the achievement of
cooperative effort and teamwork in pursuit of the common
purpose;
● build flexibility into the system so that organizational arrange­
ments can adapt quickly to new situations and challenges;
● clarify individual roles, accountabilities and authorities;
● design jobs to make the best use of the skills and capacities of
the job holders and to provide them with high levels of intrinsic
motivation.
46 Organizing People

Organizational guidelines
No absolute standards exist against which an organization
structure can be judged. There is no such thing as an ideal organ­
ization; there is never one right way of organizing anything and
there are no invariable principles governing organizational choice.
But there are some guidelines, as described below, that you can
refer to if faced with the job of setting up or reviewing an organ­
ization. They are not absolutes but they are worth considering in
the light of your analysis of the needs of the situation.

● Allocation of work – the work that has to be done should

be defined and allocated to work teams, project groups and
individual positions. Related activities should be grouped
together.
● Differentiation and integration – it is necessary to differentiate
between the different activities that have to be carried out, but it
is equally necessary to ensure that these activities are integrated
so that everyone in the team is working towards the same goals.
● Teamwork – jobs should be defined and roles described in ways
that facilitate and underline the importance of teamwork. Areas
where cooperation is required should be emphasized. Wherever
possible, self managing teams should be set up with the max­
imum amount of responsibility to run their own affairs,
including planning, budgeting and exercising quality control.
Networking should be encouraged in the sense of people
communicating openly and informally with one another as the
need arises. It should be recognized that these informal processes
can be more productive than rigidly ‘working through channels’
as set out in an organization chart.
● Flexibility – the structure should be flexible enough to respond
quickly to change, challenge and uncertainty. At management
levels a ‘collegiate’ approach to team operation should be
considered in which people share responsibility and are expected
 The Process of Organizing 47

to work with their colleagues in areas outside their primary

function or skill.
● Role clarification – people should be clear about their roles as
individuals and as members of a team. They should know what
they will be held accountable for and be given every opportunity
to use their abilities in achieving objectives that they have agreed
and are committed to. Role profiles should define key result
areas but should not act as straitjackets, restricting initiative
and unduly limiting responsibility. Elaborate job descriptions
listing every task are unnecessary as they limit flexibility and
authority and, because they appear to be comprehensive, invite
some people to make the remark that ‘It is not in my job
description’.
● Decentralization – authority to make decisions should be
delegated as close to the scene of action as possible.
● Delayering – too many layers create unnecessary ‘pecking
orders’, inhibit communications and limit flexibility.
● Span of control – there is a limit to the number of people one
manager or team leader can control, although this limit varies
according to the nature of the work and the people who carry it
out. In fact, you can work with a far larger span than you
imagine as long as you are prepared to delegate more, to avoid
becoming involved in too much detail and concentrate on
developing good teamwork.
● ‘One-over-one’ relationships – situations in which a single
manager controls another single manager who in turn controls
a team of people can cause confusion as to who is in charge and
how the duties of the two people in the one-over-one relationship
are divided.
● One person one boss – ideally individuals should be responsible
to one person so they know where they stand. One of the main
exceptions to this rule occurs when someone has a direct ‘line’
responsibility to a manager but also has a ‘functional’
responsibility to a senior member of the individual’s function,
48 Organizing People

who is concerned with maintaining corporate standards for the

function and dealing with corporate policies. But in such cases,
the way in which functional responsibility is exercised and its
limits have to be defined and, usually, it is understood that
individuals are accountable to their line manager for achieving
results within their department or team.

Exercise 6.1
Case study: Work and organization design in Barchester
Council

Barchester Council has launched a major initiative called ‘The

Change Project’. This is an organization-wide programme, the
aim of which is to establish how the council, while under
intensive pressure to reduce expenditure, could continue to
provide high-quality and joined-up services and still cut costs.
The starting point for the initiative was the housing department,
which was known to be functioning poorly. An investigation by
the HR department revealed serious deficiencies in the ways in
which the council delivered services to its customers. People
visiting the department for the first time would find themselves
being passed between a number of different people in different
sections of the department, each with certain responsibilities
involved in housing. So, for example, customers might have to
see a housing adviser, a homeless persons officer, a registrations
officer, an allocations officer, then perhaps a temporary
accommodation officer, then maybe an income officer – all of
which was overseen and checked by a manager. A customer
could come in at 9:00 and might not leave until 5:30 having been
passed around all these different people.
The service was complicated, time-consuming and frustrating
for those using it, and at the same time involved a great deal of
resources, which was not always efficient or effective. There
were delays and wastes often because of the historical way
 The Process of Organizing 49

services had developed. Each section worked within strictly

defined limits – no flexibility was allowed. Staff often had limited
knowledge of how other teams worked and ‘silo’ working was
typically the norm.
The jobs in the sections were reduced to a number of strictly
defined tasks and individual administrators had little or no
discretion to make decisions. The staff were generally bored and
frustrated because they were limited to carrying out highly
routine work with no variety. This resulted in poor morale, which
undoubtedly affected the level of service to customers.

On the basis of this information, what could be done to improve

the service?

Key points

● The formal process of organizing can be described as the

design, development and maintenance of a system of
coordinated activities in which individuals and groups of
people work cooperatively under leadership towards
commonly understood and accepted goals.
● The aim of organizing in a typical business or business unit
could be defined as being to optimize the arrangements for
conducting the affairs of the business or business unit.
● Organizations function informally as well as formally.
● Organizations are not static things. Changes are constantly
taking place.
● It is always desirable to have an ideal structure in mind, but it
is equally desirable to modify it to meet particular
circumstances.
● The form of organization will depend on its purpose, activities
and context.
50 Organizing People

● No absolute standards exist against which an organization

structure can be judged.
● There is no such thing as an ideal organization; there is never
one right way of organizing anything and there are no
absolute principles that govern organizational choice. But
there are some guidelines, as described in this chapter.
07
Defining roles

A s a manager one of your most important tasks is to ensure

that each member of your team knows what to do – their role.
The term ‘role’ refers to the part people play in carrying out their
work and achieving their objectives.
If you take on a new managerial or supervisory role yourself,
you will need to get to know the roles played by the members of
your department or team in order to ensure that the work is well
organized, that it contributes to the achievement of the purpose of
the unit and that people are clear about their responsibilities. As
described in this chapter there are three things you have to do
about roles:

1 As necessary, you will have to design or redesign roles when

they are not functioning well, when new work comes your way
or when changes take place to the system of work in your area
of responsibility.
2 You will have to ensure that people understand what their roles
are – although you can simply explain to them what their role
consists of, it is better to define and record this in the form of a
role profile.
3 On a day-to-day basis, you will give out work in the form of
specific tasks you want someone to do.

Designing roles
The content of a role may be prescribed, as on a production line,
or standardized in a call centre. However, managers often have to
52 Organizing People

define how work should be done and, in these cases, they need to
know how to get the best results by designing roles that maximize
the extent to which people are motivated by what they do. This is
intrinsic motivation that, as was explained in Chapter 4, is the
most powerful and longest-lasting type of motivation.

Exercise 7.1
What is a ‘good’ job?

Frederick Herzberg once said that if you want someone to do a

good job give them a good job to do.
Describe what you think ‘a good job’ looks like.

The five approaches to role design that can increase motivation

through the work itself are to provide for:

1 variety
2 opportunity to use and develop skills
3 autonomy in deciding working methods (so far as possible)
4 feedback on achievements and progress
5 understanding of the significance of the work

This approach to designing jobs is known as job enrichment.

Exercise 7.2
The argument for job enrichment – Frederick Herzberg

The argument for job enrichment can be summed up quite

simply: If you have employees on a job, use them. If you can’t
use them on the job, get rid of them, either via automation or
by selecting someone with lesser ability. If you can’t use them
and you can’t get rid of them, you will have a motivation
problem. (Herzberg, 1968)
 Defining Roles 53

Consider the extent to which you believe that this a convincing

argument for job enrichment. Are there any ways in which it
needs to be changed?

Exercise 7.3
A case of job enrichment

James Turner has just been appointed as Group HR Director for

the Acme Publishing Group, which publishes a number of local
newspapers and three trade journals. He is based in the group’s
headquarters in London where about 200 people are employed in
marketing, finance and running the trade journals. There are
specialized HR staff in each of the provincial newspapers but
other than the Group HR Director there are no HR specialists in
the headquarters office. The previous head of HR had been
transferred from a middle-ranking job in one of the trade journals
and concentrated on the more routine personnel jobs such as
recruitment in headquarters, having little to do with the local
newspapers. The remit for the new Group HR Director was to get
to grips with a number of pressing issues, although he still had to
look after HR matters in headquarters. Top management had
ruled out appointing an HR assistant on the grounds of expense.
He did, however, inherit a personal assistant, Jane Hardy. She
was 23 and had been with the firm for two years. She had accepted
a university place five years ago but the severe illness of her
mother had prevented her taking it up. Instead, she took a
secretarial course. Her previous boss had restricted her duties to
typing, filing and looking after his engagement diary. She was
underemployed and bored.
After he started, James Turner quickly appreciated that Jane
was demotivated by her work and was capable of doing much
more. She was both intelligent and outgoing. He decided that this
was a case in which job enrichment was appropriate.
What should James do?
54 Organizing People

The following are the 10 steps you can take to design roles or
jobs that are likely to enhance motivation and engagement.

1 Where possible, arrange for people to work on a complete

activity or product or a significant part of it that can be seen
as a whole.
2 Combine interdependent tasks into a role.
3 Provide a variety of tasks within the role.
4 Arrange work in a way that allows individuals to influence
their work methods and pace.
5 Include tasks that offer some degree of autonomy for
employees in the sense of making their own decisions.
6 Ensure that individuals can receive feedback about how well
they are doing, preferably by evaluating their performance
themselves, i.e. build feedback into the role.
7 Provide employees with the information they need to monitor
their performance and make decisions.
8 Provide internal and external customer feedback directly to
employees.
9 As far as possible, ensure that the role is perceived by
individuals as requiring them to use abilities they value in
order to perform it effectively.
10 Provide opportunities for employees to achieve outcomes that
they consider desirable, such as personal advancement in the
form of increased pay, scope for developing expertise, improved
status within a work group and a more challenging role.

Developing role profiles

Roles can be defined by word of mouth, especially for very
straightforward jobs or prescribed roles, although these may
 Defining Roles 55

have been defined in the description of the work or production

process.
However, in more complex or less prescribed jobs there is much
to be said for recording role requirements formally to give clear
directions to the role holder and provide a basis for evaluating
performance and determining learning and development needs.
The traditional method of doing this was a job description that
attempted to describe in detail the tasks the job holder had to carry
out – an impossible aim in any even moderately complex job. This
has been replaced in many organizations with what are called role
profiles. These define the overall purpose of the role and describe
what the person carrying out the role is expected to achieve in each
of its main aspects – often referred to as the ‘key result areas’. Few
roles have more than six or seven of them.
Role profiles are dynamic – they are concerned with purpose
and action. In contrast, job descriptions are static, they simply
contain a list of the tasks that have to be carried out without
indicating the purpose of those tasks. Roles are about people. Jobs
are about tasks and duties.
An example of a role profile is set out below.

Role title: Database administrator

Department: Information systems
Purpose of role: To develop and support the operation of
databases and their underlying environment.

Key result areas

1 Identify database requirements for all projects that require

data management in order to meet the needs of internal
customers.
2 Develop project plans collaboratively with colleagues to
deliver against their database needs.
3 Support underlying database infrastructure.
56 Organizing People

4 Liaise with system and software providers to obtain product

information and support.
5 Manage project resources (people and equipment) within
predefined budget and criteria, as agreed with line manager
and originating department.
6 Allocate work to and supervise contractors on day-to-day
basis.
7 Ensure security of the underlying database infrastructure
through adherence to established protocols and develop
additional security protocols where needed.

Exercise 7.4
It’s not in my job description

When asked to carry out a new task, people have been known to
object, saying that ‘It’s not in my job description’.
What can you do to avoid this reaction or, if it hasn’t been
avoided, deal with it?

To develop a basic role profile it is necessary to answer the following

questions:

1 What is the overall purpose of the role?

2 How does it fit in with other roles in the function or unit?
3 What are the most important things the role holder has to do –
their key result areas?
4 What is the role holder expected to achieve in each of these
areas?
5 How will they – or anyone else – know the extent to which they
have achieved them?
 Defining Roles 57

A basic role profile can be extended to cover knowledge, skills and

behavioural requirements as a basis for defining learning needs.
This can be done by obtaining answers to these questions:

1 What does the role holder need to know to perform this role
well?
2 What should the role holder be able to do to perform this role
well?
3 What sort of behaviour is likely to lead to effective performance
in each of the main areas of the role?

Exercise 7.5
Preparing a basic role profile

The following is an edited transcript of a role analysis meeting

with a quality control technician in a food manufacturing
company. Prepare a basic role profile on the basis of this
information.

I am responsible to the product line manager for the quality

control of the four products on our cooked meats product line. I
have to check that they meet our quality standards. I do this by
conducting regular tests of a sample of products. I also check
the labelling and packaging from time to time to ensure that
these are in line with the specifications. I have to know all about
the specifications for each of the four products. This includes the
basic ingredients, the mix of these ingredients, taste and smell,
appearance and usability.
Our quality control guide lays down the standard tests and
sample sizes. There is a range of tests including microbiological
and chemical tests. Some are quite complex; others, such as
visual tests of appearance, are relatively straightforward.
If there is a problem, I refer it initially to the product line
manager so that they can deal with any issue over which they
58 Organizing People

have control. I am expected to offer my opinion on what needs to

be done if this is suggested by test results. If it is a more
fundamental problem concerning such things as ingredients, the
mix or production methods, the product line manager will refer
them to product development. I have to explain my findings there.
I submit regular (monthly) reports, which summarize the
results of the tests and highlight any issues which in my view
need to be addressed. I am not expected to make recommendations
on how the issue should be resolved although my opinion is
sometimes sought by manufacturing and product development. I
also attend regular quality control meetings where I am expected
to report on any issues and join in discussions.
I will have done a good job if the tests and inspections I carry
out are conducted thoroughly in accordance with the
requirements of our quality control guide. I have to earn the
respect of the product line manager as someone who knows
what they are talking about. My reports need to be clear,
readable and submitted on time. My opinions on quality must be
evidence-based and I must be able to support my conclusions
with that evidence. I know I have done a good job if I offer
relevant and practical comments and suggestions to the product
line manager, my boss and the product development department.

Giving out work

Giving out work means telling people to do something, or if you
want to be less authoritarian (and treating people right is about
that), asking them. You have to give orders sometimes but it is
preferable to make a polite request when you can.
When you give out work you need to spell out what has to be
done, why it has to be done (people will be better motivated if they
know the reason for what they do), when the work has to be
completed and how performance will be measured. It may also be
 Defining Roles 59

necessary to describe how the work should be done if the person

concerned is unfamiliar with the task; this means giving instructions
in the following sequence:

1 Explain what has to be done.

2 Demonstrate the task.
3 Get the individual to practise the task.
4 Follow up to ensure that everything is going well.

This sequence is described in more detail in Chapter 14.

Key points

Managers:

● have to define the work the members of their team do;

● need to know how to get the best results by designing roles
that maximize the engagement of role holders with their work
by providing interest, challenge, variety and autonomy;
● need to ensure that everyone is aware of what they have to
achieve in each of the main aspects of their role – their key
result areas;
● do this by preparing role profiles, which provide the essential
information needed by role holders to carry out their role and
by managers to manage the performance of role holders;
● give out work, which means telling people to do something or,
if they want to be less authoritarian, asking them.
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08
Team building

O ne of your most important roles as a manager is to develop

and make the best use of the capacity of your team so that its
members jointly deliver superior levels of performance. This is
team building. It takes place when you clarify the team’s purpose
and goals, ensure that its members work well together, strengthen
the team’s collective skills, enhance commitment and confidence,
remove externally imposed obstacles and create opportunities for
team members to develop their skills and competencies.
To undertake this task you need to get answers to these questions:

● What is a team?
● What are the factors that contribute to team effectiveness?
● How should team performance be assessed?
● How should team performance reviews be conducted?
● What needs to be done to obtain good teamwork?

What is a team?
A team is a group of people with complementary skills who work
together to achieve a common purpose. The team leader sets the
direction, provides guidance and support, coordinates the team’s
activities, ensures that each team member plays their part, promotes
the learning and development of team members, consults with the
team on issues affecting its work and, in conjunction with team
members, monitors and reviews team performance.
62 Organizing People

However, some organizations have developed the concept

of self-managing teams, which are largely autonomous. They are
responsible to a considerable degree for planning and scheduling
work, problem solving, developing their own key performance
indicators, and setting and monitoring team performance and
quality standards. The role of their team leaders is primarily to act
as coordinators and facilitators; their style is expected to be more
supportive and facilitative than directive.

What are the factors that contribute to

team effectiveness?
An effective team is likely to be one in which its purpose is clear
and its members feel the task is important, both to them and the
organization. The structure and methods of operation are relevant
to the requirements of the task. Team members will be highly
engaged in the work they do together and committed to the team’s
overall task. They will have been grouped together in a way that
means that they are related to one another through the requirements
of task performance and task interdependence. The team will use
discretionary effort – going the extra mile – to achieve its task.
There will be effective leadership, which sets the direction and
provides guidance without dominating the group. The main
features of well-functioning teams are that:

● the atmosphere tends to be informal, comfortable and relaxed;

● team members listen to each other and work well together;
● team members are multi-skilled as required to get the task done;
● many decisions are reached by consensus;
● action is taken by means of assignments that are clear and
accepted;
● team leaders provide effective leadership but do not dominate
their teams – the issue is not who controls but how to get the
work done.
 Team Building 63

How should team performance be

assessed?
The performance of teams should be assessed in terms of their
output and results and the quality of team processes that have
contributed to those results.
Output criteria include the achievement of team goals, customer
satisfaction and the quantity and quality of work. Process measures
comprise participation, collaboration and collective effort, conflict
resolution, joint decision-making, planning and goal setting, inter­
personal relations, interdependence and adaptability and flexibility.

How should team performance

reviews be conducted?
Good support to your team-building efforts will be provided if
you conduct regular team performance review meetings to assess
feedback and control information on their joint achievements
against objectives and to discuss any issues concerning teamwork.
The agenda for such meetings could be as follows:

1 General feedback review of the progress of the team as a whole,

problems encountered by the team that have caused difficulties
or hampered progress, and helps and hindrances to the operation
of the team.
2 Work reviews of how well the team has functioned.
3 Group problem-solving including an analysis of reasons for any
shortfalls or other problems and agreement of what needs to be
done to solve them and prevent their reoccurrence.
4 Update objectives – review of new requirements, opportunities
or threats and the amendment of objectives as required.

Use can be made of the following 10-point checklist.

64 Organizing People

Team performance checklist

1 How effective are we at achieving team goals?

2 How well do we work together?
3 Does everyone contribute?
4 How effectively is the team led?
5 How good are we at analysing problems and making
decisions?
6 How good are we at initiating action?
7 Do we concentrate sufficiently on the priority issues?
8 Do we waste time on irrelevancies?
9 To what extent can team members speak their minds without
being squashed by others?
10 If there is any conflict, is it openly expressed and is it about
issues rather than personalities?

What needs to be done to achieve good

teamwork

The following are 10 things to do when building your team:

1 Establish urgency and direction.

2 Select members based on skills and skill potential who are
good at working with others but still capable of taking their
own line when necessary.
3 Pay particular attention to first meetings and actions.
4 Agree with team members immediate performance-
orientated tasks and goals, including overlapping or
interlocking objectives for people who work together.
 Team Building 65

These will take the form of targets to be achieved or tasks to

be accomplished by joint action.
5 Assess people’s performance not only on the results they
achieve but also on the degree to which they are effective
team members. Recognize and reward people who
demonstrate that they can work well as part of a team.
6 Recognize good team performance by praise and rewards
for the team as a whole.
7 Build team spirit by out-of-work activities.
8 Hold team meetings to review performance, focusing on
team process as well as outputs.
9 Provide learning and development opportunities so that team
members can become multi-skilled or at least improve the
level of their existing skills.
10 Make use of any learning activities provided by the
organization that focus on teamwork.

Exercise 8.1
Investigating the quality of teamwork

You are the manager of a large department in a distribution centre.

There are six work teams in the department with an average of
eight people in each team. Productivity in the department has
fallen recently and you think an important contributory factor is
the quality of teamwork. You have noticed a number of instances
where teams do not seem to be working effectively. You therefore
asked your HR director to investigate. They conducted a survey
of the 48 team members, 40 of whom responded. The results are
shown below. What do these indicate and what needs to be
done?
 Team effectiveness survey

Please indicate your department and section in the spaces below. This survey is anonymous so you do not need to give your
name. Please place a tick in the box which most closely fits your opinion.
Department:

Neither Inclined
Strongly Inclined agree nor to Strongly
Opinion agree to agree disagree disagree disagree

1 The team’s goals are clear and understood 3 6 8 15 8

2 The team members work well together 8 10 16 4 2
3 The team is able to withstand pressure 6 9 18 5 2
4 The team gets on well with other teams 4 6 12 15 3
5 The team is able to manage itself in terms of allocating work, 2 5 21 8 4
setting priorities and monitoring performance
6 The quality of leadership exercised by the team leader is high 0 1 8 20 11
7 The level and range of skills possessed by individual team members 10 16 10 4 0
is high
8 Team members work flexibly, taking advantage of the multi-skilling 1 11 21 13 2
capabilities of members
 Team Building 67

Key points
● Team building takes place when you clarify the team’s purpose
and goals, ensure that its members work well together,
strengthen the team’s collective skills, enhance commitment
and confidence, remove externally imposed obstacles and
create opportunities for team members to develop their skills
and competencies.
● A team is a group of people with complementary skills who
work together to achieve a common purpose.
● The team leader sets the direction, provides guidance and
support, coordinates the team’s activities, ensures that each
team member plays their part, promotes the learning and
development of team members, consults with the team on
issues affecting its work and, in conjunction with team
members, monitors and reviews team performance.
● In an effective team, its purpose is clear and its members feel
the task is important. The structure and methods of operation
are appropriate relevant to the requirements of the task and
team members will be highly engaged in the work they do
together. There will be effective leadership, which sets the
direction and provides guidance without dominating the group.
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09
Managing
remote workers

T he massive increase in the number of people working from

home has been one of the most noteworthy effects of Covid-
19. Managing a remote workforce is not easy and working from
home all or even part of the time (hybrid working) can be either
one of the most engaging or one of the most disengaging experiences
possible for an employee, depending on how their manager handles
it. And this presents a huge challenge to managers. They must aim
to help homeworkers become as strong as possible in the unusual
and often difficult circumstances in which they work. The following
tips provide guidance on the approach that should be adopted.

Ten tips for managing remote workers

1 Agree ways of working and ensure that remote workers are
clear about their hours and the core hours when they should be
at work.
2 Make sure that all team members understand how they will
work together remotely and how they will keep each other
updated.
3 Provide team members with the support and equipment they
require. This includes any coaching they might need to use
online systems or work remotely.
70 Organizing People

4 Identify any learning needs required to provide scope to

develop the homeworker’s capabilities, meet changing demands
or opportunities, or improve their performance. Discuss how
these needs can be satisfied by, for example, coaching back at
base, an e-learning programme, involvement in virtual learning
activities or encouragement and support to engage in self-
directed learning, or a formal training course. Homeworkers
need to be assured that they are not ‘out of sight and out of
mind’ – that their long-term growth needs have not been
forgotten.
5 Communicate regularly to share information, check on well-
being and keep workflow on track, not just when things go
wrong.
6 Encourage team members to communicate with one another.
Hold virtual team meetings regularly.
7 Use video conferencing for communications and meetings like
everyone else, but be aware of its limitations – it’s not the real
thing – and recognize the existence of ‘zoom fatigue’. Remember
that people can be more sensitive if they’re feeling isolated or
anxious. Don’t assume that how they behave or react on screen
represents the whole reality of their behaviour.
8 Listen closely and read between the lines. Not being in the
same room means you don’t have extra information from body
language or tone to get the sense of what people are thinking
or feeling, particularly in more difficult conversations.
9 Provide feedback regularly.
10 Approach evaluations of remote workers with more flexibility,
leniency, empathy and compassion, taking account of the
special circumstances, demands and stresses associated with
working from home.
 Managing Remote Workers 71

Exercise 9.1
Managing remote working problems

What do you think are likely to be the three most pressing

problems when managing remote workers?

Key points

● The massive increase in the number of people working from

home has been one of the most noteworthy effects of
Covid-19.
● Managing a remote workforce is not easy as it presents a
huge challenge to managers. They must aim to help
homeworkers become as strong as possible in the unusual
and often difficult circumstances in which they work.
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Part 4
Managing
performance
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10
Performance
leadership

Introduction
Managing performance is what good managers do all the time. It is
not something they do only in an annual appraisal session as part
of a performance management system. The traditional system of
formal performance agreements and annual performance reviews
has been largely discredited. For example, two well-known American
commentators, Peter Cappelli and Anna Tavis (2016), wrote in the
Harvard Business Review that: ‘Performance appraisals wouldn’t
be the least popular practice in business, as they’re widely believed
to be, if something weren’t fundamentally wrong with them.’ It is
difficult to find anyone who has anything good to say about formal
performance management systems. And good managers, like this
one quoted below by Dilys Robinson (2013), don’t need to be
propped up by a bureaucratic system run by HR.

[This organization] has a very structured performance

management framework, as you would imagine from a big
company. I try and avoid using it unless I have to, I would
rather try and develop the personal relationship with someone,
to understand their issue and try and improve their performance
by working with them, rather than going through procedural
ways of managing performance.
76 Managing Performance

Managing performance is about good management – performance

leadership – not simply holding meetings and ticking boxes on a
form. Here are comments made by two managers to Dilys Robinson
about how they managed performance:

I ensure that people understand what is expected of them. I try

to encourage people to think of the wider objectives of [the
organization] and how they fit in.

To keep the team generally motivated and performance levels up,

I will make sure I’m speaking to people, praising them when they do
a good job, finding out what their problems are, helping them with
whatever needs to be done.

And here are comments made by two people about their managers:

...it’s that there’s constant feedback as well... you don’t have to wait
until the end of that year to be told what your failings are or what
your good points are.

You really know where you are and what your goals are.

What is performance leadership?

Leadership has been defined as ‘an influencing process aimed at
goal achievement’. This is precisely what performance leadership
is. To lead people is to influence, guide and inspire. It is the process
of getting people to do their best to achieve a desired result. Leaders
are concerned with performance, although they must also have the
interests of their team members at heart.
As performance leaders, managers set the direction by clarifying
roles and objectives, making available the resources needed to get
results, motivating their team members, helping people to develop
their skills (coaching), monitoring their progress, providing feed­
back by means of constructive conversations and ensuring that
corrective action is taken when necessary.
The essential skills required to be an effective performance
leader are described in Chapter 11.
 Performance Leadership 77

Exercise 10.1
The problem of performance appraisal

All singing, all dancing performance appraisal… requires

managers to review a wide range of content (reward, training
needs, business alignment, etc) and use of multiple processes
(e.g. personal development planning, performance ranking,
potential assessment, etc), but also to apply different modes
of management – appreciation, evaluation and coaching –
which can be very tough on them to deliver. (Reilly, 2015)

Do you agree? If so, what can be done about it?

Performance management systems

Managers and employees in the IES study not only found the
PM process complex and bureaucratic. They felt this completely
masked its fundamental purpose. The commonest criticism by
both managers and employees was that it was a box ticking
or form filling exercise… The loudest message from HR and
senior managers is of the need to get the forms filled in on
time – a message about administrative compliance…. As one
manager commented ‘Managers don’t give honest feedback
and employees don’t tell managers what they are thinking.
There is no real conversation’. (Hirsh et al, 2011)
78 Managing Performance

Key points

● Managing performance is what good managers do all the

time. It is not something they do only in an annual appraisal
session as part of a performance management system.
● As performance leaders, managers set the direction by
clarifying roles and objectives, make available the resources
needed to get results, motivate their team members, help
people to develop their skills (coaching), monitor their
progress, provide feedback by means of constructive
conversations and ensure that corrective action is taken
when necessary.
11
Performance
leadership skills

T he essential performance leadership skills are those that any

effective manager needs to exercise while carrying out their
normal duties, namely: leadership, the ability to motivate, defining
roles and coaching. These are all described in other chapters of this
book. There are, however, two particular performance leadership
skills – defining objectives and providing feedback – and these are
examined in this chapter.

Defining objectives
Objectives indicate what has to be accomplished. Their definition
is a fundamental activity in managing performance. They provide
direction and a basis for monitoring performance, and they help to
communicate the organization’s strategic goals to employees. There
are two types of objectives:

1 Performance objectives are related to work requirements. They

define the expected outcomes of a role, which can be expressed
in the key result areas of a role profile or as quantitative targets
or standards of performance. The latter indicate what happens
when a job is well done.
2 Personal objectives are either developmental (learning and
growth) or behavioural (e.g. team working, people management,
customer focus).
80 Managing Performance

As a natural process, objectives will be defined when necessary,

at any time in the year during the flow of work. Consideration is
given to changes in requirements or circumstances and the impact
that these have on work activities and priorities. Plans are agreed
on how to proceed. These may be simply jotted down in a note.
A record of them is desirable but not essential. What is important
is that they are understood and actioned.
From time to time a more formal review of objectives can be
undertaken to make sure that they are aligned to corporate or
departmental goals and properly reflect current and anticipated
requirements. A formal process of defining objectives will certainly
be necessary when a new role has been created, when someone begins
a new job or when changes to the organization or work requirements
have taken place that substantially affect an existing role.
When you monitor someone’s performance you are in effect
checking on the extent to which they are achieving their objectives.
While a formal annual performance review is no longer regarded
as a satisfactory way of doing this, you still need to discuss per­
formance matters with your team members from time to time. Such
discussions can take place as and when required and will include
the provision of both positive and constructive feedback as
described in the next section of this chapter.

Exercise 11.1
Reviewing performance

What points should managers cover when talking to individuals

about their performance?

Feedback
Feedback is the provision of information to people on how they
have performed in terms of results, events, critical incidents and
 Performance Leadership Skills 81

significant behaviours. It should be provided by managers in

‘performance conversations’ informally throughout the year when
appropriate although it can be given more formally in performance
review meetings. Individuals can provide feedback for themselves.
Feedback can be positive when it tells people that they have done
well, constructive when it provides advice on how to do better, and
negative when it tells people that they have done badly. Feedback
reinforces effective behaviour and indicates where and how
behaviour needs to change.

Guidelines on providing feedback

1 Provide positive and constructive feedback. People are more
likely to work positively at improving their performance and
developing their skills if they feel empowered by the process.
Provide feedback on the things that the individual did well
in addition to areas for improvement. Focus on what can be
done to do even better rather than on criticism.
2 Build feedback into the job. To be effective feedback should be
built into the job or provided soon after the activity has taken
place.
3 Provide feedback on actual events. Feedback should be given
on actual results or observed behaviour. It should be backed up
by evidence. It should not be based on supposition about the
reason for the behaviour. You should, for example, say: ‘We
have received the following complaint from a customer that
you have been uncooperative, would you like to comment on
this?’ rather than ‘You tend to be aggressive with customers’.
4 Describe, don’t judge. The feedback should be presented as a
description of what has happened; it should not be accom­
panied by a judgement. If you start by saying: ‘I have been
informed that you have been rude to one of our customers;
we can’t tolerate that sort of behaviour’, you will instantly
create re­sistance and prejudice an opportunity to encourage
improvement.
82 Managing Performance

5 Refer to and define specific behaviours. Relate all your feedback

to specific items of behaviour. Don’t indulge in transmitting
general feelings or impressions. When commenting on someone’s
work or behaviour, define what you believe to be good work or
effective behaviour with examples.
6 Emphasize the ‘how’ not the ‘what’. Focus attention more on
how the task was tackled rather than on the result.
7 Use questioning techniques to clarify the facts. Ask questions
rather than make statements – ‘Why do you think this hap­
pened?’; ‘On reflection is there any other way in which you
think you could have handled the situation?’; ‘How do you
think you should tackle this sort of situation in the future?’
8 Select key issues. There is a limit to how much criticism anyone
can take. If you overdo it, the shutters will go up and you will
get nowhere. Select key issues and restrict yourself to them. It
is a waste of time to concentrate on areas that the individual
can do little or nothing about. Focus on aspects of performance
the individual can improve.
9 Handle the conversation carefully. Maintain control. Stay clear
of emotive language. Allow people to have their say and listen
to them, but make it clear that rudeness or any other form of
unacceptable behaviour will not be tolerated. If, in spite of the
facts, the individual is in denial, restate the evidence, indicate
what happens next (possibly another meeting after a cooling
off period) and close the meeting.
10 Ensure feedback leads to action. Feedback should indicate any
actions required to develop performance or skills.

Exercise 11.2
Approaches to feedback

Comment on each of the following examples of feedback. What

was good about it? What was poor about it? If necessary, how
could it be improved?
 Performance Leadership Skills 83

Comments on
The event(s) The feedback the feedback

For the second time ‘We can’t have this.

this week, an You’ve made the
accounting assistant same mistake twice in
has made a bad error the same week. This
when inputting data. must not happen
again.’

An interim informal ‘The conversion rate

review is taking place achieved by your
of the performance of team is way below
a call centre team target. It needs to be
leader. put right. How will
you do that?’

A recently recruited ‘I have just been

and relatively looking at your draft
inexperienced junior press release. It is well
PR executive has written but I am not
been asked to draft a sure what message
press release for the you are trying to
first time. The result deliver. Shall we look
was a piece which, at it together and
while it was quite well discuss what can be
written, did not get done to make this
the message across into a really first-class
clearly enough. piece of work?’

A laboratory ‘I noticed that on

technician appears to Monday last and the
have lost interest in previous Thursday
the work and is not your reports on the
delivering technical tests you were asked
analyses on time. to carry out were so
late that the
production flow was
interrupted. You seem
to have lost interest in
your work. Could you
tell me why?’
84 Managing Performance

Comments on
The event(s) The feedback the feedback

Dissatisfaction has ‘I want to talk to you

been expressed about about the way in
the way in which a which you deal with
member of a callers. There seems
customer service to be a problem,
team handles which I first noticed
complaints that have about four months
been made by ago. On that occasion
customers; the first you were unhelpful
time was four months and indeed rude. Can
ago and it has you explain what
happened twice more happened?’
in the past month.

Key points

● Objectives indicate what has to be accomplished. Their

definition is a fundamental activity in managing performance.
● As a natural process, objectives will be defined when
necessary, at any time in the year during the flow of work.
● From time to time a more formal review of objectives can be
undertaken to make sure that they are aligned to corporate or
departmental goals and properly reflect current and anticipated
requirements.
● Feedback is provided by managers informally during the year
or formally in performance review meetings. Guidelines on
giving feedback are set out earlier in the chapter.
Part 5
Approaches to
people
management
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
12
Delegating

Y ou can’t do everything yourself, so you have to delegate – get

other people to do some of the work. It is one of the most
important things you do. At first sight delegation looks simple. Just
tell people what you want them to do and then let them get on with
it. But there is more to it than that. It requires courage, patience
and skill. And it is an aspect of your work in which you have quite
a lot of freedom of choice. What you choose to delegate, to whom
and how, is almost entirely at your discretion.

What is delegation?
Delegation is not the same as handing out work. There are some
things that your team members do that go with the territory. They
are part of their normal duties and all you have to do is to define
what those duties are and allocate work accordingly.
Delegation is different. It takes place when you deliberately give
someone the authority to carry out a piece of work that you could
have decided to keep and carry out yourself. Bear in mind that
what you are doing is delegating authority to carry out a task and
make the decisions this involves. You are still accountable for the
results achieved. It is sometimes said that you cannot delegate re-
sponsibility but this is misleading if responsibility is defined, as it
usually is, as what people are expected to do – their work, their
tasks and their duties. What you cannot do is delegate accountability.
In the final analysis you as the manager or team leader always
carry the can. What managers have to do is to ensure that people
have the authority to carry out their responsibilities. A traffic warden
88 Approaches to People Management

without the power to issue tickets would have to be exceedingly

persuasive to have any chance of dealing with parking offences.

Approaches to delegation
To delegate effectively you need to understand the process of
delegation, when to delegate, what to delegate, how to choose
people to whom you want to delegate, how to delegate the work
and how to monitor performance.

The process of delegation

Delegation is a process that can start from the point when total
control is exercised (no freedom of action for the individual to
whom work has been allocated) but can take the form of full
devolution (the individual is completely empowered to carry out
the work). This sequence is illustrated in Figure 12.1.

Figure 12.1 The sequence of delegation

Degree of control exercised by manager

Degree of freedom devolved to individual

Manager Manager gives Manager briefs Manager gives Manager

allocates task specific individual and general empowers
but exercises instructions checks directions individual
total control and checks regularly to individual to control
constantly and asks for own
feedback performance
at the latter’s
discretion
 Delegating 89

When to delegate
You should delegate when you:

● have more work than you can carry out yourself;

● cannot allow sufficient time to your priority tasks;
● want to develop a member of your team;
● believe that it will increase someone’s engagement with their
job.

What to delegate
The tasks you delegate are ones that you don’t need to do your-
self. You are not just ridding yourself of the difficult, tedious or
unrewarding tasks. Neither are you trying simply to win for
yourself an easier life. In some ways delegation will make your life
more difficult, but also more rewarding.

Choosing who does the work

When delegating to individuals the person you choose to do
the work should ideally have the knowledge, skills, experience,
motivation and time needed to get it done to your satisfaction. It is
your job as a manager or team leader to know your people – their
strengths and weaknesses, what they are good at or not so good
at, those who are willing to learn and those who, without good
cause, think that they know it all. You are looking for someone you
can trust. You don’t want to over-supervise, so you have to believe
that the person you select will get on with it and have the sense to
come to you when stuck or before making a bad mistake.
Frequently you will want to delegate work to an individual who
has less than the ideal experience, knowledge or skills. In these
cases, you should try to select someone who has intelligence,
natural aptitude and, above all, willingness to learn how to do the
job with help and guidance. This is how people develop, and the
90 Approaches to People Management

development of your team members should be your conscious aim

whenever you delegate.

Delegating – clarifying expectations

When you delegate you should clarify your expectations by
ensuring that the individual or team concerned understand:

● why the work needs to be done;

● what they are expected to do;
● the date by which they are expected to do it;
● the end results they are expected to achieve;
● the authority they have to make decisions;
● the problems they must refer back;
● the progress or completion reports they should submit;
● any guidance and support that will be available to them.

You have to consider how much guidance will be required on how

the work should be done. You don’t want to give directions in such
laborious detail that you run the risk of stifling initiative. Neither
do you want to infuriate people by explaining everything needlessly.
As long as you are reasonably certain that they will do the job to
your satisfaction without embarrassing you or seriously upsetting
people, exceeding the budget or breaking the law, let them get on
with it.

Monitoring performance
Delegation is not abdication. You are still accountable for the
results obtained by the members of your team collectively and
individually. The extent to which you need to monitor performance
and how you do so depends on the individuals concerned and the
nature of the task. If individuals or the team as a whole are inexperi­
enced generally or are being specifically asked to undertake an
 Delegating 91

unfamiliar task you may at first have to monitor performance

carefully. But the sooner you can relax and watch progress
informally the better. The ideal situation is when you are confident
that the individual or team will deliver the results you want with
the minimum of supervision. In such cases you may only ask for
exception reports periodically.

Exercise 12.1
How good a delegator are you?

Check how good you are at delegating by selecting the

appropriate response to the following statements. Use the
outcome as a basis for taking any actions you think would
reduce the problem and improve your approach to delegation.

Frequency of behaviour Any

Behaviour as a action
delegator Often Occasionally Never required

1 Do you have to
take work home
at night?
2 Do you work
longer hours
than those you
manage?
3 Are you
frequently
interrupted
because people
come to you
with questions
or for advice or
decisions?
92 Approaches to People Management

Frequency of behaviour Any

Behaviour as a action
delegator Often Occasionally Never required

4 Do you spend
part of your
working time
doing things for
others, which
they could do for
themselves?
5 Do you feel that
you have to keep
a close watch on
details if
someone is to
do a job right?
6 Do you get
involved in
details because
you enjoy them
although
someone else
could do them
well enough?
7 Do you lack
confidence in
the abilities of
your team
members so that
you are afraid to
risk them taking
on more
responsibility?
8 Do you fail to
ask your people
for ideas about
solving problems
that arise in their
work?
 Delegating 93

Frequency of behaviour Any

Behaviour as a action
delegator Often Occasionally Never required

9 Do you avoid
systematically
analysing and
assessing the
abilities of your
people in order
to plan
delegation?
10 Do you neglect
to provide
guidance and
coaching to less
experienced
people so that
you will be
confident that
you can delegate
more to them?

Key points

● Delegation takes place when you deliberately give someone

the authority to carry out a piece of work that you could have
decided to keep and carry out yourself.
● The main advantage of delegation is that it enables you to
focus on the things that really matter in your job – those
aspects that require your personal experience, skill and
knowledge.
● The main problem with delegation is that it can involve risk.
You cannot be absolutely sure that the person to whom you
94 Approaches to People Management

have delegated something will carry out the work as you

would wish.
● The tasks you delegate are ones that you don’t need to do
yourself. You are not just ridding yourself of the difficult,
tedious or unrewarding tasks. Neither are you trying simply to
win for yourself an easier life. In some ways delegation will
make your life more difficult, but also more rewarding.
● You should always delegate by the results you expect.
● When you delegate you should ensure that the individuals or
team concerned understand why the work needs to be done,
what they are expected to do, the authority they have to make
decisions and the progress reports they should submit.
● Delegation is not abdication. You are still accountable for the
results obtained by the members of your team collectively and
individually. You have to monitor performance but avoid
breathing down people’s necks.
13
Selection
interviewing

A s a manager one of your most important people management

tasks will be to interview candidates for a position on your
team. Even when an HR department is involved the final decision
is yours or at least shared between you and your boss. The problem
is that many managers think that they are good at selecting people
but aren’t. This is often revealed by an analysis of leavers, which
shows that a large proportion leave in the first six months, about
one in five according to a recent national survey. Interviewing is a
skilled process and the aim of this chapter is to help you develop
the skills required by first defining the purpose of a selection inter-
view and then describing the three stages of the process: prepar­
ation, conducting the interview and assessing the data.

The purpose of a selection interview

The purpose of a selection interview is to provide you with the
answers to three fundamental questions:

1 Can the individual do the job? Is the person capable of doing the
work to the standard required?
2 Will the individual do the job? Is the person well motivated?
3 How is the individual likely to fit into the team? Will everyone
be able to work well with this person?
96 Approaches to People Management

But you have to plan the structure of the interview to achieve

its purpose and decide in advance the questions you need to ask –
questions that will give you what you need to make an accurate
assessment.
Overall, an effective approach to interviewing can be summed
up as the three Cs:

● Content – the information you want and the questions you ask
to get it.
● Contact – your ability to make and maintain good contact with
candidates; to establish the sort of rapport that will encourage
them to talk freely, thus revealing their strengths and their
weaknesses.
● Control – your ability to control the interview so that you get
the information you want.

All this requires you to plan the interview thoroughly in terms of

content, timing, structure and use of questions.

Preparing for the interview

Your first step in preparing for an interview is to ensure you under-
stand exactly what you are looking for in terms of qualifications,
experience and personality. This can be recorded in a person speci-
fication. At this stage you can usefully prepare questions that you
can put to all candidates to obtain the information you require.
These might be extended by what are called work sample tests
that give an indication of how well the candidate would perform
important parts of the job. Preparing questions in advance means
that you can conduct what is called a structured interview. This is
one that is based on a defined framework in which every candidate
is asked the same pertinent questions and their answers are com-
pared systematically. Research has shown that such an interview is
 Selection Interviewing 97

the best way to achieve an accurate prediction of how someone

will perform in a role, which is what you are aiming to do.
You should then look at the information candidates provide
for themselves in, for example, their CVs and application forms
or letters. This will identify any special questions you should ask
about their career or to fill in the gaps – ‘What does this gap
between jobs C and D signify?’ – although you would not put the
question as baldly as that; it would be better to say something like:
‘I see there was a gap of six months between when you left your
job in C and started in D. Would you mind telling me what you
were doing during this time?’
You should decide at this stage how long you want to spend on
each interview. As a rule of thumb, 45 to 60 minutes are usually
required for senior professional or technical appointments. Middle-
ranking jobs need about 30 to 45 minutes. The more routine jobs
can be covered in 20 to 30 minutes. But the time allowed depends
on the job and you do not want to insult a candidate by conducting
a superficial interview.
When planning interviews you should give some thought to
how you are going to sequence your questions. The most popular
approach is the chronological biographical interview, which starts
with the first job or even before that at school and, if appropriate,
college or university. The succeeding jobs, if any, are then dealt
with in turn ending with the present job on which most time is
spent if the candidate has been in it for a reasonable time. If you
are not careful, however, using the chronological method for some­
one who has had a number of jobs can mean spending too much
time on the earlier jobs, leaving insufficient time for the most
important recent experiences. To overcome this problem, an alter­
native biographical approach is to start with the present job, which
is discussed in some depth. The interviewer then works backwards,
job by job, but only concentrating on particularly interesting or
relevant experience in earlier jobs. The problem with the bio­
graphical approach is that you can easily miss an important piece
of information by concentrating on a succession of jobs rather
98 Approaches to People Management

than focusing on key aspects of the candidates’ experience, which

illustrate their capabilities.
Another approach is the targeted interview, which is based on
an analysis of the person specification in order to identify the
criteria you will use to judge the suitability of the candidate. You
‘target’ these key criteria during the interview by asking appropriate
questions about their qualifications and experience. You can decide
on the questions you need to ask to draw out from candidates
information about their experience, knowledge, skills, capabilities
and personal qualities, which can be compared with the criteria to
assess the extent to which candidates meet the specification. This is
probably the best way of focusing your interview to ensure that
you get all the information you require about candidates for
comparison with the person specification. It can be combined with
a biographical approach by ensuring that the targeted information
is obtained from a discussion of the candidate’s job experience,
especially in their more recent jobs.

Conducting the interview

The interview should be ‘a conversation with a purpose’. It is a
conversation because candidates should be given the opportunity
to talk freely about themselves and their careers. But the con­
versation has to be planned, directed and controlled to achieve
your aims in the time available.
Your task as an interviewer is to draw candidates out to ensure
that you get the information you want. Candidates should be
encouraged to do most of the talking – one of the sins besetting
poor interviewers is that they talk too much. The content of an
interview can be categorized into three sections: beginning, middle
and end.
 Selection Interviewing 99

Beginning
At the start of the interview you should put candidates at their
ease. You want them to talk freely in response to your questions.
They won’t do this if you plunge in too abruptly. At least welcome
them and thank them for coming to the interview, expressing
genuine pleasure about the meeting. But don’t waste too much time
talking about their journey or the weather.

Middle
The middle part of the interview is where you find out what you
need to know about candidates. It should take at least 80 per cent
of the time, leaving, say, 5 per cent at the beginning and 15 per cent
at the end. In a structured interview (highly desirable) the questions
aim to provide information on: the extent to which the knowledge,
skills, capabilities, experience and personal qualities of candidates
meet the person specification.
Open questions are the best ones to use to get candidates to talk
– to draw them out. These are questions that cannot be answered
by a yes or no and which encourage a full response. Single-word
answers are seldom illuminating. It is a good idea to begin the
interview with one or two open questions, thus helping candidates
to settle in.
Open-ended questions or phrases inviting a response can be
phrased as follows:

● I’d like you to tell me about the sort of work you are doing in
your present job.
● What do you know about …?
● Could you give me some examples of ...?
● In what ways do you think your experience makes you suitable
to do this job?
100 Approaches to People Management

Probing questions are used to get further details or to ensure that

you are getting all the facts. You ask them when answers have been
too generalized or when you suspect that there may be some more
relevant information, which candidates have not disclosed. For
example:

● You’ve informed me that you have had experience in…. Could

you tell me more about what you did?
● Could you describe in more detail the equipment you use?
● What training have you had to operate your machine/equipment/
computer?
● Why do you think that happened?

Ten useful questions

The following are 10 useful questions from which you can select
any that are particularly relevant:

1 What are the most important aspects of your present job?

2 What do you think have been your most notable achievements
in your career to date?
3 What sorts of problems have you successfully solved in your
job recently?
4 What have you learnt from your present job?
5 What has been your experience in…?
6 What do you know about…?
7 What is your approach to handling…?
8 What particularly interests you in this job and why?
9 Now you have heard more about the job, would you please tell
me which aspects of your experience are most relevant?
10 Is there anything else about your career, which hasn’t come out
yet in this interview, but you think I ought to hear?

You should be aware of the common mistakes that interviewers

make. These include:
 Selection Interviewing 101

● jumping to conclusions on a single piece of favourable evidence

– the ‘halo effect’;
● jumping to conclusions on a single piece of unfavourable
evidence – the ‘horns effect’;
● not weighing up the balance between the favourable and
unfavourable evidence logically and objectively;
● coming to firm conclusions on inadequate evidence;
● making snap or hurried judgements;
● making biased judgements on the grounds of sex, race, age,
disability, religion, appearance, accent, class or any aspect of the
candidate’s life history, circumstances or career that do not fit
your preconceptions of what you are looking for.

End
At the end of the interview you should give candidates the
opportunity to ask about the job and the company. How they do
this can often give you clues about the degree to which applicants
are interested and their ability to ask pertinent questions.
You may want to expand a little on the job if candidates are
promising and extol its attractive features. This is fine as long as
they are not exaggerated. To give a ‘realistic preview’, the possible
downsides should be mentioned, for example the need to travel or
unsocial working hours. If candidates are clearly unsuitable you
can tactfully help them to deselect themselves by referring to
aspects of the work that may not appeal to them, or for which they
are not really qualified. At this stage you should ask final questions
about the availability of candidates, as long as they are promising.
You can ask when they would be able to start and about any
holiday arrangements to which they are committed.
You should also ask their permission to obtain references from
their present and previous employers. They might not want you to
approach their present employer and in this case you should tell
them that if they are made an offer of employment it would be
102 Approaches to People Management

conditional on a satisfactory reference from that employer. It is

useful to ensure that you have the names of people you can
approach.
Finally, you inform candidates of what happens next. If some
time could elapse before they hear from you, they should be told
that you will be writing as soon as possible but that there will be
some delay (don’t make a promise you will be unable to keep).
It is not normally good practice to inform candidates of your
decision at the end of the interview. You should take time to reflect
on their suitability and you don’t want to give them the impression
that you are making a snap judgement.

Coming to a conclusion
Your conclusion will be reached by comparing your assessment of
each of the candidates against one another. If any candidate fails in
an area that is critical to success, they should be rejected. You can’t
take a chance. Your choice should be made between the candidates
who reach an acceptable standard against each of the criteria. You
can then come to an overall judgement by reference to their
assessments under each heading and their career history as to
which one is most likely to succeed.
In the end, your decision between qualified candidates may well
be judgemental. There may be one outstanding candidate but quite
often there are two or three. In these circumstances you have to
come to a balanced view on which one is more likely to fit the job
and the organization and have potential for a long-term career, if
this is possible. Don’t, however, settle for second best in desperation.
It is better to try again.
Remember to make and keep notes of the reasons for your
choice and why candidates have been rejected. These together with
the applications should be kept for at least six months just in case
your decision is challenged as being discriminatory.
 Selection Interviewing 103

Exercise 13.1
Selection interviewing skills

Name at least six things that someone interviewing a candidate

should bear in mind.

Key points

● As a manager one of your most important people management

tasks will be to interview candidates for a position on your
team.
● Overall, an effective approach to interviewing can be summed
up as the three Cs: (1) Content – the information you want and
the questions you ask to get it; (2) Contact – your ability to
make and maintain good contact with candidates; to establish
the sort of rapport that will encourage them to talk freely, thus
revealing their strengths and their weaknesses; (3) Control
– your ability to control the interview so that you get the
information you want.
● The content of an interview can be categorized into three
sections: (1) at the start of the interview you should put
candidates at their ease; (2) the middle part of the interview is
where you find out what you need to know about candidates;
(3) the end when you give candidates the opportunity to ask
about the job and the company.
● The two basic ways of conducting interviews are the
biographical approach and the targeted approach.
● The most important interviewing technique you need to
acquire and practise is questioning to establish if the
candidate can and will do the job and will fit into the team.
104 Approaches to People Management

● If you have carried out a good interview you should have the
data to assess the extent to which candidates meet each of
the key points in the person specification. You can summarize
your assessments by marking candidates against each of the
points – ‘exceeds specification’, ‘fully meets specification’,
‘just meets the minimum specification’, ‘does not meet the
minimum specification’.
14
Developing
people

A s a manager or team leader you need skilled, knowledgeable

and competent people in your department or team. You may
appoint able people from within and outside the organization but
most of them will still have a lot to learn about their jobs. And to
improve your team members’ performance you must not only en-
sure that they learn the basic skills they need but also that they
develop those skills to enable them to perform even better when
faced with new demands and challenges.

How learning happens in the

workplace
Research has established that 70 per cent of learning takes place
as a result of the individual’s work experience, 20 per cent from
colleagues (social learning) and only 10 per cent from formal
training courses. Thus 90 per cent of learning happens at the place
of work, much of it informally. This is sometimes called ‘learning
in the flow of work’, which is learning by gaining personal
experience and learning from colleagues through observation or
obtaining guidance from them. Learning can be supplemented by
the organization through such activities as e-learning (the delivery
of learning opportunities and support via computer and web-based
technology). Social media is increasingly being used in organizations
106 Approaches to People Management

as a learning and development aid through enterprise social

networks – Facebook-like platforms that sit within organizations.
Formal ‘off-the-job’ training courses may also be made available
within or outside the organization but they are less used nowadays,
except to teach specific skills.

How managers help people to learn

The fact that learning mainly happens in the workplace means
that the onus is on managers to ensure that favourable conditions
for ‘learning in the flow of work’ exist generally, while taking the
specific steps described below to help individuals learn.

Induction (onboarding) training

You are initially involved in helping people to learn every time
you welcome new members of your team, plan how they are going
to acquire the know-how required, provide for them to receive
systematic guidance and instruction on the tasks they have to carry
out and see that the plan is implemented. As a manager you may
delegate the responsibility for providing this induction training to
a team leader, or as a team leader you may carry it out yourself –
the ideal method – or delegate it to a team member. Whichever
approach you use you should be confident that the individual
responsible for the induction has the right temperament and skills
to do it. This includes the use of job instruction, coaching and
mentoring as described later.

Continuous learning
You provide learning opportunities for team members every time
you delegate tasks to them. At the briefing stage you ensure that
they are fully aware of what they have to do and have the knowledge
and skills to do it. If appropriate, you ask them to tell you what
 Developing People 107

they need to know and be able to do to carry out the task. If you
are unsure that they have all the skills required but still believe that
they can do it with additional guidance or help, then this is what
you provide or arrange for someone else to do so.
As you monitor progress to whatever degree is necessary (for
some people you will just let them get on with it; for less-experienced
people you might need to monitor more closely), you can follow up
to find out if the best approach is being used and, if not, give them
any further help they need. But you must be careful. People will not
learn if you do it all for them. You have to give them a chance to
find things out for themselves and even make mistakes as long as
things are not going badly wrong.
When you review outcomes with people, preferably immediately
after the event, it is a good idea to ask them what they have learnt
so that it is reinforced for future use. You can also ask them if their
experience has shown what they need to learn. This is a good
opportunity for you to get individuals to develop their own learning
plans (self-managed learning) but it also means that you can step
in and offer your support.

Job instruction
When you arrange for people to learn specific tasks, the learning
will be more effective if you use or arrange for someone to use job
instruction techniques. The sequence of instruction should consist
of the following stages.

Preparation
Preparation means that the trainer must have a plan for presenting
the subject matter and using appropriate teaching methods, visual
aids and demonstration aids. It also means preparing trainees for
the instruction that is to follow. They should want to learn. They
must perceive that the learning will be relevant and useful to them
personally. They should be encouraged to take pride in their job and
to appreciate the satisfaction that comes from skilled performance.
108 Approaches to People Management

Presentation
Presentation should consist of a combination of telling and showing
– explanation and demonstration. Explanation should be as simple
and direct as possible: the trainer explains briefly the ground to be
covered and what to look for. They make the maximum use of
charts, diagrams and other visual aids. The aim should be to teach
first things first and then proceed from the known to the unknown,
the simple to the complex, the concrete to the abstract, the general
to the particular, the observation to reasoning, and the whole to the
parts and back to the whole again.

Demonstration
Demonstration is an essential stage in instruction, especially when
the skill to be learnt is mainly a doing skill. Demonstration can
take place in three stages:

1 The complete operation is shown at normal speed to show the

trainee how the task should be carried out eventually.
2 The operation is demonstrated slowly and in correct sequence,
element by element, to indicate clearly what is done and the
order in which each task is carried out.
3 The operation is demonstrated again slowly, at least two or
three times, to stress the how, when and why of successive
movements.
4 The learner then practises by imitating the instructor and
constantly repeating the operation under guidance. The aim is
to reach the target level of performance for each element of the
total task, but the instructor must constantly strive to develop
coordinated and integrated performance; that is, the smooth
combination of the separate elements of the task into a whole
job pattern.

Follow up
Follow up continues during the training period for all the time
required by the learner to reach a level of performance equal to the
 Developing People 109

terms of quality, speed and attention to safety. During the follow

up stage, the learner will continue to need help with particularly
difficult tasks or to overcome temporary setbacks, which result in
a deterioration of performance. The instructor may have to repeat
the presentation for the elements and supervise practice more
closely until the trainee regains confidence or masters the task.

Coaching
Coaching is a one-to-one method of helping people develop their
skills and competencies. Coaching is often provided by specialists
from inside or outside the organization who concentrate on specific
areas of skills or behaviour, for example leadership. But it is also
something that happens in the workplace. As a manager or team
leader you should be prepared and able to act as a coach when
necessary to see that learning takes place.
Coaching is part of the normal process of management. It
involves:

● making people aware of how well they are performing by, for
example, asking them questions to establish the extent to which
they have thought through what they are doing;
● controlled delegation – ensuring that individuals not only know
what is expected of them but also understand what they need to
know and be able to do to complete the task satisfactorily; this
gives managers an opportunity to provide guidance at the outset,
as guidance at a later stage may be seen as interference;
● using whatever situations may arise as opportunities to promote
learning;
● encouraging people to look at higher-level problems and how
they would tackle them.

Mentoring
As a manager you may be asked to act as a mentor and you should
receive guidance on what this means. Mentoring is the process of
using specially selected and trained individuals to provide guidance,
110 Approaches to People Management

pragmatic advice and continuing support, which will help the

person or persons allocated to them to learn and develop. It can be
regarded as a method of helping people to learn as distinct from
coaching, which is a relatively directive means of increasing
people’s competence.
Mentoring means learning on the job, which must always be the
best way of acquiring the particular skills and knowledge the job
holder needs. It also complements formal training by providing
those who benefit from it with individual guidance from experienced
managers who are ‘wise in the ways of the organization’.
Mentors provide people with:

● general help with learning programmes:

● guidance on how to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills
to do a new job;
● advice on dealing with any administrative, technical or people
problems individuals meet, especially in the early stages of their
careers;
● coaching in specific skills;
● help in tackling projects – not by doing it for them but by
pointing them in the right direction; helping people to help
themselves;
● a parental figure with whom individuals can discuss their
aspirations and concerns and who will lend a sympathetic ear to
their problems.

A version of mentoring that you can use within your department is

what in the United States is sometimes called ‘buddying’. This
involves appointing someone in your department or team to look
after newcomers and to ensure that they get the guidance and help
they need to settle down quickly.
 Developing People 111

Exercise 14.1
What managers can do about learning and development

Explain what managers can do to promote learning and

development in their departments.

Key points

● As a manager or team leader you need skilled, knowledgeable

and competent people in your department or team.
● Most learning happens informally at the place of work –
‘learning in the flow of work’.
● Your role is to ensure that conditions in your department or
team are conducive to learning.
● You should be aware of the knowledge and skills required to
carry out each job in your team so that you can plan the
learning programme required for new team members and
review the levels reached by existing team members to
identify any further learning needs.
● You provide learning opportunities for team members every
time you delegate tasks to them.
● You are initially involved in helping people to learn every time
you welcome new members of your team.
● Coaching is a one-to-one method of helping people develop
their skills and competencies.
● As a manager you may be asked to act as a mentor and you
should receive guidance on what is involved.
112 Approaches to People Management

● Mentoring is the process of using specially selected and

trained individuals to provide guidance, pragmatic advice and
continuing support, which will help the person or persons
allocated to them to learn and develop.
● When you arrange for people to learn specific tasks,
especially those involving manual skills, the learning will be
more effective if you use or arrange for someone to use job
instruction techniques. The sequence of instruction should
consist of the following stages: preparation, presentation,
demonstration and follow up.
15
Rewarding
people

P eople will contribute more and cooperate more fully when you
recognize them for what they achieve and ensure that they feel
they have been rewarded fairly. Although many organizations have
some form of reward system, usually managed by the HR function,
it is the front-line manager who exerts the greatest influence on
how people are valued. The extent to which line managers are
responsible for rewarding people varies according to the system
used, if one is used at all. Managers in public and most voluntary
sector organizations in the UK exert little influence on the financial
aspects of reward. There may be a pay spine with fixed increments
related to service and, probably, a job evaluation scheme, which
dictates job gradings and therefore pay. However, in many small-
or even medium-sized organizations there is no formal reward
system and managers have a considerable degree of freedom in
managing pay.
Reference has been made above to ‘reward systems’ and if you
are working in an organization with one, it is necessary to
understand what this term means, and this is explained in the first
part of the chapter. The overall approach you should adopt to
rewarding people, whether or not there is a system, is discussed in
the next part.
114 Approaches to People Management

Reward systems
A reward system consists of explicit practices and procedures that
are organized and managed as a whole. A complete system is based
on reward policies, which set guidelines for decision making and
action. For example, an organization may have a policy that sets
the levels of pay in the organization in line with average market
rates. The system itself consists of the arrangements for grading
jobs, deciding on rates of pay and reviewing pay levels, grade and
pay structures, methods of progressing pay such as performance-
related pay, and employee benefits such as pension schemes and
sick pay. If you want to play your part in managing the reward
system you must understand how it works. You should be told this
by HR but, if not, it’s up to you to find out.

Approaches to rewarding people

You need to know the factors that determine the effectiveness of
the formal or informal system in terms of how well it contributes
to the motivation and engagement of employees. These factors
consist of the use of both financial and non-financial rewards (a
total reward system) and how the system is operated as a fair, equit-
able, consistent and transparent approach to rewarding people.

Financial and non-financial rewards

Financial rewards consist of the rate for the job (base pay), pay
related to performance or contribution (merit pay) and benefits
such as pension schemes. To be effective such rewards should be
perceived as fair, equitable and consistent. They will work better if
the system is transparent. People should expect that their efforts
will lead to a worthwhile reward. There must also be a ‘line of
sight’ between what they do and what they get, between the effort
and the reward.
 Rewarding People 115

Daniel Pink (2009) produced a comprehensive critique of

financial rewards, listing the following seven deadly sins:

1 They can extinguish intrinsic motivation.

2 They can diminish performance.
3 They can crush creativity.
4 They can crowd out good behaviour.
5 They can encourage cheating, shortcuts and unethical behaviour.
6 They can become addictive.
7 They can foster short-term thinking.

Non-financial rewards can provide a better basis for valuing people

because they are more under your control. Financial rewards are
restricted by financial budgets and company procedures. The main
ways of valuing people through non-financial rewards are:

● Recognizing their contribution by praise and by ‘applause’

(letting others know how well you value someone).
● Giving people more responsibility (empowering them).
● Providing them with the opportunity to achieve.
● Providing them with the opportunity to grow – offering learning
opportunities, encouraging and supporting the preparation and
implementation of personal development plans and broadening
their experience (job enlargement).

Managing without a reward system

If you do not have the support of a formal reward system or a
helpful HR department, you may largely have to make decisions
yourself on what people should be paid. You may have to get
approval from a higher authority and you may have to work
within a budget, but you are virtually on your own when you deal
with your staff. In these circumstances there are 10 things you
should do.
116 Approaches to People Management

Managing your own reward system

1 Remember that you are attempting to achieve internal equity

(paying people according to their relative contribution) at the
same time as being externally competitive (paying rates that
will attract and retain the level of people you need).
2 Appreciate that it is often difficult to reconcile equity and
competitiveness.
3 Obtain information on market rates from reliable sources
(surveys and agencies). Do not rely on job advertisements.
4 If you have to bow to market forces make certain that you
have got your facts right and that the case for what is
sometimes called a market supplement can be objectively
justified.
5 Take steps to ensure that equal pay is provided for work of
equal value.
6 Try to obtain objective reasons for differentiating between the
base pay of different jobs. While you need not go to the
extreme of developing your own analytical job evaluation
scheme, you can at least compare jobs by reference to role
profiles, which indicate the levels of responsibility and
knowledge and skills they involve.
7 Review basic rates of pay by reference to market rates, not
just to increases in the cost of living.
8 When looking at individual rates of pay consider what people
are earning in relation to their colleagues. Ask yourself the
questions: are they just as good, are they better, are they
worse than their colleagues? Rank your team members in
order by reference to their relative levels of contribution. Give
the top 15 per cent or so an above-average increase, the
bottom 15 per cent or so a below-average increase and the
rest an average increase.
 Rewarding People 117

9 Consider other methods of rewarding your people besides

pay, especially recognizing their contribution.
10 Ensure that your team members know the basis upon which
you have made decisions about their pay and give them the
opportunity to raise any of their concerns.

Exercise 15.1
Managing performance-related pay

If your organization introduced performance-related pay for the

first time, what should you do to make it a success?

Key points

● People will contribute more and cooperate more

wholeheartedly if they feel that they are valued.
● This happens when you recognize them for what they achieve
and reward them according to their contribution.
● A reward system consists of explicit policies, practices and
procedures, which are organized and managed as a whole.
● Financial rewards consist of the rate for the job (base pay),
pay related to performance or contribution (merit pay) and
benefits such as pension schemes.
● Non-financial rewards can provide a better basis for valuing
people because they are more under your control. They
include recognizing their contribution, providing them with the
opportunity to achieve and grow; and giving them more
responsibility.
● If there is a grade and pay structure, those parts of the
organization’s reward system in the form of its job evaluation
118 Approaches to People Management

scheme and its procedures for analysing market rates largely

determine how jobs are graded and the basic rates for jobs.
● If your organization has a scheme for relating individual pay to
performance you will be involved in determining the amounts
people should get.
16
Managing
change

C hange is the only constant thing that happens in organizations.

There can be few managers who have never had to meet the
challenge of introducing a new organization structure, new methods
of working, a revision to job duties, new management systems or
alterations to terms and conditions of employment.
The challenge arises because people can find change difficult to
accept or to cope with. Many people resist change, any change.
Some may accept the need for change but can’t adjust their behav-
iour to respond to it. There are some people who welcome change
but they are probably in the minority.
Your role as a manager is to see that change happens smoothly
when the occasion arises. To do this you should know about the
process of change, the reasons why people resist change, how to
over­come this resistance, and the specific steps you can take to
introduce change and ensure that it takes place as planned.

The change process

The change process starts with an awareness of the need for change.
An analysis of this situation and the factors that have created it
leads to a diagnosis of their distinctive characteristics and an indi-
cation of the direction in which action needs to be taken. Possible
courses of action can next be identified and evaluated and a choice
made of the preferred action. It is then necessary to decide how to
120 Approaches to People Management

get from here to there. Managing change during this transition

state is a critical phase in the change process. It is here that the
problems of introducing change emerge and have to be managed.
These problems can include resistance to change, instability, high
levels of stress, misdirected energy, conflict and loss of momentum.
Hence the need to do everything possible to anticipate reactions
and likely impediments to the introduction of change.
The final stage in which the new structure, system or process is
installed can also be demanding, indeed painful. As described by
Pettigrew and Whipp (1991), the implementation of change is an
‘iterative, cumulative and reformulation-in-use process’.
The next issue is how to ‘hold the gains’, i.e. how to ensure that
the change is embedded and maintained. This means continuously
monitoring the effects and impact of the change and taking
corrective action where necessary to ensure that it continues to
work well.

Resistance to change
Change management programmes have to take account of the fact
that many people resist change. There are those who are stimulated
by change and see it as a challenge and an opportunity. But they are
in the minority. It is always easy for people to select any of the
following 10 reasons for doing nothing:

1 It won’t work
2 We’re already doing it
3 It’s been tried before without success
4 It’s not practical
5 It won’t solve the problem
6 It’s too risky
7 It’s based on pure theory
8 It will cost too much
 Managing Change 121

9 It will antagonize the customers/management/the union/the

workers/the shareholders
10 It will create more problems than it solves

Reasons for resistance to change

People resist change when they see it as a threat to their established
life at work. They are used to their routines and patterns of
behaviour and may be concerned about their ability to cope with
new demands. They see change as a threat to familiar patterns of
behaviour. They may believe that it will affect their status, security
or earnings. Sometimes, and with good reason, they may not
believe statements by management that the change is for their
benefit as well as that of the organization. They may feel that
managements have ulterior motives and sometimes, the louder
management protests, the less it will be believed.

Overcoming resistance to change

Because resistance to change is a natural and even inevitable
phenomenon it may be difficult to overcome. But the attempt must
be made. This starts with an analysis of the likely effect on change
and the extent to which it might be resisted, by whom and why. It
is not enough to think about what the change will be and calculate
the benefits and costs from the proposer’s point of view. The others
involved will almost inevitably see the benefits as less and the costs
as greater. It is necessary to ‘think through’ the proposed change
and obtain answers to the following questions:

● Will the change alter job content?

● Will it introduce new and unknown tasks?
● Will it disrupt established methods of working?
● Will it rearrange team relationships?
● Will it reduce autonomy or authority?
122 Approaches to People Management

● Will it be perceived as lowering status?

● Will it lead to job losses?
● Will it result in a loss of pay or other benefits?

It is also necessary to answer the question: ‘What are the benefits in

pay, status, job satisfaction and career prospects that are generated
by the change as well as the increase in performance?’
Resistance to change may never be overcome completely but it
can be reduced through involvement and communications.

Involvement
Involvement in the change process gives people the chance to raise
and resolve their concerns and make suggestions about the form of
the change and how it should be introduced. The aim is to get
‘ownership’ – a feeling among people that the change is something
that they are happy to live with because they have been involved in
its planning and introduction – it has become their change.

Communicating plans for change

The first and most critical step for managing change is to develop
and communicate a clear image of the future. Resistance and
confusion frequently develop because people are unclear about
what the future state will be like. Thus the purposes of the change
become blurred, and individual expectancies get formed on the
basis of incorrect information.
Communications should describe why change is necessary, what
the changes will look like, how they will be achieved and how
people will be affected by them. The aim is to ensure that
unnecessary fears are allayed by keeping people informed using a
variety of methods – written communications, the intranet and,
best of all, face-to-face briefings and discussions.
 Managing Change 123

Ten guidelines for change management

1 The achievement of sustainable change requires strong

commitment and visionary leadership.
2 Proposals for change should be based on a convincing
business case supported by a practical programme for
implementing the change and reaping the benefits.
3 Change is inevitable. It is necessary to explain why change
is essential and how it will affect everyone.
4 Hard evidence and data on the need for change are the most
powerful tools for its achievement, but establishing the need
for change is easier than deciding how to satisfy it.
5 People support what they help to create. Commitment to
change is improved if those affected by change are allowed
to participate as fully as possible in planning and
implementing it. The aim should be to get them to ‘own’ the
change as something they want and will be glad to live with.
6 Change will always involve failure as well as success. The
failures must be expected and learnt from.
7 It is easier to change behaviour by changing processes,
structure and systems than to change attitudes.
8 There are always people in organizations who can act as
champions of change. They will welcome the challenges and
opportunities that change can provide. They are the ones to
choose to facilitate the change – to act as change agents.
9 Resistance to change is inevitable if the individuals
concerned feel that they are going to be worse off –
implicitly or explicitly. The inept management of change will
produce that reaction.
10 Every effort must be made to protect the interests of those
affected by change.
124 Approaches to People Management

Exercise 16.1
Managing change

You have to introduce a major change in the working methods of

your department, which has a staff of 25 people mainly engaged
on routine administrative activities. The change will include the
introduction of a new computer system and a considerable
redistribution of work around the department. Four or five
employees will be surplus to requirements.
How do you plan the change?

Key points

● Change is the only constant thing that happens in organizations.

● The challenge arises because people can find change difficult
to accept or to cope with.
● The change process consists of:
● an awareness of the need for change;
● a diagnosis of the distinctive characteristics of the change
and an indication of the direction in which action needs to
be taken;
● the identification of possible courses of action and the
choice of the preferred action;
● a decision on how to get from here to there (managing the
transition);
● implementing the change.
● People resist change when they see it as a threat to familiar
patterns of behaviour. They may believe that it will affect their
status, security or their earnings.
● Resistance to change may never be overcome completely but
it can be reduced through involvement and communication.
17
Managing
conflict

C onflict is inevitable in organizations because they function by

means of adjustments and compromises among competitive
elements in their structure and membership. Conflict can arise
when there is change, because it may be seen as a threat to be chal-
lenged or resisted, or when there is frustration – this may produce
an aggressive reaction: fight rather than flight.
Conflict is not always to be deplored. It may result from progress
and change and it can be used constructively. Bland agreement on
everything would be unnatural and enervating. There should be
clashes of ideas about tasks and projects, and disagreements should
not be suppressed. They should come out into the open because
that is the only way to ensure that the issues are explored and
conflicts are resolved.
There is such a thing as creative conflict – new or modified ideas,
insights, approaches and solutions can be generated by a joint re-
examination of different points of view as long as this is based on
an objective and rational exchange of information and opinions.
But conflict becomes counterproductive when it is based on per-
sonality clashes, or when it is treated as an unseemly mess to be
hurriedly cleared away, rather than as a problem to be worked
through. Conflict management resolution deals with ways of
settling differences between groups and handling interpersonal
conflicts between individuals.
126 Approaches to People Management

Handling inter-group conflict

There are three principal ways of resolving inter-group conflict, i.e.
conflict between different groups of people in the organization:
peaceful coexistence, compromise and problem solving.

Peaceful coexistence
The aim here is to smooth out differences and emphasize the
common ground. People are encouraged to learn to live together,
there is a good deal of information, contact and exchange of views,
and individuals move freely between groups (for example, between
headquarters and the field, or between sales and marketing).
This is a pleasant ideal, but it may not be practicable in many
situations. There is much evidence that conflict is not necessarily
resolved by bringing people together. Improved communications
and techniques such as briefing groups (formal arrangements for
communicating information) may appear to be good ideas but are
useless if management has nothing to say that people want to hear.
There is also the danger that the real issues, submerged for the
moment in an atmosphere of superficial bonhomie, will surface
again later.

Compromise
The issue is resolved by negotiation or bargaining and neither
party wins or loses. This concept of splitting the difference is
essentially pessimistic. The hallmark of this approach is that there
is no ‘right’ or ‘best’ answer. Agreements only accommodate differ-
ences. Real issues are not likely to be solved.

Problem solving
An attempt is made to find a genuine solution to the problem
rather than just accommodating different points of view. This is
 Managing Conflict 127

where the apparent paradox of ‘creative conflict’ comes in. Conflict

situations can be used to advantage in order to create better
solutions.
If solutions are to be developed by problem solving, they have
to be generated by those who share the responsibility for seeing
that the solutions work. The sequence of actions is: first, those con-
cerned work to define the problem and agree on the objectives
to be attained in reaching a solution; second, the group develops
alternative solutions and debates their merits; and third, agreement
is reached on the preferred course of action and how it should be
implemented.

Handling interpersonal conflict

Handling conflict between individuals can be even more difficult
than resolving conflicts between groups. Whether the conflict is
openly hostile or subtly covert, strong personal feelings may be
involved. However, interpersonal conflict, like inter-group conflict,
is an organizational reality that is not necessarily good or bad. It
can be destructive, but it can also play a productive role. The
approaches to dealing with it are withdrawal, smoothing over
differences, reaching a compromise, counselling and constructive
confrontation.

Withdrawal
The reaction to interpersonal conflict may be the withdrawal of
either party, leaving the other one to hold the field. This is the
classic win/lose situation. The problem has been resolved by force,
but this may not be the best solution if it represents one person’s
point of view, which has ignored counter-arguments, and has, in
fact, steamrollered over them. The winner may be triumphant but
the loser will be aggrieved and either demotivated or resolved to
fight again another day. It can become a ‘zero-sum game’ in which
128 Approaches to People Management

the winner takes all and the loser gets nothing. There will have
been a lull in the conflict but not an end to it.

Smoothing over differences

Another approach is to smooth over differences and pretend that
the conflict does not exist, although no attempt has been made
to tackle the root causes. Again, this is an unsatisfactory solution.
The issue is likely to re-emerge and the battle will recommence.

Compromise
Yet another approach is bargaining to reach a compromise. This
means that both sides are prepared to lose as well as win some
points and the aim is to reach a solution acceptable to both sides.
Bargaining, however, involves all sorts of tactical and often counter­
productive games, and the parties are often more anxious to seek
acceptable compromises than to achieve sound solutions.

Counselling
Personal counselling is an approach that does not address the con-
flict itself but focuses on how the two people are reacting. It gives
people a chance to release pent-up tensions and may encourage
them to think about new ways of resolving the conflict. But it does
not address the essential nature of the conflict, which is the rela-
tionship between two people. That is why constructive confronta-
tion offers the best hope of a long-term solution.

Constructive confrontation
Constructive confrontation is a method of bringing the individuals
in conflict together with a third party whose function is to help
build an exploratory and cooperative climate. Constructive con­
frontation aims to get the parties involved to understand and
explore the other’s perceptions and feelings.
 Managing Conflict 129

To conclude, conflict, as has been said, is in itself not to be

deplored: it is an inevitable concomitant of progress and change.
What is regrettable is the failure to use conflict constructively.
Effective problem-solving and constructive confrontation both
resolve conflicts and open up channels of discussion and cooperative
action.

Exercise 17.1
Managing conflict

Have you ever had to manage a conflict situation? If so, how did
you do it? Looking back, are there any ways you could have
managed it better?

Exercise 17.2
Case study: Managing conflict

In your department you have two team leaders who strongly

disagree about who should be responsible for a particularly
interesting and rewarding aspect of the work of the department.
They each think that the work would fit best within their remit
and that they and their team are best qualified to do it. The
argument is becoming increasingly strident and disruptive. Both
leaders have strong characters and may find it hard to concede
the issue. You think there are powerful arguments on both sides
and have your own views on what is best. But these team
leaders are valuable members of your department and you don’t
want to upset them by imposing a solution unless that is
unavoidable.

How do you tackle this situation?

130 Approaches to People Management

Key points

● Conflict is inevitable in organizations because they function

by means of adjustments and compromises among
competitive elements in their structure and membership.
● There are three principal ways of resolving inter-group
conflict: peaceful coexistence, compromise and problem
solving.
● The approaches to dealing with it are withdrawal, smoothing
over differences, reaching a compromise, counselling and
constructive confrontation.
Part 6
Handling
people
problems and
issues
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
18
Approaches to
handling people
problems

I f you manage people you will have people problems. They are
bound to happen and you are the person on the spot who has
to handle them.

Principles
Good advice on handling people problems was provided by Alison
Green in her book Ask a Manager (2019). She set out the following
four principles:

1 The kindest thing you can do for your staff members is to be

really clear with them. You will not be able to avoid having
tough conversations with your staff. Don’t put them off. You
will only make things worse.
2 Your tone matters… a lot. Be clear and distinct when dealing
with a problem but your tone can still be kind and compassionate.
3 Talk, don’t scold. Often all you need to do is to make the point
that you are concerned about something by simply talking over
what happened, why it happened and how to avoid the problem
in the future.
134 Handling People Problems and Issues

4 With particularly tough or sticky situations, try writing out

talking points and practising them beforehand. This will
structure your thoughts and ensure that you make the key
points.

Approach
The basic approach you should use in tackling people problems
is to:

1 Get the facts. Make sure that you have all the information or
evidence you need to understand exactly what the problem is.
2 Weigh and decide. Analyse the facts to identify the causes of the
problem. Consider any alternative solutions to the problem and
decide which is likely to be the most successful.
3 Take action. Following the decision, plan what you are going to
do, establish goals and success criteria and put the plan into
effect.
4 Check results. Monitor the implementation of the plan and
check that the expected results have been obtained.
Exercise 18.1
Approaches to dealing with typical problems

Here are some typical people problems. Explain how you would handle them.

Problem Possible approach

Someone’s work is not good enough

Someone says their workload is too heavy

but you don’t think it is

Someone gets defensive when you give

them critical feedback

Someone makes a bad mistake

Someone makes a sexist or racist remark

Someone is bullying a colleague

136 Handling People Problems and Issues

Exercise 18.2
Case study: Creative disruption

The case

LDS (Learning and Development Services) Ltd is one of the

largest training providers in the UK. It has three divisions dealing
respectively with the delivery of in-company training courses,
organizing conferences and distance learning provision.
The in-company training division has 24 learning and
development advisers (previously called trainers) who work in
three groups dealing with different sectors, each headed by a
senior adviser who reports to the head of the division, Jon
Chadwick. They are supported by a learning services support
group whose role is to produce the e-learning material and
training aids such as PowerPoint slides and videos required by
the advisers. The policy of the firm is one of continuous
improvement and the re-use of old material for new clients, or
even existing clients, is frowned upon. The emphasis is on
innovation to produce compelling training aids. The support
group has five members (three women and two men) under their
group leader, Mary Thorne. Four group members are highly
experienced; one, Celia Gresham, is less experienced but makes
up for this with her enthusiasm.
One of the most senior learning and development advisers is
Louis Scatcherd (he refers to himself as a trainer), who is a
member of the group dealing with SME clients, managed by
Frank Peebles, who allows him to go largely his own way as a
valued member of his team. Louis is 43 and a specialist in
supervisor training. He is exceptionally good at this – almost
irreplaceable, and he knows it – and his speciality is his passion.
Perhaps it is for this reason that although he has been with the
firm longer than his group leader and is older, he was not
appointed to that position when it became vacant recently. But
Louis does not seem to care and gets on with it, largely on his
 Approaches to Handling People Problems 137

own, with help from the support group. Louis’ dedication is

prodigious – he devours work. It causes a certain amount of
disturbance. Most of the time he is a thoroughly friendly and
lively member of the group but he can be impatient, hot tempered
and is always very touchy about his work. He barely conceals his
opinion that he is the most important person in the group and he
is probably right.
For the last few months, Louis has virtually appropriated one
of the support group assistants, Celia. He always asks for her,
gives her interesting work to do and extols her virtues. In
consequence, Celia manages to evade a good deal of the more
tedious work. But the other members of the group are upset and
Mary Thorne, the group leader, occasionally allocates a different
group member to Louis’ work when Celia is busy and someone
else is free.
One day, Louis asked for Celia, but another woman turned up.
He was angry because he believed that Celia was best qualified
to produce exactly what he wanted. When the woman failed to
understand his briefing, he flew into a rage, sent her back and
demanded that Celia ‘who understands his work’ should be made
available to him. The woman was in tears. Mary was unwilling to
take Celia away from her urgent job and therefore went to Louis
and offered to do the work herself. But Louis, feeling that he was
being challenged, was rude and walked out of the room, leaving
Mary stranded.
Mary was distressed but resolute and went to see her boss,
Jon Chadwick, the head of the division. She felt that this problem
had to be dealt with at his level because Louis’ group leader, Frank
Peebles, was new, did not know the background and would
probably find it difficult to deal with Louis. She told Jon what had
happened and explained that she could not run the group if any
of its members were appropriated by one person. The morale of
the group was being damaged by Louis’ behaviour and she did
not see why she or anyone else should have to put up with it.
138 Handling People Problems and Issues

Jon had a word with Frank, who was slightly aggrieved that
Mary had not gone to him first but agreed that Jon should speak
to Jenny Stopford, the head of HR, to get her advice, and asked
to be kept in the loop.

Question

What advice should Jenny Stopford give?

Key points

● If you manage people you have to manage people problems.

They are bound to happen and you are the person on the spot
who has to handle them. The basic approach you should use
in tackling people problems is to:
● get the facts
● weigh and decide
● take action
● check results.
19
Dealing with
disciplinary
problems

T he most difficult disciplinary problems you are likely to face as

a manager are considering whether or not an employee should
be dismissed and then taking action if the decision is to dismiss.
Employees can be dismissed because they are not capable of doing
the work or for misconduct. It is normal to go through a formal
disciplinary procedure containing staged warnings but instant dis-
missal can be justified for gross misconduct (e.g. serious theft),
which should preferably be defined in the company’s disciplinary
procedure or employee handbook. But anyone in the UK with two
years’ service or more can claim unfair dismissal if their employer
cannot show that one of these reasons applied, if the dismissal was
not reasonable in the circumstances, if a constructive dismissal has
taken place (i.e. someone has felt they had to resign because of the
way they have been treated), or if there has been a breach of a cus-
tomary or agreed redundancy procedure and there are no valid
reasons for departing from that procedure.
In the UK, even if the employer can prove to an employment
tribunal that there was good reason to dismiss the employee, the
tribunal will still have to decide whether or not the employer acted
in a reasonable way at the time of dismissal. The principles defining
‘reasonable’ behaviour are in line with the principles of natural
justice and are as follows:
140 Handling People Problems and Issues

● the employee should be informed of the nature of the complaint;

● the employee should be given the chance to explain;
● the employee should be given the opportunity to improve,
except in particularly gross cases of incapability or misconduct;
● the employee should be warned of the consequences in the shape
of dismissal if specified improvements do not take place;
● the employer’s decision to dismiss should be based on sufficient
evidence;
● the employer should take any mitigating circumstances into
account;
● the offence or misbehaviour should merit the penalty of dismissal
rather than some lesser penalty;
● the employee should have the right to appeal.

Taking disciplinary action

Your organization may have a disciplinary procedure. You need to
know what that procedure is and the part you are expected to play
in implementing it. Whether or not there is a formal procedure, if
you believe that disciplinary action is necessary you need you take
the following steps when planning and conducting a disciplinary
interview:

1 Get all the facts in advance, including statements from people

involved.
2 Invite the employee to the meeting in writing, explaining why
it is being held and that they have the right to have someone
present at the meeting on their behalf.
3 Ensure that the employee has reasonable notice (ideally at least
two days).
4 Plan how you will conduct the meeting.
 Dealing With Disciplinary Problems 141

5 Line up another member of management to attend the meeting

with you to take notes (they can be important if there is an
appeal) and generally provide support.
6 Start the interview by stating the complaint to the employee
and referring to the evidence.
7 Give the employee plenty of time to respond and state their
case.
8 Take a break as required to consider the points raised and to
relieve any pressure taking place in the meeting.
9 Consider what action is appropriate, if any. Actions should be
staged, starting with a verbal warning, which should preferably
be recorded, followed, if the problem continues, by a first
written warning, then a final written warning and lastly, if the
earlier stages have been exhausted, disciplinary action, which
would be dismissal in serious cases.
10 Deliver the decision, explaining why it has been taken and
confirm it in writing.

Dismissing an employee
If all the stages in the disciplinary procedure have been completed
and the employee has to be dismissed, or where immediate dismissal
can be justified on the grounds of gross misconduct, you may have
to carry out the unpleasant duty of dismissing the employee. Again,
you should have a colleague or someone from HR with you when
you do this. You should:

1 If possible, meet when the office is quiet, preferably on a Friday.

2 Keep the meeting formal and organized.
3 Write down what you are going to say in advance, giving the
reason and getting your facts, dates and figures right.
4 Be polite but firm – read out what you have written down and
make it clear that it is not open for discussion.
Exercise 19.1
Disciplinary problems

Outline the action that might be taken in each of the following cases.

Case Action

Someone has been heard by several people

making racist remarks, in spite of having
been given a formal warning to desist after
a previous occurrence

Two employees have been caught fighting

on the premises

It is suspected that an employee who is

supposed to be working from home has not
been doing so
 Dealing With Disciplinary Problems 143

5 Ensure that the employee clears their desk and has no opportunity
to take away confidential material or use their computer.
6 See the employee off the premises – some companies use security
guards as escorts but this is rather heavy handed (although it
might be useful to have someone on call in case of difficulties).

Key point

● To deal with a discipline problem: (1) get all the facts; (2)
present the evidence to the employee: (3) give the employee
plenty of time to respond and state their case; (4) consider
what action is appropriate; (5) deliver the decision, explaining
why it has been taken and confirm it in writing.
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
20
Managing under-
performers

Y ou may possibly have someone in your team who is under-

performing. If so, what can you do about it? Essentially, you
have to spot that there is a problem, understand the cause of the
problem, decide on a remedy and make the remedy work.
Poor performance can be the fault of the individual but it could
arise because of bad leadership or problems in the system of work.
In the case of an individual the reason may be that they:

● could not do it – ability;

● did not know how to do it – skill;
● would not do it – attitude;
● did not fully understand what was expected of them.

Inadequate leadership from managers can be the cause of poor

performance from individuals. It is the manager’s responsibility to
specify the results expected and the levels of skill and competence
required. As likely as not, when people do not understand what
they have to do it is their manager who is to blame.
Performance can also be affected by the system of work. If this
is badly planned and organized or does not function well,
individuals cannot be blamed for the poor performance that results.
This is the fault of management and they must put it right.
If inadequate individual performance cannot be attributed to
poor leadership or the system of work, these are the 10 steps you
can take to deal with under-performers:
146 Handling People Problems and Issues

A 10-step approach to managing under-

performance

1 Identify the areas of under-performance – be specific.

2 Establish the causes of poor performance.
3 Agree on the action required.
4 Ensure that the necessary support (coaching, training, extra
resources, etc) is provided to ensure the action is
successful.
5 Monitor progress and provide feedback.
6 Provide additional guidance as required.
7 If under-performance persists, spell out precisely what
improvements are required and issue an informal warning
that if they are not achieved by a certain date disciplinary
action may be taken.
8 If there is no improvement consider an alternative job.
9 If there is no alternative and there is still no improvement,
issue a written warning that action in the shape of dismissal
may be taken if the unacceptable level of performance
continues.
10 If there is still no improvement, take the action required to
dismiss the employee.
Exercise 20.1
Managing under-performers

The following scenarios are examples of under-performance. What can be done about these problems?

What can be done about these

Scenario problems?

Jack is a CNC (computer numerical control) drill operator in a manufacturer of

‘white’ kitchen products. His drill uses G-code to move its spindle, to cut metal in
various locations and depths. It follows the machining code rigidly and all usually
goes well. Jack has simply to ensure that the right code is used and the machine
does the work while he looks on. But he has to be particularly alert to the possibility
of a ‘crash’. This can happen even in a CNC machine when, for some reason, it
functions outside the physical bounds of its drive mechanism, resulting in a
collision with itself or damage to the mechanism. It is Jack’s responsibility to spot
that this is about to happen and prevent it by shutting down and then resetting
the drill. Jack is experienced and has been regarded as a good and conscientious
operator who has never made a bad mistake and is an asset to the department.
However, unfortunately, last week he failed to spot that something was going
wrong. The result was damage to the machine and a serious interruption to the
production flow. He was reprimanded by his supervisor.
 What can be done about these
Scenario problems?

James is a technical author in a firm manufacturing and marketing television sets

and DVD players. His job is to produce documents that explain in user-friendly
language how to install and operate the equipment. James has been doing this
job well for three years but he appears to have lost interest. His output is patchy
and he no longer seems to want to get on well with his technical colleagues – a
key relationship. His document on the firm’s latest product is not as good as his
previous efforts. He has not produced operating guidelines that are as clear as
his previous efforts were.

Terry was recently promoted to fill the position of team leader, which became
vacant quite suddenly, in the maintenance department of a large manufacturing
company. He had been a very effective maintenance engineer but had no
experience in management. Unfortunately, the urgency with which the job had
to be filled meant that while Terry was briefed on his duties, he received no
specific training in management and leadership. His job is to lead a team that is
responsible for ensuring that all mechanical equipment is maintained to the
required standards of quality and availability and thus minimize downtime. The
problem is that targets for downtime are not being met, which is seriously
affecting the achievement of production plans. Members of his team have
complained that there is little sense of direction and they are no longer clear
about what they are expected to do.
 Managing Under-Performers 149

Key point

● Poor performance can be the fault of the individual but it

could arise because of bad leadership or problems in the
system of work. The main steps required to deal with under-
performance are: (1) identify cause; (2) agree action; (3)
provide support; (4) monitor progress and give feedback; (5)
take further action as necessary.
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
21
Dealing with
negative
behaviour

Y ou may well come across negative behaviour from time to time

on the part of one of the members of your team. This may take
the form of lack of interest in the work, unwillingness to cooperate
with you or other people, complaining without any justification
about the work or working conditions, grumbling at being asked
to carry out a perfectly reasonable task, objecting strongly to being
asked to do something extra (or even refusing to do it) – ‘it’s not in
my job description’, or, in extreme cases, insolence. People exhibit-
ing negative behaviour may be quietly resentful rather than openly
disruptive. They mutter away in the background at meetings and
lack enthusiasm.
As a manager you can tolerate a certain amount of negative
behaviour as long as the individual works reasonably well and
does not upset other team members. You have simply to say to
yourself ‘It takes all sorts...’ and put up with it, although you might
quietly say during a review meeting ‘You’re doing a good job but...’.
If, however, you do take this line you have to be specific. You must
cite actual instances. It is no good making generalized accusations,
which will either be openly refuted or internalized by the receiver,
making them even more resentful.
If the negative behaviour means that the individual’s contribution
is not acceptable and is disruptive then you must take action.
Negative people can be quiet but they are usually angry about
152 Handling People Problems and Issues

something; their negative behaviour is an easy way of expressing

their anger. To deal with the problem it is necessary to find out
what has made the person angry.

Causes of negative behaviour

There are many possible causes of negative behaviour, which could
include one or more of the following:

● a real or imagined slight from you or a colleague;

● a feeling of being put upon;
● a belief that the contribution made by the person is neither
appreciated nor rewarded properly in terms of pay or promotion;
● resentment at what was perceived to be unfair criticism from
you or a colleague;
● anger directed at the company or you because what was
considered to be a reasonable request was turned down, e.g. for
leave or a transfer, or because of an unfair accusation.

Dealing with the problem

It is because there can be such a variety of real or imagined causes
of negative behaviour that dealing with it becomes one of the most
difficult tasks you have to undertake. If the action taken is crude or
insensitive the negative behaviour will only be intensified. You
might end up by having to invoke the disciplinary procedure, which
should be your last resort.
In one sense, it is easier to deal with an actual example of
negative behaviour. This can be handled on the spot. If the problem
is one of general attitude rather than specific actions it is more
difficult to cope with. Hard evidence may not be sufficiently avail-
able. When individuals are accused of being, for example, generally
unenthusiastic or uncooperative, they can simply go into denial,
 Dealing With Negative Behaviour 153

and accuse you of being prejudiced. Their negative behaviour may

be reinforced.
If you have to deal with this sort of problem it is best to handle
it as it is happening rather than waiting for a formal performance
review.
The discussion should have three clear objectives:

1 To discuss the situation with individuals, the aim being if

possible to get them to recognize for themselves that they are
behaving negatively. If this cannot be achieved, then the object
is to bring to the attention of individuals your belief that their
behaviour is unacceptable in certain ways.
2 To establish the reasons for the individuals’ negative behaviour
so far as this is feasible.
3 To discuss and agree any actions individuals could take to
behave more positively, or what you or the organization could
do to remove the causes of the behaviour.

Discussing the problem

Start by asking generally how individuals feel about their work.
Do they have any problems in carrying it out? Are they happy with
the support they get from you or their colleagues? Are they satisfied
that they are pulling their weight to the best of their ability?
You may find that this generalized start provides the basis for
the next two stages – identifying the causes and remedies. It is best
if individuals are encouraged to identify for themselves that there
is a problem. But in many, if not the majority of, cases this is
unlikely to happen. Individuals may not recognize that they are
behaving negatively or will not be prepared to admit it.
You will then have to discuss the problem. You could say
truthfully that you are concerned because they seem to be unhappy
and you wish to know if they feel that you or the organization is
treating them unfairly – you want to try and put things right. Give
them time to say their piece and then provide a rational response,
154 Handling People Problems and Issues

dealing with specific grievances. If they are not satisfied with your
explanation, you can say that they will be given the opportunity to
discuss the problem with a more senior manager, thus indicating
that you recognize that your judgement is not final.
If the response you get to these initial points does not bring out
into the open the problem as you see it, you have to explain how
the individual’s behaviour gives the impression of being negative.
Be as specific as possible about the behaviour, bringing up actual
instances. For example, a discussion could be based on the fol­
lowing questions: ‘Do you recall yesterday’s team meeting?’, ‘How
did you think it went?’, ‘How helpful do you think you were in
dealing with the problem?’, ‘Do you remember saying...?’, ‘How
helpful do you think that remark was?’, ‘Would it surprise you to
learn that I felt you had not been particularly helpful in the
following ways...?’
Of course, even if this careful approach is adopted, there will be
occasions when individuals refuse to admit that there is anything
wrong with their behaviour. If you reach this impasse, then you
have no alternative but to spell out to them your perceptions of
where they have gone wrong. But do this in a positive way: ‘Then
I think that it is only fair for me to point out to you that your
contribution (to the meeting) would have been more helpful if you
had...’

Establishing causes
If the negative behaviour is because of a real or imagined grievance
about what you or colleagues or the organization have done, then
you have to get individuals to spell this out as precisely as possible.
At this point, your job is to listen, not to judge. People can be just
as angry about imaginary as real slights. You have to find out how
they perceive the problem before you can deal with it.
It may emerge during the discussion that the problem has
nothing to do with you or the company. It may be family troubles
 Dealing With Negative Behaviour 155

or worries about health or finance. If this is the case you can

be sympathetic and may be able to suggest remedies in the form
of counselling or practical advice from within or outside the
organization.
If the perceived problem is you, colleagues or the organization,
try to get chapter and verse on what it is so that you are in a
position to take remedial action or to explain the real facts of
the case.

Taking remedial action

If the problem rests with the individual, the objective is, of course,
to get them to recognize for themselves that corrective action is
necessary and what they need to do about it – with your help as
necessary. In this situation you might suggest counselling or
recommend a source of advice. But be careful, you don’t want to
imply that there is something wrong with them. You should go no
further than suggesting that individuals may find this helpful – they
don’t need it but they could benefit from it. You should be careful
about offering counselling advice yourself. This is better done by
professional counsellors.
If there is anything specific that the parties involved in the
situation can do, then the line to take is that we can tackle this
problem together: ‘This is what I will do’, ‘This is what the company
will do’, ‘What do you think you should do?’ If there is no response
to the last question, then this is the point where you have to spell
out the action you think they need to take. Be as specific as possible
and try to express your wishes as suggestions, not commands.
A joint problem-solving approach is always best.
156 Handling People Problems and Issues

Ten approaches to managing negative

behaviour

1 Define the type of negative behaviour that is being exhibited.

Make notes of examples.
2 Discuss the behaviour with the individual as soon as
possible, aiming to get agreement about what it is and the
impact it makes.
3 If agreement is not obtained, give actual examples of
behaviour and explain why you believe them to be negative.
4 Discuss and so far as possible agree reasons for the
negative behaviour, including those attributed to the
individual, yourself and the organization.
5 Discuss and agree possible remedies – actions on the part
of the individual, yourself or the organization.
6 Monitor the actions taken and the results obtained.
7 If improvement is not achieved and the negative behaviour is
significantly affecting the performance of the individual and
the team, then invoke the disciplinary procedure.
8 Start with a verbal warning, indicating the ways in which
behaviour must improve, and give a timescale and offers of
further support and help as required.
9 If there is no improvement, issue a formal warning, setting
out as specifically as possible what must be achieved over a
defined period of time, indicating the disciplinary action that
could be taken.
10 If the negative behaviour persists and continues seriously to
affect performance, take the disciplinary action.
 Dealing With Negative Behaviour 157

Exercise 21.1
Negative behaviour

Here’s what one of the managers interviewed by Dilys Robinson

told her about how he dealt with negative behaviour:

So I will make sure that I say hello to them if they’re by the

coffee machine and have a bit of a chat with them, and try
and break down that barrier, so they don’t see me as the
enemy, they don’t see me as the manager who’s always
asking for more, and because I’ve found that normally the
more difficult ones are also the more vocal ones who are
more influential within the team, so if you can get them on
your side, you can also then turn the performance of the team
or the view of the team. And in one case, that actually meant
me reorganizing the office so that person ended up sitting
next to me, so then he engaged with me across the desk, he
felt like he was more involved in what was going on, and he’s
no longer a difficult employee, well, relatively.

What do you think of his approach? What can you learn from it?

Key points

● Negative behaviour has multiple causes, which makes it

difficult to deal with.
● Deal with it when it happens and not at a formal review.
● To deal with it, discuss the situation, establish the reasons for
the individuals’ negative behaviour so far as this is feasible
and agree any actions individuals could take to behave more
positively, or what you or the organization could do to remove
the causes of the behaviour.
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22
Dealing with
absenteeism and
timekeeping
issues

D ealing with absenteeism and timekeeping issues is a perpetual

problem for many managers. It can take a lot of time and
trouble to resolve an issue but the attempt should be made and
guidelines on how to do this are set out below.

Absenteeism
You will come across both short-term and long-term absenteeism,
and the approach to dealing with them differs in a number of
respects.

Recurrent short-term absence

Dealing with people who are repeatedly absent for short periods
can be difficult to handle. This is because it may be hard to
determine when occasional absence becomes a problem or whether
it is justifiable, perhaps on medical grounds.
So what do you do about it? Many organizations provide
guidelines to managers on the ‘trigger points’ for action (the
160 Handling People Problems and Issues

amount of absence that needs to be investigated), perhaps based on

analyses of the incidence of short-term absence and the level at
which it is regarded as acceptable (software may exist to generate
analyses and data, which can be made available direct to managers
through a self-service system). If there are no guidelines you can
seek advice from an HR specialist, if one is available. In the absence
of either of these sources of help and in particularly difficult cases,
it may be advisable to recommend to higher management that
advice is obtained from an employment law expert.
But this sort of guidance may not be obtainable and you may
have to make up your own mind on when to do something and
what to do. A day off every other month may not be too serious,
although if it happens regularly on a Monday (after weekends in
Prague, Barcelona, etc) or a Friday (before such weekends) you
may feel like having a word with the individual, not as a warning
but just to let them know that you are aware of what is going on.
There may be a medical or other acceptable explanation. Return-
to-work interviews can provide valuable information. You see the
individual and find out why the time was taken off, giving them
ample opportunity to explain the absence.
In persistent cases of absenteeism you can hold an absence
review meeting. Although this would be more comprehensive than
a return-to-work interview it should not at this stage be presented
as part of a disciplinary process. The meeting should be positive
and constructive. If absence results from a health problem you can
find out what the employee is doing about it and if necessary
suggest that their doctor should be consulted. Or absences may be
caused by problems facing a parent or a carer. In such cases you
should be sympathetic but you can reasonably discuss with the
individual what steps can be taken to reduce the problem or you
might be able to agree on flexible working if that can be arranged.
The aim is to get the employee to discuss as openly as possible any
factors affecting their attendance and to agree any constructive
steps.
 Dealing with Absenteeism and Timekeeping Issues 161

If, after holding an attendance review meeting and, it is to be

hoped, agreeing the steps necessary to reduce absenteeism, short-
term absence persists without a satisfactory explanation, then
another meeting can be held, which emphasizes the employee’s
responsibility for attending work. Depending on the circumstances
(each case should be dealt with on its merits), at this meeting you
can link any positive support with an indication that following the
provision of support you expect absence levels to improve over a
defined timescale (an improvement period). If this does not happen,
the individual can expect more formal disciplinary action.

Dealing with long-term absence

Dealing with long-term absence can be even more difficult. The
aim should be to facilitate the employee’s return to work at the
earliest reasonable point while recognizing that in extreme cases
the person may not be able to come back. In that case they can
fairly be dismissed for lack of capability as long as:

1 the employee has been consulted at all stages;

2 contact has been maintained with the employee – this is
something you can usefully do as long as you do not appear to
be pressing them to return to work before they are ready;
3 appropriate medical advice has been sought from the employee’s
own doctor, but the employee’s consent is needed and employees
have the right to see the report and it may be desirable to obtain
a second opinion;
4 all reasonable options for alternative employment have been
reviewed as well any other means of facilitating a return to
work.

The decision to dismiss should only be taken if these conditions are

satisfied. It is a tricky one and you should seek advice before taking
it, from HR, if available, or from an employment law expert.
162 Handling People Problems and Issues

Handling poor timekeeping

If you are faced with persistent lateness you should try to find out
if there is a good reason, e.g. problems at home. If there is, you
need to be understanding but it is still necessary to point out that
it is up to the employee to do their best to come to work on time
and there is a limit to which the organization can allow personal
problems to affect how people do their work, or in a timekeeping
case, how people do not do their work.
If there is no acceptable reason for the poor timekeeping or if
the individual’s personal situation means that it persists too long, it
is necessary to give an informal warning that improvement is
expected to occur. But if an informal warning has little effect, it
may be necessary to invoke the disciplinary procedure. If time­
keeping does not improve this could go through the successive
stages of a recorded oral warning, a written warning and a final
written warning. If the final warning does not work, disciplinary
action would have to be taken; in serious cases this would mean
dismissal.
Note that this raises the difficult question of time limits when
you give a final warning that timekeeping must improve by a
certain date – the improvement period. If it does improve by that
date, and the slate is wiped clean, it might be assumed that the
disciplinary procedure starts again from scratch if timekeeping
deteriorates again. But it is in the nature of things that some people
cannot sustain efforts to get to work on time for long, and deteri­
oration often occurs. In these circumstances, do you have to keep
on going through the warning cycles time after time? The answer
ought to be no, and the best approach is to avoid stating an end
date to a final warning period, which implies a ‘wipe the slate clean’
approach. Instead, the warning should simply say that timekeeping
performance will be reviewed on a stated date. If it has not
improved, disciplinary action can be taken. If it has, no action will
be taken, but the employee is warned that further deterioration
will make them liable to disciplinary action, which may well speed
 Dealing with Absenteeism and Timekeeping Issues 163

up the normal procedure, perhaps by only using the final warning

stage and by reducing the elapsed time between the warning and
the review date. There will come a time if poor timekeeping persists
when you can say ‘enough is enough’ and initiate disciplinary
action.

Exercise 22.1
Case study: Timekeeping

The case

Tony Lufton joined the Thames Building Society seven years ago
as an administrative assistant in the head office mortgage
department. He was promoted after three years to the post of
mortgage administrator and has been in this job ever since.
During this time his service has been satisfactory – he was
reasonably good at his job – but undistinguished. He has never
shown any inclination or ambition for larger responsibility.
Three years ago, he was absent for a number of self-
certificated days because of a recurrence of asthma. The same
pattern continued into the next year although when he was in the
office he worked diligently. His manager noted that Lufton’s
absences frequently lasted one day and that other reasons, e.g.
travel difficulties or domestic problems, were emerging in
addition to the excuse of sickness.
The disciplinary procedure of the Thames Building Society
was as follows:

1 Informal warning. A verbal or informal warning is given to the

employee in the first instance or instances of minor offences.
The warning is administered by the employee’s immediate
manager or team leader.
2 Formal warning. A written formal warning is given to the
employee in the first instance of more serious offences or
after repeated instances of minor offences. The warning is
164 Handling People Problems and Issues

administered by the employee’s immediate manager or team

leader. It states the exact nature of the offence and indicates
any future disciplinary action that will be taken against the
employee if the offence is repeated within a specified time
limit.
3 Further disciplinary action. If, despite previous warnings,
an employee still fails to reach the required standards in a
reasonable period of time, it may become necessary to
consider further disciplinary action. The action taken may be
up to three days’ suspension without pay, or dismissal. In
either case the departmental manager should discuss the
matter with the HR manager before taking action.

In April 2019 Amy Robarts took over as mortgage manager.

She had been warned by her predecessor, Jim Sowerby, about
the Tony Lufton problem – it had by then assumed significant
proportions, although his work was still satisfactory when he
was in the office. Amy decided for the moment to see how things
worked out, but on looking up Tony’s records she noted that Jim
Sowerby had not awarded Tony a merit increase in 2018 and that
his annual report included such phrases as ‘poor attendance –
frequently absent and often late’. Tony’s absence record showed
that he was absent for 16 days in 2018 and six days so far in May
2019. Ten of these absences last year were for single days,
usually on a Monday or Friday, and Tony had taken three single
days off (all on a Monday) by May 2019. There was no evidence
on record that any warning had been given to Tony but Amy
understood from Jim that he had spoken twice to Tony about his
poor attendance although no sort of warning had been given.
Amy therefore decided to see Tony and spoke to him severely
about his absence record, confirming in writing that this was a
formal warning.
In mid-2019 a staff reduction programme was initiated, leaving
Tony and one other doing the work formerly carried out by three
people. This seemed to have a stimulating effect on Tony and his
attendance improved. In the 2019 September pay review, Amy
 Dealing with Absenteeism and Timekeeping Issues 165

gave Tony a modest merit increase and told him she was pleased
with the way in which he had played his part in keeping the
office going with reduced staff. However, the following month the
old pattern re-asserted itself and by mid-December he had
accumulated eight days absence (four single days and four
continuous self-certificated days). This was having a disruptive
effect on the rest of the office and Amy decided that with the
reduced numbers of staff she could no longer afford a part-time
Tony Lufton. She was fed up that the warning had been ineffective.
She discussed the situation with the head of HR, who was
concerned that the full disciplinary procedure did not seem to
have been followed. But Amy, a strong character, overruled him,
insisting that Tony had to go – enough was enough. It was
agreed that he should be dismissed when he returned after the
Christmas break. Amy would be on holiday then, so her assistant
manager was told to dismiss Tony, which he duly did at 10.00 am
on the day Tony came back to work. The letter signed by Amy
that was handed to Tony stated that he was being dismissed
because, in spite of repeated warnings, he had failed to improve
his attendance record. He was informed that he would be paid
for the current month and receive a further month’s salary in lieu
of notice. He was told to collect his possessions and leave the
office.

Question

Comment on the procedure followed, the actions taken and the

lessons to be learnt.
166 Handling People Problems and Issues

Key points

● In a case of persistent absenteeism, start with a review

meeting to discuss the causes and agree on what needs to be
done to improve absenteeism. Indicate that you expect
absence levels to improve over a defined timescale (an
improvement period). If this does not happen, the individual
can expect more formal disciplinary action.
● If you are faced with persistent lateness and your informal
warnings to the individual concerned seem to have little
effect, you may be forced to invoke the disciplinary procedure.
If timekeeping does not improve this could go through the
successive stages of a recorded oral warning, a written
warning and a final written warning. If the final warning does
not work disciplinary action would have to be taken; in
serious cases this would mean dismissal.
23
Handling
challenging
conversations

M any managers find it difficult to have conversations or

hold meetings with individuals about performance issues.
In advance these can look difficult and in practice they can be
challenging if the manager wants to achieve desired changes or
improvements in performance. They can be even more challenging
in prospect if it is feared that unpleasantness can occur in the
shape of lack of cooperation or outright hostility. The following is
a 12-point guide to handling challenging conversations.

1 Don’t wait until a formal review meeting. Have a quiet word at

the first sign that something is going wrong.
2 Get the facts in advance – what happened, when and why?
3 Plan the meeting on the basis of the facts and what is known
about the individual. Define what is to be achieved.
4 Set the right tone from the start of the meeting – adopt a calm,
measured, deliberate but friendly approach.
5 Begin the conversation by explaining the purpose of the
meeting, indicating to the individual what the issue is and
giving specific examples.
6 Focus on the issue and not the person.
168 Handling People Problems and Issues

7 Ask for an explanation. Ask unloaded questions to clarify the

issues and explore them together.
8 Allow people to have their say, and listen to them.
9 Keep an open mind and don’t jump to conclusions.
10 Acknowledge the individual’s position and any mitigating
circumstances.
11 Ask the individual for proposals to resolve the situation,
discuss the options and if possible agree on action by the
individual, the manager or jointly.
12 If agreement cannot be reached, managers may have to
define the way forward, with reasons – they are in charge!

Exercise 23.1
Handling challenging conversations: what would you
do?

The timekeeping of an individual member of your team has

deteriorated badly over the last three weeks and is much worse
than that of anyone else in your team. Here are some typical
things you have to do to deal with in this situation. Select your
preferred approach but note any other one that you think would
be better than those listed below.

You want to speak to You say:

an individual about 1. In my office – now!
the problem. 2. I have something I’d like to discuss
with you that I think will help us work
together more effectively.
3. We need to talk about your time-
keeping problem. Please come to see
me at 4 pm.
4. I would like a talk with you about your
timekeeping. Let’s grab a cup of coffee
at 11 this morning to chat.
 Handling Challenging Conversations 169

You are starting the You say:

meeting. 1. Is there any reason why your
timekeeping hasn’t been as good as it
used to be?
2. I have got your timekeeping record
here and it’s pretty poor. What are you
going to do about it?
3. As I told you earlier today, I would like
to discuss your timekeeping with you.
How do you think you compare with…?
4. Thank you for coming. As you know,
this meeting is about your
timekeeping. Can we start by looking
at your timekeeping records together?
The individual has You say:
agreed that there is 1. I am not sure that I really understand
a problem but gives the problem. Could you tell me more
what you think is an about it?
inadequate
2. I think I appreciate the situation you’re
explanation for it.
in but we must put our heads together
and see what can be done about it.
3. I cannot accept that as an adequate
explanation. It’s no excuse.
4. I can understand your problem but
how are you going to deal with it? The
present situation cannot continue.
On being challenged You say:
by the time record 1. It’s really no good behaving like this.
and the We’ve got to move on.
unacceptability of 2. I don’t know why you are not
the explanation, the
responding. What’s the problem?
individual relapses
into a sullen silence.
3. We seem to have reached an impasse.
I would like to reiterate the problem as
I see it and I would be grateful if you
would respond.
4. I am not entirely happy with your
explanation. Could you go through it
again?
170 Handling People Problems and Issues

The individual goes You say:

into denial saying 1. The facts speak for themselves.
that he works very 2. Are you telling me that you are
hard and often stays specially privileged and that you can
on, so why bother
start and finish any time you like?
about being late now
and again?
3. I appreciate that you work hard and
conscientiously but do you think it
would be possible for me to run this
department if everyone turned up
when they liked?
4. Can we focus on the facts. You, like
everyone else, are expected to turn up
to work on time. Can you give me a
really good reason for you being the
exception?
The individual gets You say:
angry and starts 1. I cannot tolerate this behaviour. We’ll
shouting. meet again when you are in a better
mood.
2. Calm down, dear!
3. It seems to me that we need a
cooling-off period. Let’s both think
about today’s meeting and reconvene
tomorrow to discuss the situation.
4. I appreciate that you are concerned
about this situation but there is a
problem and we need to discuss
calmly how we can best deal with it.

Key point

● Many managers find it difficult to have conversations or hold

meetings with individuals about performance issues. In
advance these can look difficult and in practice they can be
challenging if the manager wants to achieve desired changes
or improvements in performance. A 12-point plan for holding
such conversations is set out in this chapter.
24
Giving bad news

Y ou will undoubtedly sometimes have to give bad news to a

member of your team or the team as a whole. For example, it
could be:

● telling someone that they are to be made redundant;

● dismissing someone for misconduct;
● informing an individual that they will not receive the bonus they
were expecting;
● telling someone they will not get the promotion they were
hoping for;
● informing your team that it is to be partially disbanded.

This is how some managers give bad news, as reported to Dilys

Robinson (2013):

The key thing is to be good at articulating why, at understanding

how people will feel. He is adept at this. He will walk away for
a while, then come back and tackle questions.
As privately as possible... he took her away from the team,
prepared for her to be literally upset, took some tissues, took
her to a quiet area, and then suggested that she went for a
walk afterwards...
He took a fairly direct approach. He spoke privately to
people to broach the subject... he explained why. He empathized,
but made it clear that we still had to get on.
He’s very straightforward. He doesn’t hide anything.
My understanding of what he does is he goes and
understands the issue at hand, so he knows it intimately,
172 Handling People Problems and Issues

and then he communicates that to his team and explains the

consequences of it, and how we’re going to work our way
through the issue. So, there are consequences, but this is what
we’re going to do and this is how we’re going to do it. So, he
does explain it in very good detail.
I think he’s very honest about it and he is always explaining
the wider picture.
His approach is straightforward; he communicates the facts
clearly. He answers the questions he can, refers if he can’t. He
doesn’t try to soften things or pander to people’s questions.

How to give bad news

The quotations above say it all. The key points in giving bad news
as suggested by Dilys Robinson are given below.

Giving bad news – key points

● Think hard and carefully before breaking bad news.

● Don’t put off doing it.
● Explain the business context clearly, so that people can
understand the rationale.
● Try to understand how the news might be received by
different people.
● Be as honest and open as you can.
● Give people time for the news to sink in.
● Listen to people’s reactions and respond appropriately.
● Be supportive and caring to those adversely affected.
 Giving Bad News 173

Exercise 24.1
Giving bad news

Think of an occasion when you either had to give bad news or

were at the receiving end:

● How did it go?

● What was good about the way it was done?
● Could the approach used have been better?
● If so, what should have been done?
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
25
Managing bias

B ias can be deliberate or, insidiously, unconscious. What is

known as cognitive bias happens when someone makes an
irrational judgement. People create their own ‘subjective reality’
from their perception of the input. An individual’s construction of
reality, not the objective input, may dictate their behaviour.
If you’re biased towards something, then you lean favourably
towards it; you tend to think positively of it. But if you’re biased
against something, then you lean negatively against it; you tend to
think poorly of it. Biases make it difficult for people to exchange
accurate information or make objective decisions. A cognitive bias
distorts our critical thinking, leading to misconceptions or mis­
information that can be damaging to others. While people like to
believe that they are rational and logical, the fact is that they are
continually under the influence of cognitive biases. Sometimes
these biases are fairly obvious, and you might find that you recog-
nize these tendencies in yourself or others. In some cases, the biases
are so subtle that they are almost impossible to notice. Why do
they happen? Attention is a limited resource. This means we can’t
possibly evaluate every possible detail and event when forming
thoughts and opinions. Because of this, we often rely on mental
shortcuts that speed up our ability to make judgements, but some-
times lead to bias.
Bias can detrimentally affect the well-being of individuals or
groups. It also has four practical drawbacks:

● It can have a negative effect on the morale of people if they

perceive that a colleague is being treated favourably or
unfavourably.
176 Handling People Problems and Issues

● Bias aimed at a person or a category of people can lead to unfair

decisions.
● If the outcome is an inappropriate promotion or someone being
given extra responsibility that they do not deserve it can adversely
affect the performance of the department or group.
● It can lead to recruitment decisions that may result in an
unsuitable person being appointed to a job.

Bias needs to be minimized at both organizational and individual

levels.

Minimizing bias in organizations

Biased behaviour in organizations can occur in any situation where
decisions or judgements are made by people about people, for
example in recruitment, when reviewing performance, deciding on
promotion, providing people with opportunities for career develop­
ment and handling disciplinary problems.
Biased behaviour may be conscious and conspicuous and anyone
behaving in this way can be brought to account although it helps if
a culture is developed in which it is made clear that such behaviour
is not acceptable. This culture should characterize the behaviour of
top managers and line managers, team leaders and specialists at all
levels.
But biased behaviour will often be unconscious and this is more
difficult to deal with. An approach often adopted by organizations
is to train managers to understand and avoid unconscious bias.
Training courses may use the Harvard Implicit Association Test
(IAT) to measure attitudes and beliefs that people may not be
aware of or are unwilling to recognize. But research has shown
that the training can be unsuccessful, perhaps because too often it
does not go into sufficient depth. However, something needs to be
done about it by at least making people aware of the problems and
how to avoid them and taking some specific steps to deal with
 Managing Bias 177

recruitment bias (the most pervasive variety). The types of bias, the
reasons for bias and what can be done about it need to be covered
in depth in induction (onboarding) and leadership development
courses.

Minimizing bias at the individual level

The best way to prevent bias from influencing the way you think
or make decisions is by being aware that it exists in the first place.
If you appreciate how you might be biased in any of the nine areas
set out in the table below, you can take steps to avoid or at least
minimize biased judgements and decisions, particularly when
recruiting, promoting or assessing the performance of people.

Exercise 25.1
Managing bias

You are a senior manager in a large insurance company with

about 3,000 staff, of which about 300 are in various types of
managerial or supervisory positions. The HR director is concerned
about the incidence of bias in making recruiting decisions and a
number of other examples of biased behaviour they have come
across. They have suggested to the CEO that a senior manager
should be asked to investigate and make recommendations.
You are that senior manager and your investigation has
confirmed that bias is rife. It even exists in the HR department,
especially those involved in recruitment and selection. The
company has a well-established and resourced learning and
development department and a comprehensive talent-
management programme.
What sort of recommendations might you make?
Table 25.1 Different types of bias and how to deal with them

Bias definition Possible action

Anchoring bias – using an initial Try to compare every aspect of a person, e.g. a candidate, and never rely on one piece of
piece of information to unduly information as a deciding (anchoring) factor.
influence subsequent judgements.

Affinity bias – favouring someone The basic way of dealing with this problem is simply to be aware that it exists. You can
who has similar characteristics to then resist the temptation to select, promote or reward a person just because they are
oneself. like you. You must always strive to make objective decisions about people and not allow
yourself to be influenced by subjective factors.
Beware of placing too much emphasis on ‘culture fit’ when appointing someone to a job
in your department, i.e. striving to identify people who will fit in well with the way in
which your department functions and with its other members. However, the term ‘culture
fit’ is vague, and it can mean different things to different people.

The halo effect – drawing The first thing to do is to recognize that we all have a tendency to be influenced by the
conclusions about a person on the halo effect. Try to consider people ‘in the round’, i.e. from all points of view. Look for their
basis of one or two good points good points but recognize that they may have weaknesses that you should take into
and ignoring negative account. When reviewing applications or considering a person for promotion, you may be
characteristics. looking for something unique that makes someone stand out from the rest. But you
should also take care to look at other candidates or people who have the experience,
knowledge and skills to do the job, and consider their suitability.
Bias definition Possible action

Attribution bias – attributing This type of bias can be difficult to recognize and therefore hard to deal with. What you
someone else’s behaviour to their can do is to examine your judgements of other people to identify the possibility that you
particular characteristics (‘it’s are falling into attribution error, i.e. that you have been too ready to underestimate or
their fault’) while believing that blame them. You need to explore the reasons behind individuals’ backgrounds and
your own similar behaviour is a accomplishments, as opposed to jumping to conclusions. In the workplace, this means
result of external factors (‘it was objectively analysing an employee’s role performance by reference to factual evidence of
beyond my control’). If we do how well or not so well they have done.
something well, we tend to think
it’s down to our own merit and
personality. When we do
something badly, we tend to
believe that our failing is due to
external factors, like other people
that adversely affect us and
prevent us from doing our best.

Gender bias – preferring one Conduct blind screenings of applications that exclude aspects of a candidate that may
gender over another. reveal their assumed gender, such as name and interests. Compare candidates by
reference to their relative accomplishments and suitability for the job rather than traits
that can cloud your judgement of them. Your organization should set diversity
recruitment goals and ensure they are achieved.
Table 25.1 continued

Bias definition Possible action

Age bias – favouring one age over Don’t make assumptions based on age. Don’t automatically presume that older workers
another. are unable to use technology or aren’t open to learning new skills. There is plenty of
research evidence that they can learn and use different skills if they are given the
opportunity and training.

Racial bias – expressing prejudice, Subject yourself to an intense and searching examination of your attitudes and beliefs
discrimination or antagonism about race. You may not be consciously prejudiced but you have to make sure that you
against a person or people on the are not unconsciously biased.
basis of their membership of a
particular racial or ethnic group.

Appearance bias – favourably Omit pictures from CVs. Focus on an applicant’s qualifications and experience when
treating individuals who are screening CVs. Before scheduling an interview, consider doing a short telephone
considered to be more attractive. interview to get to know the applicant better without being influenced by their
appearance.

Name bias – preferring people with Omit names of candidates when screening. To do this, you can simply redact by hand the
certain types of names; typically names of candidates from applications: your company can obtain blind hiring software to
names that are of Anglo-Saxon block out candidates’ personal details on CVs.
origin.
 Managing Bias 181

Key points

● Bias can be deliberate or, insidiously, unconscious.

● While people like to believe that they are rational and logical,
the fact is that they are continually under the influence of
cognitive biases.
● Biased behaviour in organizations can occur in any situation
where decisions or judgements are made by people about
people.
● The best way to prevent bias from influencing the way you
think or make decisions is by being aware that it exists in the
first place.
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
26
Dealing with
bullying and
harassment

B ullying is the use of force, coercion, hurtful teasing or threats

to abuse, aggressively dominate or intimidate people. The
terms bullying and harassment are often used interchangeably but
specifically, harassment means unwanted and offensive behaviour
that people find intimidating. The most common form of harass-
ment is sexual harassment. Harassment and bullying can occur
both face to face and online.
Bullying and harassment are serious problems. A survey by
the Andrea Adams Trust and Personnel Today (1992) found that
22 per cent of respondents reported that they had been bullied in
their present job and 52 per cent in a previous job. The bullying
was carried out by the immediate superior of respondents in 57 per
cent of the cases and by other managers or other colleagues in
29 per cent and 15 per cent of the cases respectively.

What the organization can do

Organizations should have an anti-bullying policy that states that
bullying will not be tolerated and that those who persist in it be
subject to disciplinary action, which could be severe in particularly
bad cases. The policy should make it clear that individuals who are
being bullied have the right to discuss the problem with another
184 Handling People Problems and Issues

person, a representative or a member of the HR function, and to

make a complaint. The policy should emphasize that if a complaint
is received it will be thoroughly investigated.
A sexual harassment policy should state that:

1 Sexual harassment will not be tolerated.

2 Employees subjected to sexual harassment will be given advice,
support and counselling as required.
3 Every attempt will be made to resolve the problem informally
with the person complained against.
4 Assistance will be given to the employee to complain formally if
informal discussions fail.
5 A special process will be available for hearing complaints about
sexual harassment. This will provide for employees to bring
their complaint to someone of their own sex if they so wish.
6 Complaints will be handled sensitively and with due respect for
the rights of both the complainant and the accused.

Guidelines should be made available to managers, reinforced by

training. The guidelines should emphasize that bullying and
harassment are serious matters, and it is up to managers to control
and deal with them if they arise, by treating complaints seriously,
conducting thorough investigations to get the facts and, when
necessary, taking disciplinary action against offenders.

What actually happens

The problem is that while organizations may have bullying and
sexual harassment policies they depend on their line managers to
implement them. And as Professor John Purcell and his colleagues
(2003) in Bath University wrote: ‘Line managers bring HR policies
to life.’ Or don’t, as the case may be. Two other academics, Chris
Woodrow and David Guest (2014) of King’s College London,
investigated how anti-bullying policies were implemented in a
large London hospital. They found that many line managers were
 Dealing With Bullying and Harassment 185

neither willing nor able to manage challenging staff issues and

especially to deal with difficult, often barely visible forms of conflict
such as bullying. Here are some comments made by staff in the
hospital about how they were treated:

I felt like I couldn’t approach my line manager to talk to her,

because I tried to do that… and she basically put a stop to
me straightaway… I became withdrawn, I kept quiet, and
I thought that I couldn’t speak up because she’d knock me
down.
I feel that a lot of the supervisors in our place, especially the
administrators… I’m sure they might have gone for training,
but they don’t really practise what they’ve learnt. They put
personal friends before professional standards.
My colleagues told me they made so many complaints about
her to her manager, but she’s just not willing to do anything
because for her it’s a hassle.

What you can do about it

First, you have to recognize that bullying and sexual harassment
are real problems and that if they are not dealt with they can
seriously affect the mental health of people and therefore their
well-being and engagement with their work. Most bullying in the
workplace is carried out by line managers, so you should be
prepared to examine your own conduct, frankly admit to yourself
any tendency to bully or harass that exists and make plans to
change your behaviour.
Next you should familiarize yourself with your organization’s
bullying and harassment policy, if one exists, to make yourself
aware of what you should do to minimize it in your department
and how you should deal with it when it occurs, including how you
should respond to complaints from staff affected by it. If there is
no policy you should press your management to produce one (they
can get advice from Acas). If that gets you nowhere, you should
186 Handling People Problems and Issues

simply do your best to apply the guidelines outlined earlier in this

chapter if you become aware that bullying and harassment takes
place (keep your eyes open) or if someone comes to you with a
problem. You should then investigate and get the facts from the
parties involved. If bullying or harassment has been proved you
should initiate action against the offender in the shape of warnings,
and if these are ignored, disciplinary action.

Exercise 26.1
Dealing with a bullying complaint

If one of your staff complains to you that they are being bullied by
another member of your department, what do you do about it?

Key points

● Bullying is the use of force, coercion, hurtful teasing, or

threat, to abuse, aggressively dominate or intimidate people.
● Harassment means unwanted and offensive behaviour that
people find intimidating.
● Organizations should have anti-bullying and harassment
policies.
● Managers should be aware of the policies and be prepared to
implement them.
● If there are no company policies, managers should deal with
bullying and harassment in accordance with the guidelines
set out in this chapter.
APPENDIX
Notes on exercises

Exercise 1.1
Qualities required by managers
If you score more than 75 you can reckon that you are a fully
effective manager; between 50 and 75 you are a reasonably effective
manager; below 50 means that there is room for improvement.

Exercise 1.2
Effective managers
If your analysis suggests that there are aspects of managing people
that you could improve, make a note of them and look up the
relevant chapter of this book to find out how you could do so.

Exercise 1.3
The manager’s role
When you have completed the exercise consider the implications
for your own job. Answer questions such as: ‘Am I spending too
much time on any activity?’, ‘Should I spend less time on any
activity?’, ‘Could I use my time more productively?’
188 Appendix

Exercise 2.1
Treating people right
● Deal with people as individuals with their own concerns rather
than lumping everyone together and treating them the same.
● Recognize a person’s qualities and honour their contribution,
ensuring that they feel valued.
● Treat people with dignity and courtesy – no belittling in public,
no bullying.
● Be polite at all times, even when issuing a reprimand or taking
disciplinary action.
● Treat them as colleagues who will react responsibly to the right
kind of encouragement, rather than as subordinates who are
there to be ordered about.
● Listen to what people have to say. You don’t have to agree with
them all the time but if you disagree, do it politely.
● Recognize that people may have legitimate grievances and
respond to them promptly, fully and sympathetically.
● Be firm with people when you have good reason to, but treat
them justly and consistently.

Exercise 3.1
Leadership qualities
● Developing teamwork
● Being resourceful
● Taking control when necessary
● Flexibility in coping with different demands
 Appendix 189

Exercise 3.2
Assess your leadership skills
If you get:

● 35 points or more you are an exceptional leader and there’s not

much you need to do to improve;
● 30–34 points you are a good leader although there may be two
or three areas in which you could do even better;
● 25–29 points you are a good enough leader but there are a
number of areas in which you could usefully improve;
● 20–24 points you are a below average leader and need to
improve in a number of areas;
● 19 points or less you are a poor leader and there is a lot you
need to do to improve.

Exercise 4.1
What do you know about motivation?
1 All the choices are correct, but the one that provides the most
comprehensive definition is (d).
2 The best choice is (a) – intrinsic motivation takes place when the
work someone does is personally rewarding. (b) is incorrect –
intrinsic motivation is about work, not personality. (c) is too
sweeping – extrinsic motivation has a part to play alongside
intrinsic motivation, especially in the form of recognizing
achievements. (d) is correct as far as it goes but is insufficiently
comprehensive.
3 The preferred choice is (b). As the term implies, extrinsic
motivation consists of external rewards such as performance
pay and praise. (a) has been shown to be incorrect by a number
of research projects. (c) is only partially correct. There are other
190 Appendix

means such as recognition. (d) is likely but insufficiently specific

as a definition.
4 (b) expresses clearly what motivation is about – seeking a goal,
the achievement of which will satisfy a need. (a) correctly
indicates that highly motivated people are likely to perform well
but motivation is best defined as the direction people take to
achieve goals and not just the results they attain. (c) is clearly
wrong. The use of rewards or punishments (the carrot and stick
approach) is one way of trying to motivate people but it won’t
work in the longer term. (d) is wrong. Needs are not inevitably
reassessed at this point in the motivation cycle. They could be, if
new needs arise or the action fails to satisfy the original need,
but if the goal is achieved the need will be satisfied and the
behaviour is likely to be repeated the next time a similar need
emerges. If the goal is not achieved the same action is less likely
to be repeated.
5 The preferred choice is (c) because this expresses the essence of
goal theory. (a) goes too far. The agreement of goals is very
desirable but it is not the only way of motivating people. (c) also
goes too far. Setting challenging goals will indeed motivate
people but it is not the sole method. (d) rightly emphasizes the
importance of feedback but this is only part of the goal-setting
process.
6 The best choice is (a). This stresses the need to believe that their
behaviour will produce a reward, which they value. (b) is true
but there is more to expectancy theory than that – it is not just
about performance pay. (c) is incorrect – expectancy theory is
not just about financial rewards. (d) is an inadequate choice –
expectations of what?
7 Of the three choices, (a) is clearly wrong. It can be effective but
other approaches can be equally or more effective for some
people. Each of the other three choices has merit but, on balance,
(b) is preferred because it expresses a fundamental truth about
money and motivation, which should be paramount – it should
 Appendix 191

never be assumed that one method of motivation, e.g.

performance-related pay, will be equally effective for everyone.
8 The preferred choice is (c) because it recognizes that there is
more than one method of motivation. A combination of financial
and non-financial rewards – what is called a ‘total rewards’
approach – can be the most powerful method of motivation.
Both (a) and (d) are correct up to a point but neither tells the
whole story. (b) is the carrot and stick approach, which has been
discredited as having only limited value in special circumstances.
Moreover, it fails to convey to people that they are valued – it
simply treats them like machines.

Exercise 5.1
Dealing with engagement problems
The outcome of the survey shows that there are serious problems
concerned with the ways in which people feel about their jobs and
their attitude to their managers and supervisors.
A five-point plan for improving engagement levels could include:

1 Focus groups with employees to discuss the situation and obtain

their views on what should be done.
2 A review of how work is organized and jobs designed in each
department.
3 Intensive training for all managers on job design, and individual
coaching for those where there are particular problems as
identified by the survey.
4 A leadership development programme for all managers and
team leaders.
5 Intensive courses on coaching and developing people for all
managers and team leaders.
192 Appendix

Exercise 6.1
Case study: Work and organization design
in Barchester Council
The main issue in this case is the organization of the different
sections of the Housing Department into ‘silos’ and the consequent
deskilling of work, and poor morale. Service to customers is poor,
as is productivity.
A radical change is needed. The organization should become
customer-centred. One way of doing this is to set up groups, the
members of which can deal with all aspects of a customer’s housing
needs in one place. Thus each group would cover housing advice,
homeless people, registrations, allocations, temporary accommo-
dation and income matters. Although initially group members
would specialize in each area they could progressively learn to deal
with other aspects of housing. Thus their jobs would be enriched,
the groups could operate more flexibly and much better service
would be provided for customers. It would have to be established
how many groups were needed to deal with the normal flow of
work. Customers, when they arrived, would be allocated to a
group that had sufficient capacity to deal with them quickly.

Exercise 7.1
What is a ‘good’ job?
One in which there is:

● Variety
● Opportunity to use and develop skills
● Autonomy in deciding working methods (so far as possible)
● Feedback on achievements and progress
● Understanding of the significance of the work
 Appendix 193

Exercise 7.2
The argument for job enrichment –
Frederick Herzberg
Herzberg did a lot of good work promoting job enrichment but his
draconian arguments in this quotation are completely misjudged.
The argument for job enrichment is that it provides for intrinsic
motivation, the best and longest-lasting approach to motivation.

Exercise 7.3
A case of job enrichment
This is a clear case where job enrichment is appropriate from
the viewpoint of both the organization and the individual. The
approach should be gradual – one step at a time – starting with
some fairly routine HR duties and progressively expanding them
to aspects of HR, such as recruiting administrative staff, which the
person is clearly capable of undertaking.

Exercise 7.4
It’s not in my job description
Avoid producing job descriptions that try to cover everything that
the job holder might do – they never can. Instead, rely on role
profiles that simply specify the key results expected without trying
to spell out how they might be achieved.
194 Appendix

Exercise 7.5
Preparing a basic role profile
Key result areas for a quality control technician:

1 Conduct tests to establish the extent to which a range of food

products meets quality standards.
2 Monitor the achievement of food hygiene standards and conduct
tests to establish the extent to which company and national/
international standards are being achieved for the range of
products.
3 Recommend actions to remedy quality or hygiene problems
identified by the tests.
4 Prepare replies for customer services to send to customers who
have complained about the quality of any item in the product
range.
5 Prepare regular reports summarizing test results and findings.
6 Contribute to reviews of how quality and hygiene standards can
be improved.

Exercise 8.1
Investigating the quality of teamwork
A study of the survey results indicates that the problem is clearly
one of leadership, as shown by the responses to questions 5 and 1
and, possibly, question 4. An intensive leadership development
course for team leaders is required, supplemented by individual
coaching where this seems to be necessary. Some team-building
training involving the whole teams would also be useful.
 Appendix 195

Exercise 9.1
Managing remote working problems
● Motivating remote workers
● Communicating with them
● Clarifying work responsibilities and arrangements

Exercise 10.1
The problem of performance appraisal
This is probably the most serious defect of traditional performance
management systems. The solution is to abolish the formal annual
review and replace it with more frequent informal reviews or
‘check-ins’.

Exercise 11.1
Reviewing performance
The main points to be covered are:

● Where the individuals have got to in terms of achieving their

objectives
● Where they are going
● How they are going to get there
● What they know and can do
● What they have learnt or need to learn
● What help or guidance they require
196 Appendix

Exercise 11.2
Approaches to feedback

Comments on the
The event(s) The feedback feedback

For the second time ‘We can’t have this. This completely
this week, an You’ve made the same negative feedback will
accounting assistant mistake twice in the only create resentment
has made a bad error same week. This must and/or fear, neither
when inputting data. not happen again.’ conducive to
improvement. Need to
investigate the reasons
for the problem in
order to reach a
positive conclusion.

An interim informal ‘The conversion rate Better – at least it

review is taking place achieved by your team poses a question,
of the performance of is way below target. It which might lead to
a call centre team needs to be put right. improvement, but it
leader. How will you do that?’ was unnecessary to
say ‘It needs to be put
right’. A more positive
approach would be
simply to ask the
question ‘How can this
be put right?’.

A recently recruited ‘I have just been A good example of

and relatively looking at your draft positive and helpful
inexperienced junior press release. It is well feedback.
PR executive has been written but I am not
asked to draft a press sure what message
release for the first you are trying to
time. The result was a deliver. Shall we look
piece which, while it at it together and
was quite well written, discuss what can be
did not get the done to make this into
message across clearly a really first-class piece
enough. of work?’
 Appendix 197

Comments on the
The event(s) The feedback feedback

A laboratory ‘I noticed that on Good feedback, in that

technician appears to Monday last and the it made clear what the
have lost interest in previous Thursday problem was. But to
the work and is not your reports on the assume that the
delivering technical tests you were asked technician had lost
analyses on time. to carry out were so interest is not helpful.
late that the Better to ask the
production flow was question ‘Can you
interrupted. You seem explain why this
to have lost interest in happened?’ in order to
your work. Could you get at the causes of a
tell me why?’ problem and thus lead
to a solution.

Dissatisfaction has ‘I want to talk to you The approach is fine

been expressed about about the way in but to wait for four
the way in which a which you deal with months before making
member of a customer callers. There seems to it is all wrong.
service team handles be a problem, which I Feedback should be
complaints that have first noticed about given as close to the
been made by four months ago. On event as possible so
customers; the first that occasion you that it has an
time was four months were unhelpful and immediate effect.
ago and it has indeed rude. Can you
happened twice more explain what
in the past month. happened?’
198 Appendix

Exercise 12.1
How good a delegator are you?
Score your responses to each question as follows:
2 for often
1 for occasionally
0 for never
● If your score is 15 or more you have real problems as a delegator.
● A score of 10 to 14 means that you are not a bad delegator but
that there is quite a lot of room for improvement.
● A score of 5 to 9 means that you are a pretty good delegator
although there may be some areas where improvement would
be helpful.
● A score of less than 5 means that you are a very good delegator.

Exercise 13.1
Selection interviewing skills
The following are the points that should be borne in mind when
conducting a selection interview:

● Put candidates at their ease

● Introduce the interview effectively
● Demonstrate that they had prepared for the interview carefully
● Structure the interview logically
● Ask pertinent, clear and unambiguous questions
● Probe as necessary
● Avoid leading or multiple questions
● Allow the candidate to do much of the talking
● Keep control of the progress of the interview
 Appendix 199

● Maintain an easy and informal relationship

● Complete the interview effectively
● Obtain enough information about the candidate to enable a
confident assessment to be made of their suitability for the job.

Exercise 14.1
What managers can do about learning
and development
The things a manager can do to promote learning and development
are to:

● understand the knowledge and skills required for effective

performance in each of the jobs in their team;
● identify the learning and development needs of team members
by observing and reviewing their performance to identify areas
that need attention;
● use every contact with a team member to review performance,
delegate work or give instructions as a learning opportunity for
the individual concerned;
● pay particular attention to the induction of new members of the
team to ensure that they know what to do and how to do it;
● provide coaching to develop specific skills;
● use systematic instruction methods to train individuals to carry
out unfamiliar tasks.

Exercise 15.1
Managing performance-related pay
To make the best use of performance-related pay managers should:
200 Appendix

1 Discuss with members of the team how the scheme will work
and how they can benefit from it.
2 Ensure that performance targets are clear.
3 Ensure that performance targets are stretching but achievable.
4 Give guidance and help as necessary to enable individuals to
achieve their targets.
5 Review performance jointly with individuals to assess the
extent to which they have achieved their targets.
6 Assess and rate performance fairly, recognizing both good and
bad performance.
7 Explain to individuals the level of assessment they have been
given and discuss with them how they can improve their
ratings.
8 Be prepared to justify your assessments by reference to evidence
of the level of performance achieved.
9 Understand and follow the guidelines issued by management
on how the sum available for rewards should be distributed.
10 Explain to individuals the basis upon which their reward has
been calculated.

Exercise 16.1
Managing change
To plan the change you will need to:

1 Work out the possible implications of the change for the

department as a whole and its members.
2 Analyse the impact of the change on each member of your
department.
3 Consider their possible reactions – immediate acceptance
(unlikely), outright hostility (possible), concern about how it
will affect them (very likely), indifference (unlikely).
 Appendix 201

4 Consider how you are going to explain the change to the

department as a whole, taking into account likely reactions.
5 Consider ways in which members of the department could be
involved in planning and implementing the change (the new
computer system may be a given, but the ways in which work
will be reorganized could be the subject of discussion).
6 Prepare the communication and consider how any involve-
ment could take place, e.g. assess the scope for flexibility in
implementation.
7 Plan a timetable for communication, involvement and
implementation.

Exercise 17.1
Managing conflict
You have a choice between:

● Smoothing over differences

● Counselling
● Compromise
● Constructive confrontation
● Imposing a solution

The best approach is constructive confrontation. You might be

able to handle it yourself but an HR specialist (if there is one
available) might be able to help. You have already rejected
imposition but you may have to face the fact that when all else
fails, that is what you may have to do.
202 Appendix

Exercise 17.2
Case study: Managing conflict
This is what you may have to do:

● Obtain an overview of the situation.

● Talk to each of the parties to the conflict to obtain their side of
the story.
● Talk to other members of the group to get their views.
● Evaluate what you hear.
● Reach preliminary conclusions on the facts and the reasons for
the dispute.
● Bring the parties together to discuss the situation. You can adopt
a ‘constructive confrontation’ approach, which aims to get the
parties involved to understand and explore the others’ percep-
tions and feelings.
● Steer the meeting towards a successful conclusion, i.e. agreement
by both parties that they are going to deal with the problem.
● If you cannot get a satisfactory result yourself, bring in a third
party as a mediator.
● Only resort to direct action – imposing a solution – if all else
fails.
 Appendix 203

Exercise 18.1
Approaches to dealing with typical
problems

Problem Possible approach

Someone’s work is not Don’t delay in taking it up. Get your facts
good enough straight before you talk. You need to be able
to mention specific problems if they have
arisen, or a pattern of behaviour that is
unsatisfactory to a greater or lesser degree. A
specific problem is relatively easy to deal
with. All you need to do is to reach agreement
on what needs to be done differently. A
pattern of unsatisfactory behaviour can be
more difficult to deal with. You have to point
out what the pattern is and set out what sort
of behaviour you need instead. Your aim will
be to convince the individual that something
needs to be done and get them to agree on
what that is.

Someone says their Find out where the individual feels they are
workload is too heavy overworked and discuss what you think can
but you don’t think it is be done to manage the work better in order
to reduce the load.

Someone gets defensive Restate the facts of the case as you see it and
when you give them suggest a positive approach for the individual
critical feedback to adopt to deal with the problem.

Someone makes a bad Recognize that everyone, including yourself,

mistake will make a bad mistake some time. If it is
just one mistake, ensure that the individual
recognizes it as such (if they don’t, you have
to spell it out) and agree on how it can be
avoided in future. If it is one of a series of
errors you may have to take disciplinary
action in the shape of a formal warning.
204 Appendix

Problem Possible approach

Someone makes a This should never be tolerated. Let them

sexist or racist remark know immediately that this sort of behaviour
must never happen again.
Someone is bullying a Again, this should not be tolerated, although
colleague it is always necessary to get chapter and
verse on the behaviour before holding the
bully to account.

Exercise 18.2
Case study: Creative disruption
Jenny Stopford could:

1 Talk to each of the parties in turn, including Frank Peebles, and

get them to tell her their side of the story.
2 Weigh up the evidence and consider possible courses of action.
Whatever else is done, she was certain that someone, ideally
Frank Peebles, should take Louis Scatcherd to one side and
point out that while it is understood that he will want to get the
best help he can, this does not mean that he can monopolize any
one person’s services. He should also be warned that his rudeness
was unacceptable and that it must not happen again.
3 Advise Jon Chadwick on what he should brief Frank Peebles to
do and offer her help in discussing this with Frank. Jon should
be encouraged to follow up to ensure that Frank has seen Louis
and check that a satisfactory conclusion has been reached. If
this appears not to be the case, Jenny may have to advise Jon to
see Louis himself.
4 Follow up to discuss with Jon how it went and offer any further
advice if necessary.
 Appendix 205

Exercise 19.1
Disciplinary problems

Case Action

Someone has been heard by This is clearly a case of gross

several people making racist misconduct and justifies summary
remarks, in spite of having dismissal
been given a formal warning
to desist after a previous
occurrence

Two employees have been Warn them that such behaviour will
caught fighting on the not be tolerated and tell them that
premises disciplinary action will be taken if it
happens again

It is suspected that an If this is just a suspicion, even if there

employee who is supposed to is some foundation for it, it is essential
be working from home has not to find out the full facts before taking
been doing so any action. The employee should be
given the chance to explain why,
apparently, they were not available for
work. Action in the form of a warning
should only take place if the
explanation is clearly unsatisfactory
Exercise 20.1
Managing under-performers

Scenario What can be done about these problems?

Jack is a CNC (computer numerical control) drill operator in a manufacturer It would be tempting to take a severe view but the
of ‘white’ kitchen products. His drill uses G-code to move its spindle, fact that Jack has until now been regarded as a
to cut metal in various locations and depths. It follows the machining valuable employee and is a valuable asset suggests
code rigidly and all usually goes well. Jack has simply to ensure that that there might be an underlying reason for this
the right code is used and the machine does the work while he looks aberration from his normal standards. The situation
on. But he has to be particularly alert to the possibility of a ‘crash’. This should be discussed with Jack to see if this is the
can happen even in a CNC machine when, for some reason, it functions case and if so, it might be possible to help. If,
outside the physical bounds of its drive mechanism, resulting in a however, there is no apparent reason for Jack’s
collision with itself or damage to the mechanism. It is Jack’s behaviour he might be given a formal warning in
responsibility to spot that this is about to happen and prevent it by accordance with the capability. But, taking into
shutting down and then resetting the drill. Jack is experienced and has account his past contribution, consideration could
been regarded as a good and conscientious operator who has never be given to arranging refresher training for Jack,
made a bad mistake and is an asset to the department. However, last concentrating on faults analysis.
week he failed to spot that something was going wrong. The result was
damage to the machine and a serious interruption to the production
flow. He was reprimanded by his supervisor.
Scenario What can be done about these problems?

James is a technical author in a firm manufacturing and marketing Feedback must be given to James on the problem.
television sets and DVD players. His job is to produce documents that The possibility of some underlying reason that could
explain in user-friendly language how to install and operate the be dealt with should be explored but it will still be
equipment. James has been doing this job well for three years but he necessary to spell out the standards of performance
appears to have lost interest. His output is patchy and he no longer and behaviour expected of him. He could be told
seems to want to get on well with his technical colleagues – a key that he will be given a period of time to improve but
relationship. His document on the firm’s latest product is not as good if that doesn’t happen the capability procedure
as his previous efforts. He has not produced operating guidelines that would be invoked.
are as clear as his previous efforts were.

Terry was recently promoted to fill the position of team leader, which Terry must be made aware of the problem but this is
became vacant quite suddenly, in the maintenance department of a a case where he hasn’t really been given a proper
large manufacturing company. He had been a very effective maintenance chance. He should be offered help from a mentor in
engineer but had no experience in management. Unfortunately, the dealing with the issues and exercising leadership.
urgency with which the job had to be filled meant that while Terry was Training in management and leadership would be
briefed on his duties, he received no specific training in management useful.
and leadership. His job is to lead a team that is responsible for ensuring
that all mechanical equipment is maintained to the required standards
of quality and availability and thus minimize downtime. The problem is
that targets for downtime are not being met, which is seriously affecting
the achievement of production plans. Members of his team have
complained that there is little sense of direction and they are no longer
clear about what they are expected to do.
208 Appendix

Exercise 21.1
Negative behaviour
To deal with negative behaviour it is necessary to break down the
barrier by talking to the person concerned and getting them on
your side by convincing them that you are not the enemy.

Exercise 22.1
Case study: Timekeeping
Comments:

● An informal warning should have been given by Amy’s

predecessor and in the absence of that, Amy should now give
one instead of plunging straight into the second stage of the
disciplinary procedure, i.e. a formal warning. Amy should have
warned Tony that she was concerned about his absences and
would be monitoring his attendance record carefully to check if
it had improved. She should also inform Tony that if not, the
second stage of the disciplinary procedure – a formal warning
– would be invoked.
● The head of HR should have insisted that the full disciplinary
procedure should be followed before further action was taken.
● The manner in which Tony was dismissed was completely wrong.
If Amy was insisting that it had to be done, she should have
done it herself.
● If Tony claimed that he had been unfairly dismissed, the failure
to follow procedure would mean that his claim would have a
very good chance of succeeding. The manner in which the dis­
missal was carried out would be taken into account by the
tribunal in coming to this decision, as suggesting that Amy did
not care how it was done as long as it happened.
 Appendix 209

● The lessons to learn are that following a disciplinary procedure

is essential in the interest of achieving natural justice. But not
following it can have unpleasant consequences. Losing an unfair
dismissal case would be bad news for both Amy and the head of
HR.

Exercise 23.1
Handling challenging conversations: what
would you do?

1 Choice (a) is far too dictatorial; (b) is too vague; (c) is to be

preferred, it is a clear statement on what the meeting will be
about – no surprises – and gives the employee time to collect
their thoughts; (d) this leans too far into informality. It will be a
formal meeting and the employee should be aware of this so as
not to be taken by surprise.
2 Choice (a) is far too abrupt and is guaranteed to antagonize the
individual; (b) is negative, abrupt and peremptory and would
create a poor atmosphere from the start; (c) is generally a better
approach but comparisons can only be invidious and do not
address the real issue; (d) is better – it states clearly what the
meeting is about and indicates that a joint problem-solving
approach is being made based on evidence.
3 Choice (a) is potentially a helpful approach; (b) is better, it
assumes that the situation has been explored thoroughly and
that a joint effort will be made to deal with it; (c) will only
antagonize the individual and will mean that a reasonable
solution is virtually impossible; (d) the first part appears to be
reasonable, although offering a joint problem-solving approach
would be better. The second part is far too peremptory and
would destroy any good the initial words may have done.
210 Appendix

4 Choice (a) will only make matters worse; (b) is again a negative
approach, which will get the manager nowhere; (c) is positive
and invites a problem-solving rather than an antagonistic
approach; (d) is a reasonable approach but puts too much onus
on the individual – managers are there to support their staff, not
to leave them to sink or swim.
5 Choice (a) is entirely unconstructive and will only make a
difficult situation worse; (b) is antagonistic and will mean that
the meeting will become even more negative and unproductive;
(c) sounds reasonable but a difficult customer may only think or
even say ‘that’s your problem, not mine’; (d) ensures that the
meeting focuses on the real issues based on factual evidence.
6 Choice (a) will only make matters worse now and in any future
meeting; (b) is patronizing and counterproductive; (c) recognizes
that in the heat of the moment little progress can be made but
offers a future opportunity to reach a better outcome; (d) is fine
up to a point, but things may have got so far that they cannot be
solved on the spot – a cooling-off period might be best.

Exercise 24.1
Giving bad news
If you can draw on your experience, analyse the event in terms of
how the bad news was given and how you reacted to it. Then draw
conclusions on how well or badly it was done and in the latter case
what should be done by way of improvement.

Exercise 25.1
Managing bias
There should be clearly defined policy backed and promoted by
top management that biased decisions are not acceptable. Training
 Appendix 211

should be given in the different types of unconscious bias so that

managers can become aware of them and how they should be dealt
with. Areas such as recruitment, which are prone to biased
situations, should be reviewed to establish the existence of any
bias, for example a much smaller percentage of people of black,
Asian and other minority ethnicity being recruited in certain areas.
If that is found to be the case, the person or persons responsible
should be held to account and given special guidance.

Exercise 26.1
Dealing with a bullying complaint
If you receive a complaint about bullying the first thing to do is ask
the person who raised the issue what they’d like to happen. They
might want you simply to keep an eye on it or have a quiet, informal
word with the person they’re complaining about. But they might
want to make it a formal complaint.
There is much to be said for attempting to deal with the matter
informally, if the complainer agrees. You can talk to the person
being complained about to hear their side of the story. Depending
on the response, this might be the time to bring the two parties
together to discuss the issue. Bringing things out into the open is a
good start. The person accused of bullying may deny it and it will
be your job to decide if any blame should be attached to them. This
may be tough and at this stage it may be a good idea to get a
neutral person (perhaps from HR) to mediate.
If it emerges that there is some substance to the complaint
(chapter and verse should be obtained as far as possible) the aim
should be to get the person complained against to agree to what
should be regarded as acceptable behaviour. They can then be
asked to examine their own behaviour to establish the extent to
which it conforms with that standard. If they can recognize that
they need to do something, record that decision and follow up at a
later date. If they refuse to accept responsibility and you are certain
212 Appendix

that they are in denial, they should be warned that this behaviour
is unacceptable and must stop. If it is decided that there is no case
for taking action, the complainer should be informed and given the
reason why.
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