Engineering Physics

UNIT 3 SEMICONDUCTOR
PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION

 Band Theory of Solids is a quantum mechanical model of electrons in solids which

envisages certain constrained ranges or the bands, for the energies of the electrons.
 It is also called as energy band theory of solids.
 The electron band theory of solids basically describes the quantum states that electrons
can take inside metal solids.
 The overlap of the electron probability distributions of all the individual atoms in the
metal solid leads to a creation of a continuous band of energies.
 The ranges of allowed energies of electrons in a solid are called allowed bands.
 Bands of energies between two such allowed bands are called forbidden bands which
implies that electrons within the solid cannot be allowed to possess these energies. Band
theory accounts for many of the electrical and thermal properties of solids. Solids can be
categorised into conductors, semiconductors or insulators by their ability to conduct
electricity.
 Electron band theory explains differences in conductivity of these solids.
 Band theory was also successful in giving us an insight into theoretical understanding of
semiconductors and their physical properties.

FORMATION OF ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

 A single isolated atom has discrete energy levels.
 When two identical atoms are considered to be far apart, the electron energy levels in an
individual atom are not affected by the presence of the other.
 As long as the atoms are widely separated, they have identical energy levels; electrons fill
the levels in each atom independently.
 But when the atoms are brought closer, they begin to interact strongly and as a result,
each isolated energy level will be transformed into two energy levels of similar energies.
 Transformation of single energy level into two or more separate energy levels is defined
as the energy level splitting.
 Similarly, if we consider N atoms, their isolated energy levels will be split into N energy
levels. These N energy levels are so close to each other that form a near continuum.
 Therefore, when atoms are brought together to form a solid, their energy levels split up
and form a group of closely space allowed energy levels of same energy value. This
group of closely spaced energy levels of same energy is called Energy band.
 The concept of energy level splitting and formation of valence band and conduction band
is illustrated in Fig.3.1

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Fig.3.1 Energy level splitting and formation of valence band and conduction band.

 When atoms are brought together, application of Pauli’s exclusion principle becomes
important.
 It states that no two electrons can have their entire quantum numbers same. Hence an
energy level can accommodate at the most two electrons of opposite spin.
 The degree of splitting of energy levels depends on the depth in an atom.
 The energy levels of core electrons belonging to inner shells split to a lesser degree and
hence they form a narrow core band. They are always full and do not take part in the
conduction process.
 The energy levels occupied by valence electrons split more and form wider bands.
 Energy levels above the valence levels also split though they are not occupied.
 While occupying a band, electron starts from lowest energy level and fill the levels in the
ascending order of energy (Aufbau’s Principle).

QUE: Explain formation of energy bands (in solids) on the basis of band theory of solids.
(4)[Summer-05, 07]

VALENCE BAND, CONDUCTION BAND AND ENERGY GAP

VALENCE BAND:
 The Energy band occupied by valence electrons that are involved in covalent bonding, is
called as valence band.
 Depending upon the number of valence electrons this band may get partially or
completely filled.
 At absolute zero, covalent bonds are complete, therefore valence band is completely
filled.

CONDUCTION BAND:
 The energy band above the valence band, having free electrons responsible for electrical
conduction, is called as conduction band.
 At absolute zero, this energy band is empty.
ENERGY GAP:
 The energy interval between top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band
which is empty and forbidden is called energy gap or band gap.

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 It is the special characteristic of semiconductor material.

 It is the minimum amount of energy required for breaking a covalent bond and to
excite an electron from valence band to conduction band.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS BASED ON BAND THEORY

 Solids can be classified into conductors, semiconductors or insulators depending upon

width of Energy gap.
 Completely filled bands contain large number of electrons but do not contribute to the
conductivity of the material.
 Partially filled bands are necessary for electrical conduction.
 The energy band diagram of conductors, semiconductors or insulators is shown in figure
3.2.
Conductors:
 The solids in which conduction and valence band overlap each other are called
conductors. Therefore, the energy gap between valence band and conduction band is zero.
 Electrons can easily jump from lower energy band to higher one and become available for
conduction.
 An application of a small amount of voltage leads to generation of large amount of
current.
 Hence these solids are good electrical conductors. For e.g. Lithium, Berylium and
sodium.
 Semiconductors:
 The solids in which the conduction and valence bands are separated by a small energy gap
of less than 2eV are called semiconductors.
 For e.g. Semiconductors like Silicon has Bandgap of 1.12 eV and Germanium has
bandgap of 0.72 eV.
 A small energy gap means that a small amount of energy is required to free the electrons
and move them from the valence band to the conduction band.
 The semiconductors behave like insulators at 0K, because valence electrons do not have
required energy to jump to the conduction band.
 If the temperature is increased, valence electrons acquire sufficient energy to jump into
the conduction band.
 Therefore, the conductivity of semiconductors increases with the increase in temperature.
Insulators:
 The solids in which the conduction band and valence bands are separated by a large
energy gap of ≥ 3 eV are called insulators.
 At room temperature, the valence electrons do not have enough energy to jump into the
conduction band, therefore insulator do not conduct current.
 Thus, insulators have very high resistivity and extremely low conductivity at room
temperatures. For e.g. Diamond and glass.

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Figure3.2: Energy band diagram of conductor, semiconductor and insulator

QUE: Explain classification of solids on the basis of energy band diagrams.

(3) [Summer-17]
QUE: Discuss classification of solids on the basis of forbidden energy gaps.
(3) [Summer-18]

FERMI LEVEL

 Fermi level is defined as the highest filled energy level in a conductor at 0K.
 At 0K, all the levels below Fermi level are completely filled with electrons and all the
levels above Fermi levels are completely empty.
 But at high temperature there is a possibility that some of the electrons from levels below
Fermi level then gets transferred (jump) to the levels above Fermi level.
 Fermi Energy: Fermi energy is the maximum energy that a free electron can have in a
conductor at 0K.It is the energy associated with the Fermi level.

FERMI DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION F(E)

 Fermi Dirac distribution function gives the probability that any energy level ‘E’ at given
temperature T is occupied or not.

1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1 + exp [ ]
𝑘𝑇

E – Energy level for which occupancy is to be determined.

EF – Fermi level.
k – Boltzmann constant.
T – Temperature at which occupancy is to be determined.
 When f (E ) = 0; it indicates that energy level E is completely empty.
 When f (E ) = 1; it indicates that energy level E is completely filled.

QUE: What is meant by Femi-Dirac Distribution function? Define Fermi level at 0K.
QUE: What is fermi function?

VARIATION OF FERMI FUNCTION F(E) WITH TEMPERATURE

The Fermi function is given by

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1
f(E) = (E−EF )
-------------- (1)
1+exp[ ]
kT
At T = 0K
Case I:- For E<EF; (E – EF ) becomes a negative quantity and therefore Fermi distribution is
given by
1
f(E) = −(E−EF )
1 + exp [ k× 0
]
Since T = 0K and so 1/T = -∞
1 1
f(E) = 1+exp[−∞]
= 1+0 = 1 -------------- (2)
Thus, for all energy levels having ‘E’ less than EF, probability for their occupation is 1. Hence
they are fully occupied.
Case II: - For E > EF, then
1
f(E) = (E−E )
1 + exp [ k × 0F ]
1 1 1
or f(E) = = = =0 -------------- (3)
1+exp[∞] 1+∞ ∞
Thus all energy levels that are lying above EF remain vacant.
Case III: -For E = EF, the quantity (E-EF) = 0.
1 1
f(E) = (0) = 0 ------------- (4)
1+exp[ ] 1+exp[ ]
k×0 0

f(E) = Indeterminate
The occupancy of Fermi energy level at 0K varies from zero to one as shown in Figure 3.3
Hence, in metals, at T = 0 K, EF is the highest energy level occupied.
Graphical Representation:

Fig3.3: (a) Distribution of electrons in conduction band

(b) Fermi function at T = 0K in a conductor

For higher temperature: (T > 0K):-

At higher temperature some of the electrons below Fermi level can jump to highest energy levels.
There is possibility that the electrons from the levels below Fermi level jump to the level above
Fermi level.
Therefore, the probability of finding electrons in the levels immediately below EF will decrease.
On the other hand, the probability of finding electrons in the levels immediately above EF
increases. This is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
The probability function f(E) for Fermi level is given by,
At T > 0 K, When E = EF.
1 1 1 1
f(E) = 0 =
1+exp[0]
= 1+1 = 2 -------------- (5)
[ ]
1+exp kT

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Fig.3.4: F-D distribution function with temperature

This implies that the probability of occupancy of Fermi energy level at any temperature above 0K
is 0.5 or 50%. Therefore, we can say that Fermi energy level is the energy level, which has a
probability of occupancy of 50%.
Fermi energy is thus the average energy possessed by electrons participating in conduction in
metals at temperatures above 0K.
From figure 3.4, it can be seen that all the curves pass through a point (C) which is called cross
over point.
1
Thus f(E) is function of E and it always passes through a point (EF,2) at different temperatures.

Concept of hole:
 When a small amount of external energy is applied to a semiconductor, the electrons in a
valence band move to the conduction band leaving a vacancy behind in the valence band.
This vacancy is called as hole.
 The electric charge of hole is same as that of electron but has opposite polarity.
 When a covalent bond somewhere in the solid breaks, this vacancy gets filled by electron
and a hole is created at another place.
 In this way, position of vacancy changes within the crystal.
 In other words, the ‘hole’ moves from one place to other within the crystal lattice.
 The movement of hole causes electrical current.
 The current in a semiconductor is due to movement of electrons in conduction band and
holes in valence bands.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors can be broadly classified as
(i) Intrinsic (Pure) semiconductors and
(ii) Extrinsic (Doped) semiconductors

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

 Chemically pure semiconductors in which electrical conduction is due to thermally

excited electrons and holes are known as intrinsic semiconductors. For eg. Germanium
and silicon.
 In these semiconductors, conductivity is mainly due to electron-hole pairs generated due
to thermal agitation.
 The electrons reaching the conduction band, due to thermal excitation leave equal number
of holes in valence band.

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 Hence number of free electrons in conduction band is always equal to the number of holes
in the valence band.

EXPRESSION OF FERMI LEVEL /ENERGY IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝐹 =
2
Thus, fermi level lies at the centre of energy gap in an intrinsic semiconductor.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OF INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

To describe current conduction and energy band diagram in intrinsic silicon let us consider silicon
as example.

At T= 0K
 At 0K, all valence electrons of each silicon atom are involved in covalent bond with
neighboring atoms and has no free electron is available to participate in the process of
conduction.
 Under these conditions, valence band is completely filled and conduction band is
completely empty as shown in Fig.3.5.
 Electrons in the valence band cannot cross the forbidden energy gap and hence the
material behaves as an insulator.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.5: (a) 2D representation of silicon crystal (b) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K

AT T>0K
 As temperature increases, electrons acquire sufficient energy to break the covalent bonds
due to the supply of thermal energy and jumps from valance band to conduction band
after gaining energy equal to Eg.
 Whenever one electron is made available for conduction, a hole is formed in valance band
at the same time as shown in Fig.3.6.
 If n= number of electrons, p= number of holes and ni = intrinsic carrier concentration or
density. Hence, n = p = ni,
 As the concentration of electrons in conduction band and valence band are equal, Fermi
level EF is located exactly at the middle of forbidden gap (Eg).

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(a) (b)
Fig. 3.6: (a) 2D representation of silicon crystal (b) Energy band diagram of silicon at T >
0K.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 The electronic properties and the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be
changed in a controlled manner by adding very small quantities of other elements called
dopants.
 This can be achieved by adding impurities of III or IV group elements to the melt and
then allowing it to solidify into the crystal.
 This process is called doping and these doped semiconductors are called extrinsic
semiconductors.

Fig.3.7: Illustration of valence electrons in (a) pentavalent and (b) trivalent impurities.

Extrinsic Semiconductors are further classified into two categories:

 N-type semiconductor → Pure semiconductor + group V element [pentavalent impurity]

 P-type semiconductor → Pure semiconductor + group III element [trivalent impurity]

 Impurity atoms with 5 valence electrons produce N-type semiconductors by contributing

extra electrons,
 Impurity atoms with 3 valence electrons produce P-type semiconductors by producing a
"hole" or electron deficiency.

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

 An n-type semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is doped with a

pentavalent impurity (having 5-electrons in the outermost orbit) such as Phosphorus,
Arsenic or Antimony.
 The impurity atom has one excess unpaired electron as shown in figure3.8.

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 At room temperature thermal energy is sufficient to make this electron free.

 This impurity is called donor impurity, as it donates electrons.
 The addition of donor impurity increases the number of electrons in the semiconductor.
 Hence in N type semiconductor, electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers.

Fig.3.8: N-type semiconductor

ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

 The energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor is shown in figure 3.9.
 At 0K, the donor level is located below the bottom of conduction band. The donor level is
filled by donor atoms and fermi level EF is located between the bottom of conduction
band and donor level.
 Thus, at 0K, the donor atoms are not ionized, the conduction band is empty while the
valence band is full and the material behaves as an insulator (Fig.3.9 a).
 While at higher temperature (T > 0K), the electrons from the donor level and from the
valence band jump to conduction band and material shows the conductivity (Fig.3.9 b).
 Conduction band contains large number of electrons donated by impurity atoms in
addition to electrons jumping from valence band.
 The impurity atoms become positive ions (they are ionized). They gain a positive charge
due to donation of electrons. The donor level is now empty as it is devoid of electrons. It
contains only positive ions.
 The fermi level EF shifts below the donor level as shown in fig.3.9(b).

Fig3.9.Energy band diagram of N-type semiconductor at (a) At 0K (b) At T > 0K.

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P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

 A p-type semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is doped with a

trivalent impurity (three electrons in outer most orbit) such as Boron, Aluminium,
Gallium or Indium.
 Them impurity atom is deficient of one electron. The absence of one electron is
treated as hole as shown in fig.3.10.
 The impurity is called acceptor impurity, as it accepts one electron from neighboring
semiconductor atoms if small amount of energy is supplied.
 Then hole will be created in the neighboring semiconductor atom.
 The impurity atom supplied holes which are ready to accept electrons.
 The number of holes is thus more than electrons in P-type semiconductor.
 Therefore, holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge
carriers in P-type semiconductor. The conductivity is mainly due to holes in this
semiconductor.

Fig3.10: P-type semiconductor

ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

 The energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor is shown in fig.3.11.

 At 0 K, the acceptor levels are devoid of electrons and are hence empty. The valence
band is full and conduction band is empty, the material behaves as an insulator
(Fig3.11a).
 The acceptor level is located above the valence band and fermi level EF is between
acceptor level and top of valence band.
 While at higher temperature (T > 0K), the electrons from valence band jump to
acceptor level and also into the conduction band leaving holes in valence band, hence
material shows the conductivity (Fig.3.11b).
 The acceptor level is now filled with electrons. It contains ionized atoms carrying
negative charge. The fermi level EF shifts above the acceptor level.
 In P type semiconductor, holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority
charge carriers.

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Fig.3.11: Energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor at (a) At 0K (b) At T > 0K

QUE: What is N-Type semiconductor? Draw energy band diagram for N- type semiconductor at
0 K and T K. (4) [Winter-14, Summer-16]
QUE: Draw energy band diagram for P- type semiconductor at 0K and at room temperature.
(3) [Winter-11]

Important Formulae
1.38×10−23
1. Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K = = 8.6 × 10−5 eV/K
1.602×10−19
2. Probability that an energy level E is filled by an electron

1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1 + exp [ 𝑘𝑇
]

3. Probability that an energy level E is not occupied by an electron = 1 - f(E)

4. Probability of electron being thermally excited in conduction band at room temperature in

intrinsic semiconductor
1
f(E) = Eg
(2KT)
1+e

NUMERICALS

1.What is the probability that a quantum state whose energy is 0.10 eV (i) above and (ii)
below Fermi energy will be occupied? Assume T as 800K.
Ans: Given: E-EF =0.10 eV
T= 800K
Solution: Case (i): Above Fermi energy level
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
= (0.10) = 0.19 = 19%
1+exp[ ] 1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 8.6 ×10−5 ×800

Case (ii): Below Fermi energy level

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1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
= −(0.10) = 0.81 = 81%
1+exp[− ] 1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 8.6 ×10−5 ×800

1-f(E) = 1-0.81 =0.19 =19%

2. Evaluate the Fermi function for energy kT above the Fermi energy.

Solution:
1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇

For energy kT above the Fermi energy, 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇

1 1 1 1
Therefore, 𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
= (𝑘𝑇 ) = = = 0.2689
1+exp[ ] 1+exp[ ] 1+exp[1] 1+2.7183
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

3. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E) for E – EF = 0.01 eV at
200K.
Solution:
Given: E – EF = 0.01 eV = 0.01 × 1.6×10–19C = 1.6×10–21 J
T = 200K
𝑓(𝐸) =?
Boltzmann constant k =1.38× 10–23J/K
1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇
1
= (0.01 × 1.6×10−19)
1+exp[ ]
1.38× 10−23 ×200

1
= 1+exp[0.5797]
1
= 1+1.7855
= 0.3589

4. In a solid consider the energy level lying 0.01eV below Fermi level. What is the probability
of this level not being occupied by an electron?
Solution:
Given: EF - E = 0.01 eV or (E – EF) = - 0.01 eV
At room temperature, Thermal energy kT = 0.026 eV

Probability of a level being not occupied by an electron, 1-f(E) =?

1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇
1
= −0.01 = 0.595
1+exp[ ]
0.026

1-f(E) =1- 0.595 = 0.405

5.. Calculate the probabilities for an electronic state to be occupied at 20oC if energy of these
states is 0.11 eV (i) above and (ii) below Fermi level.

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Solution:
Given: E-EF =0.11 eV
T= 20+273 = 293 K
Solution: Case (i): Above Fermi energy level
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
= (0.11) = 0.0126
1+exp[ ] 1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 8.6 ×10−5 ×293

Case (ii): Below Fermi energy level

1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
= −(0.11) = 0.987
1+exp[− ] 1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇 8.6 ×10−5 ×293

6. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state exists with energy 0.5
eV above Fermi energy.

Solution :

Given : Probability f (E) = 1% =1/100

E - EF = 0.5 eV

Boltzmann constant k = 8.6 × 10−5 eV/K

Temperature T = ?
1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇

1 1
100
= (0.5)
1+exp[ ]
8.6×10−5 ×𝑇

(0.5)
𝑜𝑟 100 = 1 + exp [ ]
8.6 × 10−5 × 𝑇

5813.95
99 = 1+ exp [ 𝑇
]

5813.95
or 99 = exp [ ]
𝑇

5813.95
or ln 99 =
𝑇

5813.95
or T = = 1265.27 K
4.595

7. For Copper at 1000K, find the energy at which the probability F(E) that a conduction
electron state will be occupied is 90%. The fermi energy is 7.06 eV.
Solution:
Given: T = 1000K
F(E) = 90% = 0.90

EF = 7.06eV

Boltzmann constant k= 8.6 × 10−5eV/K

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Energy E =?
1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1 + exp [ 𝑘𝑇
]

1
0.90 = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1
or 1 + exp [ 𝑘𝑇
]= 0.90

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1
exp [ 𝑘𝑇
] = 0.90 -1

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
or exp [ 𝑘𝑇
] = 0.11

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
or = ln 0.11
𝑘𝑇

or E -EF = kT ln 0.11= 8.6 × 10−5 × 1000× (−2.207)

or E -EF = -0.189

or E – 7.06 = -0.189 or E= 6.87eV

8. Estimate the temperature at which 5% probability of electrons having an excess energy of

0.1 eV above Fermi energy level of Gold.
Solution:
Given: f(E) =5% = 0.05
(E-EF) = 0.1 eV
Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 × 10−23J/K
1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇

1
0.05 = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1 + exp [ 𝑘𝑇
]

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1
or 1 + exp [ 𝑘𝑇
]= 0.05

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1
exp [ 𝑘𝑇
] = 0.05 -1

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
or exp [ ] = 19
𝑘𝑇

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
or 𝑘𝑇
= ln 19

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
𝑘𝑇
= 2.9444

0.1𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
T=
1.38𝑥10−23 𝑥2.9444

T=393.842 K

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9. At what temperature we can expect a 10% probability that electrons in silver have an
energy which is a 1% above Fermi energy ? The fermi energy of silver= 5.5eV.

Solution :

Given : Probability f (E) = 10% = 0.1

E - EF = 1% EF = 5.5eV/100 = 0.055eV

Boltzmann constant k = 8.6 × 10−5 eV/K

Temperature T = ?
1
𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1+exp[ ]
𝑘𝑇

10 1
= (0.055)
100 1+exp[ ]
8.6×10−5 ×𝑇

(0.055)
𝑜𝑟 10 = 1 + exp [ ]
8.6 × 10−5 × 𝑇

639.53
10 = 1+ exp [ ]
𝑇

639.53
or 9 = exp [ ]
𝑇

639.53
or ln 9 =
𝑇

10.The fermi energy of silver is 5.5eV. Calculate the fraction of free electrons at room
temperature located up to a width of kT on either side of fermi level.

Solution :

Given : EF = 5.5 eV

The fraction of electrons that occupy level higher than fermi level EF is given by
𝑘𝑇 0.026 𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝐹
= 5,5 𝑒𝑉
= 0.0047

Therefore, the fraction of free electrons at room temperature located up to a width of kT on either
side of fermi level = 2×0.0047 = 0.01.

11.Determine the probability of an electron thermally excited into the conduction band in
germanium at 27oC, if the band gap is 0.72 eV.

Given: T= 27oC =273+27=300K

Energy Gap Eg= 0.72 eV

Boltzmann’s constant K= 8.6x10-5eV/K

Solution:
1 1
f(E) = Eg = 0.72
= 8.7× 10−7
( ) ( )
1+e 2KT 1+e 2×8.6×10−5 ×300

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Question Bank
1) Explain the formation of energy bands in solids on the basis of band theory of solids.
2) Discuss energy band structures of conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
3) Explain classification of solids on the basis of energy band diagram.
4) Q7. Discuss the classification of solids on the basis of forbidden energy gap.
5) What is meant by Femi-Dirac Distribution function? Define Fermi level.
6) Calculate the probability that an energy level 3kT above fermi level is occupied by electron.
[Ans: 0.047]
7) In a solid consider the energy level lying 0.01eV above Fermi level. What is the probability
of this level being occupied by an electron at 300K? [Ans: 0.405]
8) In a solid consider the energy level lying 0.01eV above Fermi level. What is the probability
of this level not being occupied by an electron at 300K? [Ans: 0.595]
9) In a solid consider the energy level lying 0.01eV above Fermi level. What is the probability
of this level being occupied by an electron at 200K? [Ans: 0.359]
10) In a solid consider the energy level lying 0.01eV below Fermi level. What is the probability
of this level being occupied by an electron at 300K? [Ans: 0.595]
11) Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state exists with energy 2 eV is
occupied. Given that fermi energy is 1.5 eV. [Ans: 1265K]

PN JUNCTION DIODE

 A PN junction diode is also known as a semiconductor diode. It is formed when a P-type

and an N-type semiconductor are joined metallurgically.
 It allows current flow in one direction only.
 Hence, it can act as rectifier to convert ac voltage to dc voltage.
 A PN junction diode is schematically represented by the symbol shown in fig.3.12.

Fig3.12: Symbolic representation of PN junction diode

 The arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow when the diode is
forward biased.
 The P-side of the diode is positive and is called anode.
 The N-side is the cathode and is the negative terminal when the diode is forward biased.
 The word ‘diode’ stands for two electrodes- anode and cathode.

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 Engineering Physics

FORMATION OF POTENTIAL BARRIER IN PN JUNCTION DIODE

Fig.3.13: Illustration of depletion region in P-N junction diode

 A PN junction is formed when P-type and N-type semiconductor are joined metallurgically.
The boundary between P-region and N-region is called PN junction.
 In P-region, holes are majority charge carriers and in N-region, electrons are majority
charge carriers. This creates concentration gradient near the junction.
 Therefore, the holes from P-region move towards N-region and electrons from N-
region moves to P-region when PN junction is formed due to concentration gradient.
 When the hole from P-region enters the N-region, it combines with electron over there and
electron -hole pair disappears, this is called recombination process.
 Similarly, when electron from N-region enters the P-region, it is surrounded by large no. of
holes, which leads to recombination process.
 Further, the holes coming out of P-region leave behind negative acceptor ions and
electrons from N-region leaves behind positive donor ions near to the junction.
 This leads to the formation of depletion region. Thus, depletion region is a narrow region
of oppositely charged ions on either side of PN junction which is depleted of mobile
charge carriers (Fig.3.13).
 These oppositely charged ions produces electric field E directed from N region to P
region at the junction.
 The electric field establishes potential difference Vo at the junction, which act as a
barrier for majority charge carriers to cross the junction, hence called as potential
barrier.

UNBIASED PN-JUNCTION

 When a PN-junction diode is not connected with any external supply it is called as
unbiased.
 Once equilibrium is attained no net current will flow through it, hence diode is at
equilibrium.
 The electric field establishes potential difference Vo at the junction, which act as a barrier
for majority charge carriers to cross the junction.
 The oppositely charged ions produces electric field E at the junction directed as shown in
fig.3.14(a).

BIASING OF PN-JUNCTION DIODE

 When dc voltage is applied to the diode it is said to be biased.
 A PN-junction diode is biased in two ways:(1) Forward biasing (2) Reverse biasing.
(1) Forward biasing:

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 Engineering Physics

 When positive terminal of battery is connected to the P-region and negative terminal
of source (battery) is connected to the N-region, the diode is said to be forward
biased.
 If this external applied voltage ‘V’ becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier
Vo, the potential barrier’s opposition will be overcome.
 The width of depletion region reduces.
 The potential barrier reduces by value (Vo – V) as shown in fig.3.14(b).
 Hence majority charge carriers start crossing the junction and large current starts flowing.
 Vo is approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium.

(2) Reverse biasing:


 When negative terminal of battery is connected to the P-region and positive terminal
of source (battery) is connected to the N-region, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
 The width of depletion region increases.
 The potential barrier increases to (Vo + V) as shown in fig.3.14(c).
 Hence majority charge carriers are unable to cross the junction.
 The direction of electric field supports the flow of minority charge carriers across the
junction, hence a small amount of current flows.

Fig.3.14(a) Unbiased diode(b) Forward biasing (c) Reverse biasing

QUE: What do you mean by forward bias and reverse bias of a diode? (2M)

DRIFT & DIFFUSION CURRENT

DRIFT CURRENT
 The charge carriers start drifting due to the application of electric field to the
semiconductor and produces drift current.
 For drift current, external electric field is essential.
 Its value depends upon the carrier concentration and external electric field.
 More the temperature, more is the drift current.

DIFFUSION CURRENT
 Due to the concentration gradient in a semiconductor, the charge carriers move from
higher concentration level towards lower concentration level to maintain the equilibrium
and this movement of carriers produces diffusion current.
 For diffusion current, external electric field is not required.
 It depends upon the rate of change of carrier concentration per unit length.
 More the doping more is the diffusion current.

V-I CHARACTERSTICS AND WORKING OF PN-JUNCTION DIODE

Fig.3.15 shows forward as well as reverse characteristics of PN junction diode.

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 Engineering Physics

Fig.3.15: V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode.

Forward Bias:
 When the junction is forward biased, practically no current flows until the barrier voltage
is overcome.
 With further increase in voltage, current starts flowing & curve has a linear rise like an
ordinary conductor.
 The voltage at which current starts flowing through the diode is known as cut- in
voltage.
 It is the minimum value of voltage required to overcome potential barrier across the
junction.
 This voltage is 0.3 for Germanium and 0.7 V for silicon.
 The current in forward bias mode is large (in mA) due to the movement of majority
charge carriers across the junction.

Reverse Bias:
 When a junction is reversed biased, junction resistance increases with the increase in
reverse biased voltage (potential barrier) & very small current flow through it due to
minority charge carriers.
 As reverse voltage increases, the minority charge carriers acquire sufficient kinetic
energy.
 These accelerated charge carriers cross the junction and ionize the semiconductor atoms
in the depletion region leading to generation of free electrons and holes.
 These electrons and holes in turn get accelerated and cause further ionization of atoms in
P and N regions.
 This process is called Avalanche breakdown and leads to sharp increase in current at a
reverse bias voltage called breakdown voltage.
 Thus, breakdown voltage is the applied reverse voltage at which large current flows
through the diode.
 In reverse bias condition the current through diode is very small in the range of μA due to
movement of minority charge carriers.

ZENER DIODE
 Zener diode is a specially designed ordinary P-N junction diode, which is heavily doped
to have a very sharp and almost vertical breakdown.

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 They are exclusively operated under reverse bias conditions and designed to operate in
breakdown region without damage.
 The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
 The commonly used schematic symbol for Zener diode is shown in Fig.3.16.

Fig: 3.16: Symbolic representation of Zener diode

V-I CHARACTERSTICS AND WORKING OF ZENER DIODE

Fig.3.17: V-I Characteristics of Zener diode.

1. The Forward bias characteristics of Zener diode are same as that of normal PN Junction diode.
1. When the applied forward bias voltage ‘VF’ is less than the cut in voltage, the current is
negligibly small. When VF becomes greater than cut in voltage,current starts increasing
rapidly.
2. In reverse bias mode, current is due to minority charge carriers.
3. Since the P and N-regions are heavily doped, the depletion layer at the junction will be very
narrow.
4. The reverse bias voltage set up a strong electric field across the narrow depletion layer. This
field is strong enough to cause rupture of covalent bonds of atoms. Therefore, there is a
generation of a large number of electron-hole pairs, leading to a sharp increase in the reverse
current.
5. When reverse bias is increased, a voltage is reached when the diode starts conducting heavily
and the reverse current increases sharply. This voltage is called Zener breakdown
voltage(Vz).
6. A Zener diode maintains a constant voltage across its terminals when the reverse bias
exceeds the breakdown voltage. Therefore, it is used as voltage regulator.

APPLICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE

1) Zener diode is used as voltage regulator.

2) It is used as a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison.
3) It is used for calibrating voltmeters.

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 Engineering Physics

4) It is used for avoiding meter damage by accidental application of excessive voltage.

QUE: Explain forward and reverse bias characteristics of zener diode. (4) [Summer-13]
QUE: Explain V-I characteristics of Zener Diode. (3) [Summer -15, 16]

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ZENER BREAKDOWN AND AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

Table 2.1: Differences between Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown

Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

1.This occurs at junctions which are heavily 1.This occurs at junctions which are lightly
doped with narrow depletion region. doped with wide depletion layer.

2.This breakdown voltage sets up a very strong 2.In this case, electric field is not strong enough
electric field across this narrow layer. to produce Zener type breakdown.

3.The electric field is very strong to rupture the 3.The minority carriers collide with atoms in the
covalent bonds thereby generating electron depletion region, which breaks the covalent
hole pairs. So even a small increase in reverse bonds and electron-hole pairs are generated.
voltage is capable of producing large number Newly generated charge carriers are accelerated
of current carriers. Hence the junction has a by the electric field which results in more
very low resistance. This leads to Zener collision and generates avalanche of charge
breakdown carriers. This leads to avalanche breakdown.
4. Once Zener breakdown occurs, after the 4. Once avalanche breakdown occurs, junction
reverse voltage is removed from the diode, the gets destroyed completely and it cannot regain
junction gets back to its normal position. back its position.
5. Zener breakdown occurs when the operating 5.Avalanche breakdown occurs when the
voltage is between 5 to 8 Volts. operating voltage is greater than 8 Volts

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED)

 LED is a specially made forward biased P-N junction diode, which emits light due to
electron-hole recombination, when energized.
 It works on the principle of electroluminescence, the process in which electrical energy is
converted into light energy.
 Henry Joseph Round invented the first LED. It is operated only in forward bias.
 The symbol of LED is shown in Fig. 3.18.

Fig.3.18: Symbolic representation of LED

Construction of LED

1. The recombination of the electrons with holes occurs in the P-type material, and hence P-
material is kept at the surface of the LED.
2. For the maximum emission of light, the anode is deposited only at the edge of the P-type
material as shown in figure.
3. The cathode is made of gold film, is usually placed at the bottom of the N-region.

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 Engineering Physics

4. This gold layer of cathode helps in reflecting the light in the upward direction to increase the
LED efficiency.

Fig.3.19: Construction of LED

V-I CHARACTERSTICS AND WORKING OF LED

Fig.3.20(a): Working of LED diode Fig. 3.20 (b): V-I characteristics of LED

1) When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from N-side and the
holes from P-side move towards the junction as shown in fig3.20(a)
2) Like ordinary diode, the forward current is negligible up to a certain value of forward applied
voltage due to the potential barrier across the PN-junction.
3) When free electrons reach the junction, they overcome the potential barrier and recombine
with the holes.
4) In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the depletion
region. Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion region,
the width of depletion region decreases.
5) The recombination of free electrons and holes leads to generation of light.
6) The wavelength of light emitted and its color depends on Energy Gap (Eg) of material used
in making of LED.
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
7) The wavelength of light emitted 𝜆 = 𝐸 where 𝐸𝑔 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝜆 . For light to be emitted in
𝑔
visible region, Energy gap 𝐸𝑔 should be ≥ 1.8eV.

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 Engineering Physics

8) Energy gap 𝐸𝑔 of Silicon is 1.1eV and that of Germanium is 0.72eV.

9) An LED requires semiconductors having Energy gap ≥ 1.8eV. This can happen very
efficiently in materials like Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) and Gallium Phosphide
(GaP).The Energy released in these materials produces intense visible light.
10) The V-I characteristics of LED is shown in fig. 3.20(b).When the voltage applied overcomes
the Energy gap(potential barrier), current increases rapidly as more number of charge carriers
cross the PN junction. This voltage above which the diode start conducting is called cut-in
voltage of LED.
11) The voltage after cut-in value remains almost constant once LED starts conducting like
ordinary diode, but current increases rapidly.

APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

 LED are commonly used as indicator in electronic circuits.
 They are used in electronic calculators to display the numbers.
 They are used in digital meters & electronic clocks.
 Infrared LEDs can be used as a source in optical fiber communications.
 LEDs are used in Burglar alarms systems, Calculators, Picture phones, Traffic signals, Digital
computers, Microprocessors, Digital watches, Automotive heat lamps, Camera flashes and
Aviation lighting.

ADVANTAGES OVER FILAMENT LAMPS

 Low operational voltage and less power is required to operate.

 Fast action and no warm-up time required.
 Long life.
 Fast on-off switching capacity.
 Emits monochromatic light.
 Smaller in size and lighter in weight.

QUE: What is LED? Draw and explain its V-I characteristics.

QUE: Draw the symbols of (i) Zener diode (ii) LED.

TRANSISTORS
 Transistor was invented in 1947 by American Physicists Bardeen, Brattain and Schockley
at Bell Telephone laboratories.
 A transistor is a semiconductor device that contains three regions separated by two
distinct PN junctions. The two junctions are EB junction and CB junctions.
 The central region is called base.
 The two outer regions are called emitter and collector.
 There are two types of charge carriers, electrons and holes hence transistor is called
bipolar transistor.
 Transistor can be viewed as two PN junction diodes arranged back-to-back with base
being common to both the diodes.
 As soon as the two junctions are formed, majority charge carriers diffuse and form two
depletion layers. Depletion layer is narrow at EB junction and wide at CB junction.

There are two types of transistors:

1.NPN transistor--P-type sandwiched between two N-type.
2.PNP transistor--N-type sandwiched between two P-type.

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 Engineering Physics

Fig.3.21: Block diagram and Symbolic representation of NPN & PNP transistor

FUNCTIONS OF THREE REGIONS IN TRANSISTOR:

Emitter, Base and Collector are three regions in a transistor.
Emitter:
 It emits charge carriers.
 It is heavily doped and has moderate size.
 It is located at the one end of transistor.
Base:
 The base controls the flow of charge carriers from emitter to the collector. Therefore, it
acts as a gate between emitter and collector.
 It has minimum thickness and is lightly doped.
 It makes the central region of a transistor.
Collector:
 It collects the charge carriers coming from the base.
 It has largest size with moderate doping. It is moderately doped.
 It is at the other end of a transistor.

Biasing of transistor

 The Emitter-Base (EB) junction of transistor is always forward biased, and Collector-
Base (CB) junction of transistor is always reverse biased.
 Therefore, it works in an active mode. Hence, it transfers current from low resistance
region (EB) to high resistance region (CB).
 It is seen that almost same current flows through the two junctions.
 Thus, the device is called as transistor- the shortened form of transfer resistor.

EXPLAIN WHY:

Base region is lightly doped:

 If base region is heavily doped, more holes would be present in the base (for NPN
transistor).
 The incoming electrons would then undergo more recombination with holes in base.
 This would decrease the no. of electrons entering the collector region.
 Hence the collector current will decrease and base current will increase.

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 Engineering Physics

 But in transistor circuits, more collector current and less base current is required.
 Hence to minimize base current base region is lightly doped.

Base region is narrow:

 The main function of the base is to control the number of charge carriers from emitter to
collector and hence offers easy and quick diffusion of carriers into collector region.
 If the width of the base is more, then it would lead to more number of recombination
causing an increase in base current.
 But in transistor circuits, more collector current and less base current is required.
 Hence to offer quick diffusion of charge carriers and to keep base current to a minimum
amount, the base region is made narrow.

Emitter is heavily doped:

 The main function of the transistor is to emit charge carriers.
 In transistor circuit it is required that a maximum number of majority carriers are injected
into the base so that the emitter current IE will be large.
 Hence to provide large no. of charge carriers emitter is heavily doped as compared to base
and collector.

Collector region is larger:

 The main function of collector is to collect all the charge carriers coming from base.
 Due to the movement of minority charge carriers across the reverse biased collector base
junction, large amount of heat is produced as the minority charge carriers acquire large
amount of kinetic energy.
 Hence to collect all the charge carriers and to dissipate away the heat, the collector region
is made larger.

QUE: Explain why in a transistor (i) The base is thin and lightly doped (ii) The collector
is large in size. (2) [Winter-12, 15]
QUE : Why the base region is thin and lightly doped in a transistor ? Explain.
(3) [Winter-16]
QUE: Explain the function of emitter, base and collector in a transistor.
(3) [Winter-12, Summer-18]
QUE: Explain why the emitter is heavily doped? (1) [Winter-18]
QUE: Draw the symbol of NPN and PNP transistor. (2)

CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION

COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION:

Fig.3.22: Transistor in common base configuration

In this circuit, Base terminal is made common to both input and output circuits.

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 Engineering Physics

COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION:

Fig3.23: Transistor in common emitter configuration

In this circuit, Emitter terminal is made common to both input and output circuits.

COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION:

Fig.3.24: Transistor in common collector configuration

In this circuit, collector terminal is made common to both input and output circuits.

TRANSISTOR ACTION

Fig3.25: Working of Transistor in common base mode

1. Consider an NPN transistor biased by using two batteries VEE& VCC as shown in fig.2.22
The emitter base junction is kept at forward biased by battery VEE & collector biased
junction is kept as reverse biased junction by battery VCC.
2. As emitter base junction is forward biased the electron from emitter (E) moved towards
base (B) & holes from base (B) moves towards emitter (E). Since emitter is highly doped
& base is lightly doped, the emitter current IE is practically due to electron moving from
emitter to base.

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 Engineering Physics

3. On entering the base region, electrons recombine with small no. of available holes in the
base region, causing base current IB. Since the base region is light doped, the
recombination is very less & hence IB is very less.
4. The electrons experience a very strong electric field due to reversed biased CB junction &
get swept into the collector region. This constitutes collector current IC. Maximum number
of electrons flow from emitter into the collector. This is possible due to light doping &
small size of base region.
5. The total emitter current IE is given by I =I +I ---------- (1)
E B C

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTOR
 It is used in switching electronic circuits.
 It is used as an amplifier.
 It is used in integrated circuits.

Application of Transistor as amplifier

Transistor can work in three different regions like active region, cutoff region & saturation
region. They are turned off while working in the cut-off region and turned on while working
in the saturation region. Transistors work as an amplifier when they work in the active region.
The main function of a transistor as an amplifier is to enhance the input signal. The input of
the amplifier is a voltage otherwise current, where the output will be an amplified input
signal.

I. Common Emitter transistor amplifier:

A transistor in which the emitter terminal is made common for both the input and the output
circuit connections is known as common emitter configuration. When this configuration is
provided with alternating current (AC) supply and operated in between both positive and the
negative halves of a.c. cycle to generate the specific output signal is known as common
emitter amplifier. In this type of configuration, the input is applied at the base terminal and
the output is to be collected across the collector terminal. Emitter terminal is common in both
the cases of input as well as output as shown in fig.3.26.

Fig.3.26: Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier

In this circuit, the Emitter Base junction is forward biased using base - emitter battery VEB
and collector -Base junction is reverse biased using collector - emitter battery Vcc. The low
input signal is applied to the emitter-base junction and the amplified output is obtained across
the Rc load connected in the collector circuit. The collector current is controlled by base

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 Engineering Physics

current. When input signal is applied to the base, very small change in base current produces
very large changes in collector current. Therefore, the current gain is substantially high.

a) D.C current Gain: It is the ratio of collector current to base current. It is denoted by
‘β’.

𝐼𝐶
∴ 𝑑. 𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝛽 = 𝐼𝐵
--------------- (1)
b) A.C current Gain: It is the ratio of change in collector current to change in base
current. It is denoted by ‘βac’.

∆𝐼
∴ 𝑎. 𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝛽𝑎𝑐 = (∆𝐼𝐶 ) --------------- (2)
𝐵 𝑎𝑐

The value of β is between 20 to 500.

II. Common base transistor Amplifier:
In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal
and base terminal is connected as a common terminal for both input and output.

Fig.3.27: Common Base Transistor Amplifier

Fig.3.27 shows NPN transistor connected in Common Base configuration. The transistor is
biased to operate in the active region. The battery VEE forward biases the EB junction and the
battery VCC reverse biases CB junction. As signal source Vi is connected to input circuit and a
load resistance RL is connected in output circuit. An output voltage Vo is developed across RL.
The input circuit has a low resistance. Hence a small change in the signal voltage will cause a
significant change in the collector current due to transistor action. Thus, a large voltage drop
occurs when collector current flows through load resistor. Hence a weak signal applied in
input circuit gets amplified in the collector circuit. The output voltage is in phase with the
input signal.

a) Current gain (amplification factor): The ratio of the change in the collector current
to the change in the emitter current at constant collector to base voltage (V CB) is
called the current amplification factor α.

∆𝐼
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = (∆𝐼𝐶 ) --------------- (3)
𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐵

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 Engineering Physics

The value of the current amplification factor α is always less than 1. The typical current gain
of a common base amplifier is 0.98

.
Relation between α and β:

∆𝐼𝐶 ∆𝐼𝐶
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = ( ) and 𝛽= ( )
∆𝐼𝐸 𝑉 ∆𝐼𝐵 𝑉
𝐶𝐵 𝐶𝐸

Since 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

∆𝐼𝐸 = ∆𝐼𝐵 + ∆𝐼𝐶

∆𝐼𝐸 ∆𝐼 ∆𝐼
Dividing by ∆𝐼𝐶 , ∆𝐼𝐶
= ∆𝐼𝐵 + ∆𝐼𝐶
𝐶 𝐶

∆𝐼𝐸 ∆𝐼𝐵
∆𝐼𝐶
= ∆𝐼𝐶
+1

1 1
or 𝛼
=𝛽+1

𝛼
or 𝛽 = 1−𝛼

List of formulae:
𝐼
1. Current gain (CB mode) α = 𝐼𝐶 .
𝐸
𝐼𝐶
2. Current gain (CE mode) β = 𝐼 .
𝐵
3. Emitter current 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 .
𝑉
4. Collector current, IC = 𝑅𝐶
𝐶

Solved Problems:

1. Find d.c. current gain for a PNP transistor in a common emitter mode if collector current
is 2mA and base current is 20μA. (3M, W-2016)
Ans.

Given: Ic = 2mA,
IB = 20μA,
β =?
I
Solution: β = IC
B

2mA
=
20μA

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 Engineering Physics
2×10−3
= 20×10−6 = 100.

2. In an NPN transistor in a common base configuration emitter current is 2mA and base
current is 20μA.What are the values of collector current and current gain?
(3M, W-2011, 2017)
Ans.:

Given: IE = 2mA,

IB = 20μA =20×10-3mA = 0.02mA,

(1) IC =? (2) α =?

Solution: (1) IC = IE - IB = (2-0.02) mA

= 1.98 mA
I 1.98mA
(2) α = IC = 2mA
= 0.99
E

3.When a diode is forward biased a current of 50 mA flows through it. When it is reverse
biased the current drops to 20 nA. What is the ratio of forward to reverse current?

Ans.:
Given: Forward current, 𝐼𝐹 = 50 𝑚𝐴 = 50 × 10−3 𝐴
Reverse current, 𝐼𝑅 = 20 𝑛𝐴 = 20 × 10−9 𝐴
𝐼𝐹 50 ×10−3 𝐴
Solution: 𝐼𝑅
= 20 ×10−9 𝐴 = 2.5 × 106

4. A transistor is connected in the CE configuration. The collector supplies voltage of 10V

and the voltage drop across 500 ohms is 0.6V. If α = 0.96, find the (i) Collector-emitter
current (ii) emitter current (iii) base current.
Ans.
Given: VCC = 10 V
Voltage drops across collector VC = 0.6 V
RC = 500 ohms
Current gain = α = 0.96,
(1) VCE =? (2) IE =? (3) IB =?

Solution: i) VCE = VCC - VC = 10-0.6 = 9.4V

𝐼
ii) α = (𝐼𝐸𝐶 )

𝑉𝐶 0.6
Collector current, IC = = = 1.2 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐶 500

𝐼 1.2 𝑚𝐴
𝑜r I E = 𝛼𝐶 = 0.96 = 1.25 mA
iii) IB = I E - IC = 1.25mA - 1.2 mA = 0.05mA.

5. For a transistor working as a common base amplifier, current gain is 0.96. If the emitter
current is 7.2mA, then calculate the base current.

Ans.
Given α = 0.96
IE = 7.2mA
IB =?
IB =?

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Solution: Current gain α = IC / IE

Therefore IC = αIE = 0.96 x7.2 = 6.91 mA

IB = IE – IC

IB = 7.2 mA - 6.91 mA

IB = 0.29 mA.

6. In a npn transistor circuit, the collector current is 15 mA. If 95% of the electrons emitted
by the emitter reaches the collector, what is the base current?

Ans.
Given: Collector current, IC = 15 mA
IC = 95% IE
IB =?
Solution: Since IC = 95% IE , IC = 0.95 IE
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐸 = 0.95
Since IE = IB + IC
Base current, IB = IE – IC
𝐼𝐶
IB = IE – IC = 0.95 − 𝐼𝐶
15
𝐼𝐵 = 0.95 − 15 = 0.79 mA

7.The base current of a transistor is 105 μA and collector current is 2.05 mA. Determine the
value of β, IE, and α. A change of 27 μA in the base current produces a change of 0.65 mA in
the collector current. Find βa.c.
Ans.
Given: IB = 105 μA =105 × 10-6 A,
IC = 2.05 mA = 2.05 × 10-3A
(1) IE =? (2) α =? (3) β =? (4) βa.c.=?

Solution: (1) IE = IB + IC
= (105 × 10-6 +2.05 × 10-3) A
= 2.155 × 10-3 A
(2) α = IC / IE= 2.05 × 10-3A /2.155 × 10-3A
= 0.95
(3) β = IC / IB = 2.05 × 10-3A /105 × 10-6 A
= 19.52
(4) ΔIB = 27μA = 27 × 10-6 A
ΔIC = 0.65mA = 0.65 × 10-3 A
β = ΔIC / ΔIB = 0.65 × 10-3 A/27 × 10-6 A
=24.1

8.A transistor has current gain factor α = 0.95. the transistor is connected in common-
emitter configuration. Calculate the change in collector current when the base current is
changed by 0.1 mA.

Ans.
Given: α = 0.95
Change in base current ΔIB = 0.1 mA
∆𝐼𝐶 = ?
Solution: ΔIC = β ΔIB
𝛼
But, 𝛽 = 1− 𝛼
𝛼
∴ ∆𝐼𝐶 = 1− 𝛼 ∆𝐼𝐵

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0.95
∆𝐼𝐶 = (0.1) = 1.9 𝑚𝐴
1 − 0.95
Q.27. In a common base configuration, IC = 0.95 mA and IB = 0.05 mA. Find the value of α.

Ans. Given: IC = 0.95 mA and IB = 0.05 mA

α=?
Solution: IE = IB + IC = 0.95mA + 0.05mA = 1mA

I 0.95mA
α = IC = 1mA
= 0.9
E

Question Bank

1) Draw circuit symbol of Zener diode and LED.

2) What is Zener diode. Explain its VI characteristics in forward and reverse bias.
3) Explain the construction and working of LED.
4) Define (1) current gain α (2) current gain β
5) Explain why in a transistor: (i) Base is thin & lightly doped (ii) Collector region has large
6) area (iii) Emitter is heavily doped.
7) Give the relation for Current gain in common base mode and common emitter mode
transistor.
8) What is Zener diode, draw and explain its V-I characteristics.
9) What is LED? Explain its V-I characteristics.
10)Draw symbol of NPN and PNP transistor.
10)If the emitter current is 6 mA and collector current is 5.75mA, calculate the value of D.C.
current gain in common base mode. (3M, Summer-2018) (Ans. α = 0.958)
12)In a common base connection, current amplification factor is 0.9. If the emitter current is
1mA, determine the value of base current. (Ans.0.1 mA)
13)In a common base configuration, α = 0.95. The voltage drops across 2 kΩ resistance
which is connected in the collector is 2V. Find the base current. (Ans. 0.05 mA)
14)Calculate IE in a transistor for which β = 50 and IB = 20 μA. (Ans.1.02 mA)

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