MODULE 1: EXOGENOUS PROCESSES OF EARTH

EXOGENOUS PROCESSES – occur on or near the surface of the Earth.

o These are natural occurrences that leave significant changes on the landscape and even in the
ecosystem of an area

 In some cases, exogenous can wipe out majority of the organisms inhabiting that region

Different Types of Exogenous Processes

1) WEATHERING – is the disintegration of rocks, soils, and minerals together with other materials through
contact with Earth’s subsystems.

o happens even without movement or transportation (as opposed to erosion that involves movement).

 The breaking down of soil and rocks happens on the spot.

 New types of rocks are created because of weathering.

Two important types of weathering exist:

a. Physical Weathering – is the breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces concentrated along rock
fractures.

o This can occur due to changes, whether sudden or not, in temperature, pressure, frost, etc.

b. Chemical Weathering – is the process by which rocks break down by chemical reactions.

o Physical changes happen on rocks during physical weathering.

o New or secondary minerals develop and sometimes replace original properties of the minerals
on the original rock or soil during chemical weathering.

 Oxidation and Hydrolysis – are chemical processes that contributed to these changes.

2) Erosion – is the process by which Earth’s surface is worn away by wind, water, or ice. It moves rock
debris or soil form one place to another.

 takes place when there is rainfall, surface runoff, flowing river, seawater intrusion, flooding,
freezing, and thawing, hurricane, wind, etc.

 are forces of nature, whether violent or passive, capable of exfoliating and scraping the surface
and exposing the layers underneath it.

 can cause massive deterioration of surface structure and foundation.

3) Mass Wasting – is the movement of material on a downslope terrain due to gravity.

 usually happens on slope, is dangerous, and may occur in areas that can trigger mass movement.
 can cause loss of life and injury, property damage, loss of capital assets, or interruption to activities.

Different Form of Mass Wasting:

a. Debris Flow – happens when a large number of sediments, usually rocks of various sized, fall
downslope.

 Unlike landslides, this does not need water to fall.

 b. Mud Flow – happens when combined soil and water flow downslope.

 This usually happens near rivers or streams where soil or sand is always moist or has been
soaked in water for a long time.

c. Slumps – are also examples of mass wasting.

 This is a slow downslope movement of loosely consolidated materials or rock and soil layers.

4. Sedimentation – is the accumulation of materials such as soil, rock fragments, and soil particles
settling at the bottom.

o usually occurs in stream and sea erosion.

o Ocean Basins – also change their shape and sizes due to continuous geologic cycle.

Sedimentation Processes – are an integral part of the environmental system and are treated
separately from all other environmental processes only because they are linked with the formation of
sediments.

 is usually associated with three sequential stages of weathering, transportation, and

deposition.

 Weathering continues during the transport stage.

Sediment Transportation

Sediment Transport – is the transport of granular particles by fluids.

Running Water and Wind – are the most widespread transporting agents.

Three (3) Processes that Operate in Sediment Transportation:

1) Rolling or Traction – the particle moves along a sedimentary bed but is too heavy to be lifted from
it.

2) Saltation: and 3) Suspension – particles remain permanently above the bed, sustained there by the
turbulent flow of the air or water

Sediment Transport and Deposition

What is Sediment? – refers to the conglomerate of materials, organic and inorganic, that can be carried
away by water, wind, or ice.

 the term is often used to indicate soil-based mineral water, mineral matter decomposing organic
substances, and organic biogenic material

Mineral Sediment – comes from erosion and weathering.

Organic Sediment – is typically detritus and decomposing material such as algae.

Fine Sediment – can be found in nearly any body of water, carried along by the water flow.

Suspended – when the sediment is floating within the water column.

“Suspended Sediment” & “Suspended Solids” – are nearly interchangeable.

Bedload Particles – travel with water flow by sliding or bouncing along the bottom.

 is the portion of sediment transport that rolls, slides, or bounces along the bottom of a waterway.
  this sediment is not truly suspended, as it sustains intermittent contact with the streambed, and the
movement is neither uniform nor continues

 occurs when the force of the water is strong enough to overcome the weight and cohesion of the
sediment.

Wash Load – is the portion of sediment that will remain suspended even when there is no water flow.

 is a subset of the suspended load.

 This load is comprised of the finest suspended sediment.

 is differentiated from the suspended load because it will not settle to the bottom of a waterway
during a low or no flow period.

Sediment Deposition – when the flow rate changes, some sediment can settle out of the water, adding to
point bars, and channel bars and beaches.

 when suspended, particles settle down to the bottom of a body of water

 In marine environments, nearly all suspended sediment will settle.

Sediment – necessary to the development of aquatic systems through nutrient replenishment and the
creation of benthic habitat and spawning areas.

 builds aquatic habitats for spawning ang benthic organisms.

Salt Ions – bond to the suspended particles, encouraging them to combine with other particles in the water

Why are Sediment Transport and Deposition Important?

 Many ecosystems benefit from sediment transport and deposition, whether directly or indirectly

 Without sediment deposition, coastal zones can become eroded or non-existent.

MODULE 2: ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES

Endogenous Processes - are caused by forces from the within or in the interior of Earth.

o The driving force is the thermal energy of the mantle and the crust.

o Most thermal energy originates from the decay and disintegration of radioactive elements in Earth’s
core.

 is responsible for earthquakes, movement of plates leading to development to continents, mountain

building, volcanic activities, and other movements related to Earth’s crust

Types of Endogenous Processes:

1) Magmatism – happens when magma is generated and develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks.

 The process takes place either under the surface or on the surface of Earth to become part of
the crust.

 Magma – is very hot and is constantly moved by the internal heat that reaches the mantle of earth
through convective flow.

o forms when rocks reach temperatures between 800 degrees Celsius and 1200 degree
Celsius.

2) Volcanism or Plutonism – is the process that usually happens after magma is formed.

 Lava – magma that reaches the surface of Earth.

3) Metamorphism – is the process of charging the materials that make up the rock.

Types of Metamorphisms and their Formations:

 Contact Metamorphism – happens when a body of magma intrudes into the upper part of the crust.

 can take place over a wide range of temperatures¾ from around 300 °C to over 800 °C.

Heat – is important in contact metamorphism.

Contact Metamorphic Aureoles – are typically quite small, from just a few centimeters around small
dykes and sills, to as much 100 m around a large stock.

Aureole – is a ring around an igneous intrusion.

 Regional Metamorphism – is the other type where a change in the rocks happen in a large or
more extensive area, like a mountain range, resulting from a larger-scale action of heat and pressure.

 refer to large-scale metamorphism, such as what happen to continental crust along convergent
tectonic margins (where plates collide).

 Rocks that form from regional metamorphism are likely foliated because of the strong directional
pressure of converging plates.

 Burial Metamorphism – occurs when sediments are buried deeply enough that the heat and
pressure cause minerals to begin to recrystallize and new minerals to grow.

 Seafloor or Hydrothermal Metamorphism – occurs when hot, chemically active, mineral laden
waters interact with a surrounding pre-existing rock called → Country Rock.

 Subduction Zone Metamorphism – ocean lithosphere is forced down into the hot mantle, there is a
unique combination of relatively low temperature and very high pressures.

 Shock Metamorphism – when extraterrestrial object hit Earth, the result is a shock wave.
  Dynamic Metamorphism – is the result of very high shear stress, such as occurs along fault zones.

 occurs at relatively low temperatures compared to other types of metamorphism and consists
predominantly of the physical changes that happen to a rock experiencing shear stress.

 it affects a narrow region near the fault, and rocks may appear unaffected.

Fault Breccia – created when shear stress along a fault breaks up rocks.

Types of Stress Influencing Rock Behavior:

1) Compression – rocks push or squeeze against one another where the stress produced is directed
toward the center.

o usually what takes place in folding which results in mountain building.

2) Tension – rocks are pulled apart

o rocks may separate in opposite directions.
o rocks may be farther away from one another.
o It is speculated that this type of stress is what separated all the continents during the breakaway of
the supercontinent known as Pangaea.

3) Shearing – some of the portions of a plate at the edges may break away in different directions,
eventually making the plate smaller in size.

o usually happens in different rates that the boundaries of the plate.

o The friction caused by this stress can cause earthquakes.

4) Confining – the crust becomes compact, thus making it look smaller.

o can cause sinkholes where the inside portion of the ground have already disintegrated without
manifestation on the surface

How to Prevent Sinkholes:

1) Hire a building inspector to look at your land and home.

2) Replace old utility pipes.
3) Install support piers while constructing your home.
4) Hire a specialist to perform chemical grouting on small sinkholes under your home.
5) Contact a contractor to perform compaction grouting on large sinkholes.
6) Report sinking roadways to the local police or Public Works department.
7) Ask for more investment in local infrastructure.
8) Request that local pipes and septic systems be inspected for signs of aging.
9) Use water sparingly if you live in an area with frequent droughts.
10) Attend community meetings to discuss your concerns.

Compaction Grouting – is a method like chemical grouting, but for more severe and deeper sinkholes

 this method injects a mixture of particles and chemicals into the ground to fill cracks, hole, and
chemically seal the rock layer.

 prevents any further degradation of the rocks that cause sinkholes.