Mathematical Methods for Theoretical Physics Sheets

May 2022

Introduction
0.0.1 Fluid Mechanics in two dimensions
Consider a fluid with velocity ⃗v (t, ⃗r) and a mass density ρ(t, ⃗r). The current density is ⃗j = ρ⃗v and satisfies the continuity
equation:
∂ρ
+ ∇ · ⃗j = 0 (1)
∂t
which expresses mass conservation. Indeed, if M (t) is total mass of fluid inside the volume V , Gauss Theorem gives
Z Z Z I
dM d ∂ρ 3
= ρd3 x = d x=− ∇ · ⃗jd3 x = − ⃗j · ⃗nd2 a. (2)
dt dt V V ∂t V ∂V

Where the last integral corresponds to the flux of ⃗j through the closed boundary ∂V of the volume V . For steady flow ρ constant
and incompressible ρ uniform the continuity equation leads to the condition:

∇ · ⃗v = 0 =⇒ ⃗
⃗v = ∇ × A (3)

If the flow is irrotational then:

∇ × ⃗v = 0 =⇒ ⃗v = ∇ϕ. (4)
⃗ is perpendicular to the plane where the fllow occurs, and thus has only one compone
In two dimensions the vector potential A
ψ(the stream function) and
⃗v = ∂y ψ î − ∂x ψ ĵ (5)
By definition of ϕ, lines of constant potential are perpendicular to the velocity and

⃗v = ∂x ϕî + ∂y ϕĵ (6)

We see that ϕ and ψ satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations, such that one can define a complex potential

F (z) = ϕ + iψ (7)

The ”complex velocity” V is then obtained from the derivative of F :

dF
= ∂x F = ∂x ϕi + ∂x ψ = vx − ivy ≡ V (8)
dz

0.0.2 Example
The flow around a cylinder of radius a, centered on the origin, is given by the complex potential

a2
 
Γ z 
F (z) = V0 z + −i ln (9)
z 2π a

where V0 is the uniform velocity, far away from the cylinder and along the x-axis, and Γ is the circulation of the flow around the
cylinder. Indeed, in terms of polar coordinates z = reiθ we have

a2
 
Γθ
ϕ = V0 r + cos θ + (10)
r 2π

such that
a2 a2
   
Γ
vr = V 0 r + cos θ, vθ = −V0 r + sin θ + (11)
r r 2πr
and we have the following properties
The velocity is uniform for |z| → ∞ and in this limit:

vx = vr cos θ − vθ sin θ = V0 , vy = vr sin θ + vθ cos θ = 0 (12)

The radial velocity vr vanishes on the surface of the cylinder r = a

The countour itnegral of the velocity along a circle or radius R > a and centered on the origin is
I Z 2π
⃗v d⃗l = Rvθ dθ = Γ (13)
0

Γ
There are two stagnation points on the cylinder, defined by vθ = 0, located at the angles θs and π − θs such that sin θs = 4πaV0
0.0.3 Stereographic projection
This projection corresponds to a mapping from the sphere or radius 1 to the plane which contains its equation. For this, one
draws a straight line from the north pole N to a point M in the plane. The intersection P of this line with the sphere defines
the mapping P ↔ M . The south hemisphere is mapped on the disc centered on the origin with radius 1; the north hemisphere
is mapped onto the rest of the plane, with the north pole mapped ont he circle of infinite radius. A point P on the sphere
has coordinates (x1 , x2 , x3 ) with x21 + x22 + x23 = 1. If M in the plane has coordinates z = x + iy, the line N M is defined by
N⃗M = tN⃗P , where t is a real parameter such that (x, y, −1) = t(x1 , x2 , x3 −1), which, after eliminating t, leads to the one-to-one
map z = x1−x
1 +ix2
3
. If one applies the Mobius transformation f (z) = 1/z to the previous result one obtains:
1 − x3 x1 − ix2
f (z) = = (14)
x1 + ix2 1 + x3
which corresponds to a rotation of angle π about the x1 -axis of the original point P .

0.0.4 Euler Lagrange with constraints

The Euler Lagrange equation with constraints is given by:
 
∂L d ∂L ∂ϕ
= +λ ϕ=0 (15)
∂qi dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
where λ is the lagrange multiplier and ϕ is the constraint.
Example non-relativistic motion on a sphere A point particle of mass m and moving freely on the surface of a sphere of radius
R is described by the Lagrangian and constraint:
m 2
ẋ + ẏ 2 + ż 2 ϕ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − R 2 = 0


L= (16)
2
and the equations of motions imply:
mẍ + 2λx = 0, mÿ + 2λy = 0, mz̈ + 2λz = 0, (17)
Eliminating λ from these equations, one obtains
d d d
ẍy − xÿ = (ẋy − xẏ) = 0, ẍz − xz̈ = (ẋz − xż) = 0 z̈y − z ÿ = (ży − z ẏ) = 0 (18)
dt dt dt
which expresses angular momentum conservation, as expected.

0.0.5 Invariance under rotation and angular momentum conservation

A non relativistic point particle in a central potential is described by a Lagrangian of the form L = 21 m⃗v 2 − U (|⃗r|) which is
invariant under any rotation of the vector position ⃗r. The infinitesimal 3-d rotation matrix R around the direction α
⃗ , with angle
α = |⃗
α| ≪ 1, leads to R⃗r = ⃗r + α
⃗ × ⃗r + ... where dots represents higher orders in α, such that
X X
Rij rj = ri + δri δri αj rk ϵijk (19)
j j,k

The corresponding Noether charge is then

X
Q= mvi αj rk ϵijk = m(⃗r × ⃗v ) = J⃗ · α
⃗ (20)
ijk

where J⃗ is the angular momentum. The latter charge is conserved for any infinitesimal α
⃗ , such that angular momentum is
conserved.

0.0.6 General Relativity Particle

Note: use Einstein Summation notation. The lagrangian for the particle is L = 21 gij (⃗x)ẋi xj , where a dot represnets a derivative
with respect to τ and the space time metric g is symmetric gij = gji . The inverse metric has components denoted by g ij
such that gik g kj = δij . Show that the geodesic equations are ẍk + Γkij ẋi ẋj = 0. Where the Christoffel symbols are Γ ≡
1 kl
2 g (∂i glj + ∂j gil − ∂l gij ).
Using Euler Lagrange equations we have ∂l L = 1/2∂l ẋi ẋj . ∂˙l L = 1/2gij (δli ẋj + δlj ẋi ) = 1/2(glj ẋj + gil ẋi ).
∂τ (∂l L) = 1/2(∂i glj + ∂j gil )ẋi ẋj + gli ẍi . By combining the two equations we obtain:
1
gli ẍi + (∂i glj + ∂j gil − ∂l gij )ẋi ẋj = 0 (21)
2
and a multiplication by g kl finally gives the expected equation.
0.0.7 Condensed matter Lagrangian
The lagrangian for a set of N coupled oscillators with identical masses is L = m 2⃗q˙2 − 12 ⃗qT K⃗q where K is the coupling constant
matrix, with symmetric components Kij = Kji and eigenvalues ki . Show that, after an appropriate change of variable ⃗q → ⃗q′
and p⃗ → p⃗′ , the energy hypersurfaces in phase space (⃗q′ , p⃗′ ) are (2N − 1) dimensional ellipsoids.
The conjugate momenta for the cooridnates ⃗q are p⃗ ≡ ∂L ∂q⃗˙
= m⃗q˙. The hamiltonian reads H = ⃗q˙ · p⃗ − L = p2 /2m + 1/2⃗qT K⃗q One
can rotate the coordinate system to the eigenvector basis for K, ⃗ such that the phase space coordinates become ⃗q′ = R⃗q and
′
p⃗ = R⃗p, where R is the rotation matrix. In this rotation, K is transformed in a diagonal matrix ∆, with its eigenvalues ki on
the diagonal, and one has K = R−1 ∆R. Since R−1 = RT , the new hamiltonian is:

p′2 1
H → H′ = + ⃗q′T ∆⃗q′ (22)
2m 2
PN
An energy hypersurface E = H ′ satisfies i aqi2 + bp2i = 1 which is an ellipsoid of dimension 2N − 1.

0.0.8 Integral of Green’s function

0.0.9 Joukowski transformation
The motivation for this transformation z → ξ is to map a circle into an airfoil-like shape, in order to describe the flow of air
around an airfoil. It is defined by
a2
 
1
ξ= z+ (23)
2 z
where a is real. This transformation is conformal, except for z = ±a, where ξ ′ (z) = 0, and it leads to the following shapes.
Circle centered on the origin with radius a: z = aeiθ , ξ = a cos θ such that the Joukowski image is the segment [−a, a] on the
real axis. Circle centered on the origin, with radius R > a: z = Reiθ . One defines ξ = X + iY with

a2 a2
   
1 1
X= R+ cos θ Y = R− sin θ (24)
2 R 2 R

such that