Amanita muscaria: Fly Agaric history,

mythology and pharmacology

MICHAEL JAMES WINKELMANp

Journal of Psychedelic
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
Studies
Feeney, Kevin (Ed.) (2020). Fly Agaric: A compendium of history, pharmacology, mythology and
exploration. Ellensburg WA: Fly Agaric Press. Introductory material plus 486 pages with index and
DOI: references
10.1556/2054.2022.00216
© 2022 The Author(s) Received: January 31, 2022 • Accepted: March 10, 2022

Amanita muscaria is the most iconic mushroom in the world, with an ancient prehistory that
can only be glimpsed in the remnants of myth and folklore. This fame of A. muscaria
transcends time, with its iconic image still displayed in contemporary movies, video games,
BOOK REVIEW children’s books, and holiday art, yet most people are unaware of its true significance. Its
reputation ranges from the foundation of an original Ur religion to an insignificant and
misunderstood hallucinogenic toxin.
Fly Agaric is the most comprehensive compendium of articles on A. muscaria available.
It consists of an Introduction and 29 chapters, half authored or co-authored by Feeney. He is
joined by more than a dozen researchers, explorers and academics who assemble a multi-
layered understanding of this exceptional fungus. Fly Agaric covers a range of topics orga-
nized into five sections: (I) Mushroom Hunting & Identification; (II) Religion, Culture, &
Folklore; (III) Archaeological Evidence; (IV) Diet & Cuisine; and (V) Pharmacology &
Physiological Effects.
A useful feature of the book involves the basics of mushroom identification, learning
common and distinguishing features of various Amanita species. Fly Agaric provides a photo
illustrated guide with practical details necessary for identifying many Amanita varieties and
distinguishing them from their relatives, including potentially harmful look-alikes.
Beginning with the informed strategies of mushroom hunting, Feeney shows us the basics
with advice regarding safety orientations, security strategies and needed equipment. De-
scriptions of all aspects of the mushrooms provide technical guidelines for correct species
identifications, enhanced with color photographs. Mycological identification of the various
species, phases of growth, psychoactive concentrations and doses provide technical details for
more than a dozen species and varieties of psychoactive Amanitas. It includes important
details about how to distinguish look-alike species and crucial location and general range
distribution and habitat and seasonal features regarding the species that are important for
finding and identifying the mushrooms. One chapter describes the pharmacological effects of
the primary psychoactive ingredients, muscimol and ibotenic acid and their interrelationship
via the body’s metabolic processes, issues that play an important role in interpreting evidence
for A. muscaria in the past.
Part II of this book delves into culture and folklore, ranging from historical and
contemporary Siberian uses to the deep history of Amanita in mythology and religion.
Several chapters continue Wasson’s comparative approach to understanding the prehistory of
this fungi, combining ethnographic, linguistic and historical information with ecological,
pharmacological, and biological data to reveal the circumstantial and substantial evidence
that help one thread together the diverse forms of knowledge revealing prehistorical and
historical cultural traditions of fly agaric use.
p Feeney and Austin update Gordon Wasson’s famous theory of the identity of Soma in
Corresponding author.
E-mail: michaeljwinkelman@gmail. “Soma’s Third Filter: New Findings Supporting the Identification of A. muscaria as the
com Ancient Sacrament of the Vedas”. Wasson proposed that the Vedas indicated three different
filters used in the preparation of Soma, which correspond to different steps in its preparation.
The first two filters are relatively uncontroversial, a filter provided by sunlight or sun-drying
and a second using a filter of wool to separate the residual solids from aqueous preparations.

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2 Journal of Psychedelic Studies

This drying in the sun is a significant mechanism for Evidence of the ancient religious roles of A. muscaria is
enhancing A. muscaria effects. Drying results in decarbox- found across Eurasia, including in the behavior of the
ylatation of ibotenic acid into muscimol, dramatically famous Viking warriors, the berserkers. A translation of an
reducing the former’s concentrations and unpleasant side 18th century essay is where it was first argued that A.
effects while simultaneously enhancing the concentrations of muscaria’s observed physiological effects reported in certain
the more psychoactive muscimol. This physiological trans- settings indicate it could account for the behavioral and
formation process supports the identification of Soma as A. physiological characteristics of the Viking’s berserker-rages.
muscaria proposed by Wasson as sun drying is not widely Mark Hoffman and Carl Ruck expand on this hypothesis in
known to enhance psychoactive effects of plants. historical, mythical and etymological evidence illustrating
The function of the second filter proposed by Wasson– a connections of A. muscaria with Odin’s warriors, who have
woolen cloth or strainer– is not simply the elimination of assimilated the fierceness and power of a bear or wolf. The
pulp and fiber, but rather an indication of another trans- descriptions of the berserker and the features of the onset of
formative process involving heat, the making of a tea to their conditions such as sweating and notable increases in
rehydrate and extract the active ingredients from the dried physical strength parallel the well-documented effects of fly
mushrooms. Feeney reports a study in which variation in agaric, as does the following state of exhaustion.
contemporary use patterns of A. muscaria and their different Erynn Rowan Laurie and Timothy White open the dis-
effects provides supporting evidence that Soma is A. mus- cussion of the relevance of A. muscaria to Celtic magical
caria. The findings that making a tea with A. muscaria re- brews and legends. Celtic legends recount stories about
sults in an experience less likely to involve nausea and crimson-colored foods which are believed to induce mystical
vomiting than beverages made with fresh mushrooms sug- experiences and inspire abilities of extraordinary knowledge
gests that the tea preparations reduce these unpleasant and prophecy. These and other features suggest this involved
symptoms. ritual use of A. muscaria. Old Celtic legends convey accounts
Wasson’s controversial third filter was the human body, of sleep-inducing apples, berries that provide immortality,
which by ingestion and then excreting the Soma as urine, and hazelnuts that impart wisdom. Although Celtic scholars
acts as a filter to some of A. muscaria’s more toxic effects have mostly ignored evidence for ritual use of entheogens,
and produces a more psychoactive formula. As the body the conspicuous legends about crimson foods which inspire
metabolizes the ibotenic acid, reducing toxic gastrointestinal otherworldly journeys, mystical experiences, extraordinary
effects, it converts it into muscimol, a far more potent knowledge, and gifts of prophecy are strongly suggestive of
psychoactive. One who drinks A. muscaria’s still has sig- the role of entheogenic mushrooms. They propose that these
nificant amounts of unmetabolized ibotenic acid and mus- motifs of magical foods are metaphoric references to the red-
cimol in the urine, which can be “recycled,” ingested again capped mushroom A. muscaria, as is the theme of one eyed,
for the psychoactive effects. one arm, and one leg entities that appears prominently in
While this drinking of urine is a reported in Siberia, Celtic myths.
where people drink the urine of reindeer and persons under Evidence of common origins for Celtic and Vedic cul-
A. muscaria intoxication, Feeney and Austin point to the tures should lead us to ask if the Irish also had a “soma cult,’’
weakness of the supporting evidence in the Vedas and with evidence of such practices encoded in early Irish
suggests another possible filter in milk products frequently literature and folklore. Thomas Riedlinger explores such
mentioned in the Vedas in conjunction with Soma. evidence in the tales of Celtic hero Cu Chulaind who has
They propose that the mixing of unpasteurized milk with characteristics, behavior and experiences that correspond to
the aqueous A. muscaria extractions would produce known effects of A. muscaria. Analyses of ancient Irish
important pharmacological reactions potentiating the myths show allusions to A. muscaria and their parallels with
beverage and reducing its unpleasant side effects. The third the accounts provided in the Rig Veda indicate their ancient
filter involves sour milk and curds, which are referred in common sources in the pre-Indo-European past. This also
various parts of the Rig Veda that refer to the comingling of shows how Celtic myths and folklore maybe useful in in-
these milk products with the Soma preparation. This mrj is terpretations of Vedic texts on the identity of the entheo-
believed ‘to cleanse’ the Soma, a purification that indicates it genic source of Soma.
plays an important part of the preparation. Feeney proposes Peter McCoy examines myth to reveal the association of
that the milk products used in Vedic ceremonies, particu- A. muscaria with the redheaded Celtic Goddess Brigid,
larly the naturally fermented curdled milk, would have known as a Goddess of prophecy and healing and the
contained Lactobacillus bacteria that produce an enzyme inspiration for poets and spiritual leaders. Even with the
called glutamate decarboxylase which catalyzes decarboxyl- Romanization of Celtic culture, many key amanita features
ation of glutamate to GABA. This process parallels the of Brigid remained in descriptions that reveal the appear-
decarboxylation of ibotenic acid which should result in a ance, growth patterns and other characteristics of the
significant increase in the more psychoactive muscimol. This mushroom. Mythic and folklore beliefs about her activities
is evidence for the role of fermented milk products as a also tie her to ancient beliefs about A. muscaria that survived
source glutamate decarboxylase for processing both ibotenic Christianization and carried on with the ancient entheogenic
acid and muscimol of A. muscaria and supports its identity mystery cults with beliefs about spiritual death and magical
as Soma. resurrection.

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Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3

Part III provides research methods for exploration of the A significant contribution is provided in Chapter 28 with
use of A. muscaria as indicated in archaeological evidence. a detailed characterization of the distinctive differences be-
Giorgio Samorini delineates methods for identifying A. tween the effects of isoxazole-containing mushrooms of the
muscaria and A. pantherine depictions in petroglyphs, pic- Amanita genus and psilocybin-containing mushrooms. The
tographs, and other types of archaeological evidence in reputation of A. muscaria as a hallucinogenic mushroom is
outlining key details for identification of the various species problematic in spite of some similarities of its effects with
in artifacts. Features such as rings on the stems or features of those of serotonergic psychedelics, like LSD. While there are
the caps, particularly the protuberances characteristic of A. superficial similarities with psylocybin effects in altered
muscaria, provide key diagnostic criteria, while a variety of mood and perception, and experiences of ego-loss and
recognized characteristics distinguish Psylocybe species death-rebirth, A. muscaria and other isoxazole-containing
(bluing, cap shape, association with bovines). The entheo- mushrooms have a profile of effects that clearly distinguish
genic intent of the representations and the associated ritual them from psilocybin-containing mushrooms and other
activities are also illustrated in features such as reclining or classic psychedelics. The many striking differences may leave
flying persons and the presence of mushrooms on the head even an experienced psychonaut unprepared because in
and dancing. contrast to the relatively consistent and predictable effects of
The global significance of the Ur-entheogenic paradigm the classic psychedelics, the effects of A. muscaria are much
of A. muscaria is supported by artifacts not just from more variable. “It was as if everything were exactly the same
Eurasian, but also Africa and the Americas. Evidence for but totally unfamiliar.”
ritualistic use of A. muscaria in the Americas is provided by These differences in effects of these two genera of
Carl de Borhegyi who extends the work of his father on the mushrooms (Amanita and Psylocybe) reflect distinct
Mesoamerican mushrooms stones. He links these motifs to neurotransmitter systems stimulated by their respective
the famous ball court practices that are associated with compounds. In contrast to the action of typical psychedelics
trophy heads and human sacrifices involving ritual decapi- (i.e., ergolines and tryptamines) on the serotonergic neuro-
tation. He examines these practices in relation to regional transmitter system, the primary psychoactive agent of A.
arts and mythology to expand our understanding of the muscaria is muscimol; it resembles the neurotransmitter
relationships of A. muscaria mushrooms to ritual and cult GABA and has effects on GABA receptors, while ibotenic
practices of the ancient Maya and the Jaguar-Bird-Serpent acid, binds with the glutamate receptors in the brain.
God Quetzalcoatl. Feeney summarizes trip reports to characterize a profile
Part V provides 8 chapters that review diverse aspects of of A. muscaria effects. He summarizes these as a lack of
A. muscaria’s unique pharmacology and therapeutic appli- brightly colored kaleidoscopic visions and color patterns
cations. Ewa Maciejczky’s review of the chemical effects typical of psilocybin; experiences of ordinary objects can be
shared by the diverse species of Amanitas provide a basis for unfamiliar, a surreal quality as if in a dream; and experiences
understanding their specific inebriating effects as well as of ego loss that can seem as a completely sober state, but
diverse therapeutic properties. A review of the history of with the mind’s eye not fixed within one’s head.
pharmacological investigations into the properties of A. Feeney proposes that a unique constellation of associated
muscaria is complemented with a review of contemporary effects provide defining features of Amanita use:
research reporting the isolation of component compounds, Looping, stuck in a repetitive pattern of behavior or
their structural elucidation, and their biological activity. thought;
However, Maciejczky notes that not all of the observed Echopictures/Frame reduction, a slowing of processing
pharmacological effects of A. muscaria can be explained by of visual frames by the brain, with the result that visual
known pharmacological mechanisms of muscimol and ibo- frames remain for prolonged periods in the mind’s eye
tenic acid, requiring further investigation into other sub- before being updated;
stances or their synergistic effects. Potential therapeutic uses Size distortion of images;
include not only it’s well-known antibacterial, anti-inflam- Vacillations between vigor and lassitude, periods of
matory and immune regulation properties but also the drowsiness and sleep alternated with high levels of vigor and
numerous secondary metabolites which may be relevant to stimulation;
treatment of cardiovascular disease and cognitive decline. Feelings of strength resulting from an intense stimula-
Pharmacologically and clinically A. muscaria has an tion of the nervous system that enable people to exert
intriguing profile illustrated in a long history of clinical case muscular efforts of which they are normally completely
applications that reveal a broad therapeutic potential for a incapable;
wide range of modern applications, ranging from pain and Visionary dreams, experienced as an entry into a hallu-
inflammation, to symptoms of fear and anxiety, and cinatory dream-like reality separate from the physical world;
addressing cognitive decline, cancer and even addictions. Dissociation, delirium, loss of consciousness and
Chapter 27 provides some broad guidelines for therapeutic amnesia with a lack of post-episode memory of the experi-
applications A. muscaria, including dosing and various ences for some people;
preparations of A. muscaria as a medicinal, providing specific Imperviousness and insensitivity to pain, resulting in
instructions for preparations of teas, decoctions, tinctures and dangerous behavior and significant injuries;
topical applications and blends with other substances. Muscle twitching and loss of coordination;

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4 Journal of Psychedelic Studies

Muscarinic symptoms of “excessive perspiration and sali- fly Agaric beverages may provide a pharmacological effect
vation, increased urination, blurry vision, and gastrointestinal that enhances conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent
distress, which may include nausea, vomiting and/or diarrhea” muscimol.
(p. 442). Feeney’s volume provides a comprehensive and extensive
This diversity of features is why A. muscaria defies overview of this iconic mushroom, spanning its hidden pre-
existing drug classifications, and while exhibiting effects history to its current potentials, a diverse body of material that
similar to 5HT2 psychedelics, has other features as varied as will please many readers. One of the sections of the book is
deliriant, dissociative, stimulant and depressant. dedicated to coverage of the culinary uses, including procedures
Perhaps the most useful aspects of Feeney’s book are for removal of unpleasant toxins. Several other chapters beyond
found in specific instructions regarding how to use these the purview of this review engage topics such as: speculations on
enigmatic fungi. In a final chapter entitled ‘The Formula’ relationship of Santa Claus to A. muscaria derived from beliefs
Feeney provides us with procedures for preparing A. mus- of the Saami reindeer herders; the Germany mythology of
caria for consumption, based on ethnographic knowledge A. muscaria as a symbol of luck; the hidden prehistory of
from Siberia and other places, and procedures for prepara- A. muscaria represented in the Russian word Mukhomor, used
tion as described in the Rig Veda. These orientations begin to refer to witches and the fly agaric; recent trips to Siberia to
with dehydration and homogenization and conclude with learn about the contemporary beliefs and practices regarding
personal preparation and security and safety considerations. A. muscaria use in Russian Kamchatka peninsula; reports of
Several different drink recipes derived from diverse A. experiments in self-administration, including the enhanced
muscaria folklore and tradition provide methods for pre- urine drink; the homeopathic use of Amanita muscaria; and the
paring the beverage to reduce toxic and unpleasant effects history of an Amanita mushroom business in the US.
and enhance psychoactive effects, as do urine recycling and Fly Agaric has a something for anyone interested in the
smoking mixtures. Traditional practices of adding berries to enigmatic A. muscaria and is the go-to reference for now.

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