CHAPTER C26

WIND LOADS: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

C26.1 PROCEDURES A “simplified method” for which the designer can select wind
pressures directly from a table without any calculation, where the
Chapter 26 is the first of six chapters devoted to the wind load
building meets all the requirements for application of the method,
provisions. It provides the basic wind design parameters that are
is provided for designing buildings using the Directional Proce-
applicable to the various wind load determination methodologies
dure (Chapter 27, Part 2), the Envelope Procedure (Chapter 28,
contained in Chapters 27 through 31. Specific items covered in
Part 2), and the Analytical Procedure for Components and
Chapter 26 include definitions, basic wind speed, exposure
Cladding (Chapter 30).
categories, internal pressures, elevation effects, enclosure classi-
Limitations. The provisions given under Section 26.1.2 apply
fication, gust effects, and topographic factors.
to the majority of site locations and buildings and other struc-
C26.1.1 Scope. The procedures specified in this standard tures, but for some projects, these provisions may be inadequate.
provide wind pressures and forces for the design of the main Examples of site locations and buildings and other structures (or
wind force resisting system (MWFRS) and of components and portions thereof) that may require other approved standards,
cladding (C&C) of buildings and other structures. The procedures special studies using applicable recognized literature pertaining
involve the determination of wind directionality and velocity to wind effects, or using the Wind Tunnel Procedure of
pressure, the selection or determination of an appropriate gust- Chapter 31, include
effect factor, and the selection of appropriate pressure or force
1. Site locations that have channeling effects or wakes from
coefficients. The procedures account for the level of structural
upwind obstructions. Channeling effects can be caused by
reliability required, the effects of differing wind exposures, the
topographic features (e.g., a mountain gorge) or buildings
speed-up effects of certain topographic features such as hills and
(e.g., a neighboring tall building or a cluster of tall build-
escarpments, and the size and geometry of the building or other
ings). Wakes can be caused by hills, buildings, or other
structure under consideration. The procedures differentiate
structures.
between rigid and flexible buildings and other structures, and
2. Buildings with unusual or irregular geometric shape, in-
the results generally envelope the most critical load conditions for
cluding barrel vaults, arched roofs, and other buildings
the design of MWFRS as well as C&C.
whose shape (in plan or vertical cross section) differs
The pressure and force coefficients provided in Chapters 27, 28,
significantly from the shapes in Figs. 27.3-1, 27.3-2,
29, and 30 have been assembled from the latest boundary-layer
27.3-3, 27.3-7, 28.3-1, and 30.3-1 through 30.3-7. Unusual
wind tunnel and full-scale tests and from previously available
or irregular geometric shapes include buildings with mul-
literature. Because the boundary-layer wind tunnel results were
tiple setbacks, curved facades, or irregular plans resulting
obtained for specific types of building, such as low- or high-rise
from significant indentations or projections, openings
buildings and buildings that have specific types of structural
through the building, or multitower buildings connected
framing systems, the designer is cautioned against indiscriminate
by bridges.
interchange of values among the figures and tables.
3. Buildings or other structures with response characteristics
C26.1.2 Permitted Procedures. The wind load provisions that result in substantial vortex-induced and/or torsional
provide several procedures (as illustrated in Fig. 26.1-1) from dynamic effects, or dynamic effects resulting from aero-
which the designer can choose. elastic instabilities such as flutter or galloping. Such dy-
For MWFRS: namic effects are difficult to anticipate, being dependent on
many factors, but should be considered when any one or
1. Directional Procedure for Buildings of All Heights more of the following apply:
(Chapter 27). • The height of the building or other structure is more than
2. Envelope Procedure for Low-Rise Buildings (Chapter 28). 400 ft (122 m).
3. Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances and • The height of the building or other structure is greater
Other Structures (Chapter 29). than 4 times its minimum effective width Bmin , as defined
4. Wind Tunnel Procedure for All Buildings and Other below.
Structures (Chapter 31). • The lowest natural frequency of the building or other
For C&C: structure is less than n1 = 0.25 Hz.
• The reduced velocity V z ∕(n1 Bmin ) > 5, where z = 0.6h
1. Analytical Procedure for Buildings and Building Appurte- and V z is the mean hourly velocity in ft∕s (m∕s) at
nances (Chapter 30). height z.
2. Wind Tunnel Procedure for All Buildings and Other The minimum effective width
P P Bmin is defined as the
Structures (Chapter 31). minimum value of hi Bi ∕ hi considering all wind

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 731
 directions. The summations are performed over the height BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, REGULAR-
of the building or other structure for each wind direction, SHAPED: Defining the limits of applicability of the various
where hi is the height above grade of level i and Bi is the procedures within the standard requires a balance between the
width at level i normal to the wind direction. practical need to use the provisions past the range for which data
4. Bridges, cranes, electrical transmission lines, guyed masts, have been obtained and restricting use of the provisions past the
highway signs and lighting structures, telecommunication range of realistic application. Wind load provisions are based
towers, and flagpoles. primarily on wind tunnel tests on shapes shown in Figs. 27.3-1,
27.3-2, 27.3-3, 27.3-7, 28.3-1, and 30.3-1 through 30.3-7.
When undertaking detailed studies of the dynamic response Extensive wind tunnel tests on actual structures under design
to wind forces, the fundamental frequencies of the building or show that relatively large changes from these shapes can, in
other structure in each direction under consideration should be many cases, have minor changes in wind load, while in other
established using the structural properties and deformational cases seemingly small changes can have relatively large effects,
characteristics of the resisting elements in a properly substanti- particularly on cladding pressures. Wind loads on complicated
ated analysis, and not using approximate equations based on shapes are frequently smaller than those on the simpler shapes of
height. Figs. 27.3-1, 27.3-2, 27.3-7, 28.3-1, and 30.3-1 through 30.3-7,
Shielding. Because of the lack of reliable analytical proce- and so wind loads determined from these provisions are expected
dures for predicting the effects of shielding provided by buildings to envelop most structure shapes. Buildings or other structures
and other structures or by topographic features, reductions in that are clearly unusual should be designed using the Wind
velocity pressure caused by shielding are not permitted under the Tunnel Procedure of Chapter 31.
provisions of this chapter. However, this does not preclude the BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, RIGID: The de-
determination of shielding effects and the corresponding reduc- fining criterion for “rigid,” in comparison to “flexible,” is that the
tions in velocity pressure by means of the Wind Tunnel Proce- natural frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz. A general
dure in Chapter 31. guidance is that most rigid buildings and structures have height-
to-minimum-width less than 4. The provisions of Sections
26.11.1 and 26.11.2 provide methods for calculating natural
C26.2 DEFINITIONS
frequency (period = 1/natural frequency), and Commentary
Several important definitions given in the standard are discussed Section C26.11 provides additional guidance.
in the following text. These terms are used throughout the COMPONENTS AND CLADDING (C&C): Components
standard and are provided to clarify application of the standard receive wind loads directly or from cladding and transfer the load
provisions. to the MWFRS. Cladding receives wind loads directly. Examples
BUILDING, ENCLOSED; BUILDING, OPEN; BUILD- of components include, but are not limited to, fasteners, purlins,
ING, PARTIALLY ENCLOSED; BUILDING, PARTIAL- girts, studs, sheathing, roof decking, certain trusses, and elements
LY OPEN: These definitions relate to the proper selection of of trusses receiving wind loads from cladding. Examples of
internal pressure coefficients, (GC pi ). “Enclosed,” “open,” and cladding include, but are not limited to, wall coverings, curtain
“partially enclosed” buildings are specifically defined. All other walls, roof coverings, sheathing, roof decking, exterior windows,
buildings are considered to be “partially open” by definition, and doors. Components can be part of the MWFRS when they act
although there may be large openings in two or more walls. An as elements in shear walls or roof diaphragms, but they may also
example of this would be a parking garage through which the wind be loaded directly by wind as individual elements. The designer
can easily pass but which does not meet the definition for either an should use appropriate loads for design of components, which
open or a partially enclosed building. The internal pressure may require certain components to be designed for more than one
coefficient for such a building would be ±0.18, and the internal type of wind loading; for example, long-span roof trusses should
pressures would act on the solid areas of the walls and roof. The be designed for loads associated with MWFRS, and individual
standard also specifies that a building that meets both the “open” members of trusses should also be designed for C&C loads
and “partially enclosed” definitions should be considered “open.” (Mehta and Marshall 1998).
BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, FLEXIBLE: A DIAPHRAGM: This definition for diaphragm in wind load
building or other structure is considered “flexible” if it contains applications, for the case of untopped steel decks, differs some-
a significant dynamic resonant response. Resonant response what from the definition used in Section 12.3 because dia-
depends on the gust structure contained in the approaching wind, phragms under wind loads are expected to remain essentially
on wind loading pressures generated by the wind flow about the elastic.
building, and on the dynamic properties of the building or EFFECTIVE WIND AREA, A: Effective wind area is the
structure. Gust energy in the wind is smaller at frequencies area of the building surface used to determine (GC p ). This area
above about 1 Hz. Therefore, the resonant response of most does not necessarily correspond to the area of the building
buildings and structures with lowest natural frequency above surface contributing to the force being considered. Two cases
1 Hz are sufficiently small that resonant response can often be arise. In the usual case, the effective wind area does correspond to
ignored. The natural frequency of buildings or other structures the area tributary to the force component being considered. For
greater than 60 ft (18.3 m) in height is determined in accordance example, for a cladding panel, the effective wind area may be
with Sections 26.11.1 and 26.11.2. When buildings or other equal to the total area of the panel. For a cladding fastener, the
structures have a height exceeding 4 times the least horizontal effective wind area is the area of cladding secured by a single
dimension or when there is reason to believe that the natural fastener. A mullion may receive wind from several cladding
frequency is less than 1 Hz (natural period greater than 1 s), panels. In this case, the effective wind area is the area associated
the natural frequency of the structure should be investigated. with the wind load that is transferred to the mullion.
Approximate equations for natural frequency or period for vari- The second case arises where components such as roofing
ous building and structure types in addition to those given in panels, wall studs, or roof trusses are spaced closely together.
Section 26.11.2 for buildings are contained in Commentary The area served by the component may become long and narrow.
Section C26.11. To better approximate the actual load distribution in such cases,

732 STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-16

the width of the effective wind area used to evaluate (GC p ) need For a roof-bearing system that has different load paths for
not be taken as less than one-third the length of the area. This upward, downward, and lateral forces, the appropriate effective
increase in effective wind area has the effect of reducing the wind area for each direction of forces is used.
average wind pressure acting on the component. Note, however, If the support system for the solar array has adequate
that this effective wind area should only be used in determining strength, stiffness, and interconnectedness to span across a
the (GC p ) in Figs. 30.3-1 through 30.3-6. The induced wind load support or ballast point that is subject to yielding or uplift, the
should be applied over the actual area tributary to the component effective wind area can be correspondingly increased, provided
being considered. that strengths are not governed by brittle failure and that the
For membrane roof systems, the effective wind area is the area deformation of the array is evaluated and does not result in
of an insulation board (or deck panel if insulation is not used) if adverse performance. It should be noted that effective wind
the boards are fully adhered (or the membrane is adhered directly areas for uplift are usually much smaller than for lateral (drag)
to the deck). If the insulation boards or membrane are mechani- forces for ballasted arrays.
cally attached or partially adhered, the effective wind area is the MAIN WIND FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM (MWFRS):
area of the board or membrane secured by a single fastener or The MWFRS can consist of a structural frame or an assemblage
individual spot or row of adhesive. of structural elements that work together to transfer wind loads
For windows, doors, and other fenestration assemblies, the acting on the entire building or structure to the ground. Structural
effective wind area for typical single-unit assemblies can be elements such as cross-bracing, shear walls, roof trusses, and roof
taken as the overall area of the assembly. For assemblies diaphragms are part of the MWFRS when they assist in trans-
comprised of more than one unit mulled together or for more ferring overall loads (Mehta and Marshall 1998).
complex fenestration systems, it is recommended that the fenes- WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS: Wind-borne debris
tration product manufacturer be consulted for guidance on the regions are defined to alert the designer to areas requiring
appropriate effective wind area to use when calculating the consideration of missile impact design. These areas are located
design wind pressure for product specification purposes. within hurricane-prone regions where there is a high risk of
The definition of effective wind area for rooftop solar panels glazing failure caused by the impact of wind-borne debris.
and arrays is similar to that for components and cladding. As
with C&C, the width of the effective wind area need not be less
than one-third its length (which is typically equal to the span of C26.3 SYMBOLS
the framing element being considered). The induced wind The following additional symbols and notation are used herein:
pressure is calculated per Fig. 29.4-4 using this effective wind
area, and the wind pressure is then applied over the actual area Aob = average area of open ground surrounding each
tributary to the element. obstruction;
Effective wind area is equal to the tributary area except in n = reference period, in years;
cases where the exception is invoked that the width of the Pa = annual probability of wind speed exceeding a given
effective wind area need not be less than one-third its length. magnitude [Eq. (C26.5-3)];
In such cases, the effective wind area can be taken as larger than Pn = probability of exceeding design wind speed during n
the tributary area. years [Eq. (C26.5-3)];
Tributary area for a spanning structural member of a solar Sob = average frontal area presented to the wind by each
array depends on the span length of that member times the obstruction;
perpendicular distances to adjacent parallel members. For a V t = wind speed averaged over t seconds (see Fig. C26.5-1),
support point or fastener, tributary area depends on the span of in mi∕h (m∕s);
members framing into that support point. V 3600 = mean wind speed averaged over 1 h (see Fig. C26.5-1), in
Tributary area (and effective wind area) can depend on the mi∕h (m∕s); and
characteristics of the solar array support system and the load path. β = damping ratio (percentage of critical damping).

FIGURE C26.5-1 Maximum Speed Averaged over t (s) to Hourly Mean Speed

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 733