International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies, 2022, 9(1), 63-78

International Journal of Psychology and Educational

Studies
www.ijpes.com ISSN: 2148-9378

Analysis of Relationships between High School Students’ Career Maturity,

Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy, and Career Decision-Making
Difficulties

Hazel DURU1
1 Uludağ University, Faculty of Education, Bursa, Turkey 0000-0002-1669-6407

A RTICLE INFO A BST RA C T

Article History The study analyzed the relationships between high school students’ career maturity, career decision-
Received 16.03.2021 making difficulties, and career decision-making self-efficacy and aimed to investigate whether career
Received in revised form maturity, career decision-making difficulties and career decision-making self-efficacy altered
03.06.2021 according to gender, type of school, and grade level. The study sample was composed of 665 high
Accepted 26.11.2021 school students attending five different high schools in Bursa. The data collection tools included the
Article Type: Research Career Decision-making Difficulties Questionnaire, the Career Maturity Scale, and the Career
Article Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale. Among quantitative research methods, a correlation model was
applied. The analysis results revealed a weak but significant negative relationship between career
maturity and career decision-making difficulties scale in terms of total scores and subscale scores.
Additionally, there was a medium- and low-level significant negative relationship between the
career decision-making difficulties scale total and subscale scores, and the career decision-making
self-efficacy total and subscale scores. The subsequent analysis to describe the mediating role of
career decision-making self-efficacy demonstrated that career decision-making self-efficacy had a
partial mediating role. Furthermore, male students were found to have a more disadvantaged status
than did female students in terms of career maturity. Based on the fact that students’ career decision-
making difficulties stemmed from the aspect of a lack of readiness, psycho education programs can
be organized to determine the reasons for the lack of lack of readiness, find solutions, and provide
the necessary information and skills. Future studies may focus on examining the reasons for the
career maturity level differences.
© 2022 IJPES. All rights reserved
Keywords:
Career, career maturity, career decision-making difficulties, career decision-making self-efficacy

1. Introduction

The developments in today’s world of work, changes in career-related paradigms, the global problems that
require constant innovation and creativity might be important indicators for initial career choices and
subsequent career development. Upon considering the number of students eligible to attend universities and
the extant low employment ratios in Turkey, it becomes necessary to identify and address the problems
associated with the career decision-making process. When Turkey’s unemployment and employment rates
are examined, it is then possible to understand why the right career choice and the correct career decision-
making process are vital. Recent statistics reveal that Turkey’s unemployment rate reached 13.2% (Turkish
Statistical Institute [TUIK], 2020), which might indicate faulty decision-making or career development
problems in choosing the right higher education department and profession.

*This article was produced from Hazel Duru's master's thesis.

1Corresponding author’s address: Uludag University, Faculty of Education, Nilüfer-Bursa/Turkey
e-mail: [email protected]
Citation: Duru, H. (2022). Analysis of relationships between high school students’ career maturity, career decision-making self-efficacy,
and career decision-making difficulties. International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies, 9(1), 63-78.
https://dx.doi.org/10.52380/ijpes.2022.9.1.479
International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies 2022, 9(1), 63-78

A career is a comprehensive concept, covering and affecting the entire life of an individual from childhood.
A career choice is a critical task for adolescents in their stages of development (Super, 1990). Although career
choice and career development start with pre-school, secondary education is central to career choice and
career-shaping experiences, especially in Turkey, because students in Turkey take the Higher Education
Exam (YKS) after secondary school education and can potentially opt to enroll in higher education
institutions based on their scores. Considering career development periods and tasks, this secondary
education period is critical for future career choice (Havighurst, 1956; Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2013). Hence
the need to identify the challenging factors (Gati et al., 1996) and required competencies (Sarı & Sahin, 2012)
in career decision-making and to determine whether students possess sufficient maturity to complete the
required developmental tasks (Cakar & Kulaksızoglu, 1997) and make the right choices.
Career decision-making involves a process of interrelated continuity such as collecting certain information
and making a career choice, having an education, and subsequently attaining employment after completing
an education program. However, inadequate information as to the proper career choice might lead to career
indecision (Sampson et al., 2004). Patton et al. (2003) found that a high indecision level had an entirely
negative impact on adolescent career development. Adolescents who interact continuously with their
surroundings are exposed to various career-related stimulators such as friends, family, teachers, school
counselors, role models, and various informative programs and activities. However, those adolescents may
suffer indecision as well due to the high number of options available in secondary education (Sampson et al.,
2004), which might refer to talking about career decision-making difficulties.
Career decision-making difficulties can be expressed as challenges and distractions in the generalized
decision-making process (Gati et al., 1996). Gati et al. (1996) created a model explaining career decision-
making difficulties in terms of three dimensions. In the original model, career decision-making was
considered a process involving different components and difficulties (Brown, 1990; Gati et al., 1995; Katz,
1966; Pitz & Harren, 1980). The model has three categories made up of a lack of readiness, a lack of information,
and inconsistent information. A lack of readiness refers to difficulties related to a lack of motivation, a lack of
information about the required steps, indecisiveness, and dysfunctional myths. A lack of information includes
a paucity of information about oneself, a lack of information about extant occupations, and a lack of
information about ways of obtaining additional information. The category of inconsistent information
embodies unreliable information and internal and external conflicts.
Career decision-making difficulties are also related to other concepts concerning career development. In a
study on university students, Osipow and Gati (1998) found that as career decision-making self-efficacy
increased, students’career decision-making difficulties decreased. Hijazi et al. (2004), Bacanlı (2012), and Gati
and Saka (2001) conducted a study on highschool students and established that high school students
‘difficulties in decision-making mainly stemmed from interactions with parents, friends, and teachers.
Adolescents who suffer from career indecision should have access to specific skills, competencies, and social
support systems to aid in making an accurate decision. Career maturity is one of the essential concepts in
career choice and career decision-making. Career maturity can be defined as completing career development
tasks and developing problem-solving and coping strategies for addressing the difficulties experienced in
making a career choice (Yesilyaprak, 2007). Super (1963) described career maturity as a multidimensional
process and progress speed in the career choice path. Based on these definitions, it is suggested that career
maturity can influence a series of decisions at a specific time. Thus, it should be considered a concept that
can affect career choices during the highly critical career choice period. While career maturity is a significant
factor in career development and career choice, various factors are also influenced. Career maturity includes
several properties and variables such as gender (Bozgeyikli et al., 2010; Sekmenli, 2000; Uzer, 1987), type of
school (Akbıyık, 1996), self-respect, self, personality development (Urun, 2010), parental attitudes, socio-
economic status (Yazar, 1997), supervision (Harman, 2017; Sahranc, 2000), and perceived social support
(Surucu, 2005). Additionally, career maturity involves and influences other concepts related to a career.
Career decision-making, career choice, and problem-solving skills are seen to be causally associated with
career maturity (Crites, 1971).
Self-efficacy plays an essential role in career decision-making. Especially central to Social Cognitive Career
Theory, it is crucial for career counseling (Lent et al., 1994). According to Bandura and Adams (1977), self-

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efficacy refers to the ideas related to essential attitudes and behaviors required for an individual to
subsequently make a good career choice. This concept contributes to a deliberate career choice. Self-efficacy
reflects choosing a career, receiving an education, getting employed, and information collection, perception,
and interpretation steps (Betz & Hackett, 1981; Taylor & Betz, 1983). Betz (2000) stated that purposeful
behaviors, plans for targets, a decision-making tendency, willingness, and self-efficacy are useful in career
choice and subsequent excellent performance.
Additionally, career decision-making self-efficacy is regarded as a prerequisite for successful career decision-
making (Creed et al., 2006). Studies found a negative relationship between self-efficacy career decision-
making and subsequent career indecision (Betz et al., 1996; Creed et al., 2004; Guay et al., 2006; Nota et al.,
2007). In career counseling, the concept of self-efficacy embodies the requisite behaviors in career choice and
decision-making (information gathering, interpreting, and perceptions about the occupation) (Hackett &
Betz, 1981; Taylor & Betz, 1983). Therefore, self-efficacy is a compelling factor in individuals’ career choices
and career development. It is required, therefore, to determine individuals ‘career decision-making self-
efficacy and its impact on career decision-making difficulties.
Today, the growing rate of employment problems; and career choices based on employment needs rather
than personal skills, interests, and values; the high number of options and information sources; excessive
guidance emanating from the social environment make career choice and career decision-making a
challenging task. It is crucial to identify high school students’ career decision-making steps, determine
factors related to decision-making, and offer efficacious and appropriate career guidance and counseling
services. In the Ministry of National Education (MONO)’s recent regulations and plans, effective and
productive career counseling services for students have been among the primary targets, which is a good
indicator of the topic’s importance. Because self-efficacy and career maturity are interrelated concepts and
essential for career development, it is believed that career decision-making difficulties can be overcome
based on changes in said two variables. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the factors affecting career
difficulties. It is vital to describe the current status of career development among high school students in
Turkey, as they play a role in contributing to national development, the building of a qualified labor force,
employment, and innovations in the country. There are no studies in the existing body of literature
discussing the relationships between career maturity, career decision-making difficulties, and career
decision-making self-efficacy. Thus, this study contributes to the literature on the relationships between the
cited concepts. Moreover, it is believed that the study results provide critical and necessary information
about high school students’ career development, all of which facilitates the transition to a career. In this
sense, the practices and regulations based on the study results might contribute to students’ career
development, making it a functional item of research.
The study analyzes the relationships between high school students’ career maturity, career decision-making
difficulties, and career decision-making self-efficacy. Accordingly, the study aims to test the hypothesis
model as shown in Figure 1. It searches for answers to the following questions:
1. Do high school students’ career maturity, career decision-making difficulties, and career decision-
making self-efficacyvary according to gender, school type, and grade level?
2. Is there a relationship between high school students’ career maturity, career decision-making
difficulties, and career decision-making self-efficacy?
3. Does career decision-making self-efficacy play a mediating role in the relationship between high
school students’ career maturity and career decision-making difficulties?

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International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies 2022, 9(1), 63-78

Figure 1. Model of the Mediating Role

The Direct effect of X on Y: c
The Indirect effect of X on Y: cⁱ

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Model

In this study, among the available quantitative research methods, the correlation model was used to evaluate
the relationships between high school students ‘difficulties in career decision-making, career maturity, and
career decision-making self-efficacy. Correlation research is research wherein the relationship between two
or more variables is examined without intervening in any way. Correlational studies are important in that
they are effective in revealing the relationships between variables, determining the levels of these
relationships, and providing the necessary clues for higher-level research on these relationships
(Buyukozturk et al., 2016).
2.2. Research Sample
The group consisted of 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th graders in secondary education institutions in Nilüfer,
Osmangazi, and the Yıldırım districts of Bursa city. There were two Anatolian high schools, one science high
school, and two vocational and technical Anatolian high schools. Table 1 presents the distribution of gender,
grade level, and type of school of the participants.
Table 1. Distribution of the Study Group by Gender, Grade Level, and School Type
Variables Gender N %
Male 436 65.6
Gender Female 229 34.4
Total 665 100
9th grade 185 27.8
10th grade 178 26.8
Grade Level 11th grade 229 34.4
12th grade 73 11.0
Total 665 100
Vocational and Technical Anatolian High
247 37.1
School
School Type Anatolian High School 280 42.1
Science High School 138 20.8
Total 665 100

2.3. Data Collection Tools and Procedure

Personal information form.The researcher designed the personal information form, including information
about students' gender, grade level, and school type.
The Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ). The instrument was developed by Gati
and Saka (2001) for high school students and adapted by Bacanlı (2008). The scale consists of three subscales,
and each subscale is divided into other subscales. The scale was deployed as it was originally prepared.
Total scores can be calculated for subscales and the total scale. The three subscales are a lack of readiness, a lack

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of information, and inconsistent information. The scale reliability was calculated with Cronbach alpha internal
consistency coefficient. It was .45 for lack of readiness, .90 for lack of information, and .84 for inconsistent
information (Bacanlı, 2008). The current study was found to sum as .74 for lack of readiness, .60 for lack of
information, and .95 for inconsistent information.
The Career Maturity Scale (CMS). The tool was developed by Kuzgun and Bacanlı (2005) for use with
highschool students and consists of 40 items. Nineteen of the scale items present positive attitudes and
behaviors for career maturity, whereas21 reflect negative attitudes and behaviors. The items regarding
negative attitudes and behaviors are reverse-coded. It can be noted that as the score obtained from the scale
increases, career maturity increases similarly. The Cronbach alpha coefficient of the instrument was.89
(Kuzgun and Bacanlı, 2005). In this study, it was found to be .74.
The Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale (CDMSE). The scale was developed by Bozgeyikli (2004). It
consists of three dimensions and 27 items, which involve a correct evaluation of personal and occupational
characteristics (11 items), gathering occupational information (eight items), and realistic planning (eight
items). (Bozgeyikli, 2004). The scale was initially developed for 8th graders, but a reliability study for the high
school sample was subsequently conducted by Oztemel (2012) and Seker (2013).Because the validity studies
of the scale for the high school sample were carried out in previous studies, they were not repeated in this
study. The internal consistency coefficients of the scale were .89 for “a correct evaluation of personal and
occupational characteristics,” .87 for “gathering occupational information,” .81 for “realistic planning,” and
.92 for the total scale (Bozgeyikli, 2004). The internal consistency coefficients of the scale by Seker (2013) were
.85 for “a correct evaluation of personal and occupational characteristics,” .76 for “gathering occupational
information,” .72 for “realistic planning,” and .90 for the total scale. The internal consistency coefficients of
the scale in this study were .78 for “a correct evaluation of personal and occupational characteristics,” .82 for
“gathering occupational information,” .74 for “realistic planning,” and .91 for the total scale.
2.4. Data Analysis
To determine whether the students’ career decision-making difficulties total and subscale mean scores,
career maturity score averages, and career decision-making self-efficacy mean scores differ according to
gender, a t-test was performed, and a one-way analysis of variance was conducted to determine whether
they also differ by grade level and high school type. The Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient
was used to analyze the relationship between students ‘career maturity scores, career decision-making
difficulties, and career decision-making self-efficacy. In addition, a mediating role analysis was conducted to
determine the mediating role of career decision-making self-efficacy between career maturity and career
decision-making difficulties. The SPSS Hayes Process Macro program was used to determine the mediating
role. The Bootstrap sample number was one thousand in the analysis.
2.5. Ethical

After determining the institutions where the research was to be conducted, the necessary permissions were
obtained from the Bursa Provincial Directorate of National Education (date: 01.03.2019 and number: 02/08).
Before data collection, sample scales were taken to the institutions, and the necessary explanations were
made to the relevant staff members for the study. After consultation with the institutions, the application
was made by visiting the institution on the days and hours convenient to the institutions. Before the
applications were made, detailed explanations about the purpose of the study were given to the students. A
total of 948 students were reached, but 283 students’ data were not included in the analysis due to
incomplete or incorrect data. Consequently, analyses were made with 665 valid forms.
3. Findings

The descriptive analysis for high school students’ career maturity, career decision-making self-efficacy, and
career decision-making difficulties scale total scores and subscale scores are presented in Table 2.

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Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Variables

Variables N X SD Skewness Kurtosis
CMS Total 665 122.10 5.86 -.05 .09 .08 .18
CDDQ Total 665 87.94 24.51 .40 .09 -.43 .18
Lack of Readiness 665 29.26 5.68 -.05 .09 .48 .18
Lack of Information 665 28.92 12.05 .32 .09 -.69 .18
Inconsistent Information 665 23.38 9.56 .36 .09 -.61 .18
CDMSE Total 665 102.83 13.97 -.55 .09 1.04 .18
Correct Evaluation of Personal and
665 42.15 5.79 -.72 .09 1.34 .18
Occupational Characteristics
Gathering Occupational Information 665 29.66 5.23 -.46 .09 .41 .18
Realistic Planning 665 31.01 4.43 -.46 .09 .61 .18
Total 665

The skewness and kurtosis values in Table 2 were between +1.5 and −1.5, which indicates that the scale
scores had a normal distribution. George and Mallery (2010) argued that skewness and kurtosis values
between +2 and −2 indicate a normal distribution. Thus, the scale scores showed a normal distribution, and
the resultant data are suitable for parametric analysis.
An independent samples t-test was applied to determine whether high school students’ career maturity,
career decision-making self-efficacy, and career decision-making difficulties total scores and subscale scores
differed by gender, and the results are given in Table 3.

Table 3. t-Test Result by Gender

Variables Gender N X SD t p
Female 436 122.62 5.87
CMS Total 3.16 .00*
Male 229 121.12 5.74
Female 436 88.34 24.16
CDDQ Total .57 .56
Male 229 87.18 25.19
Female 436 29.61 5.36
Lack of Readiness 2.10 .03*
Male 229 28.59 6.20
Female 436 29.08 12.11
Lack of Information .45 .65
Male 229 28.63 11.95
Female 436 23.28 9.54
Inconsistent Information -.37 .70
Male 229 23.58 9.63
Female 436 102.63 14.36
CDMSE Total -.51 .61
Male 229 103.20 13.22
Correct Evaluation of Personal and Female 436 41.98 5.96
−1.03 .29
Occupational Characteristics Male 229 42.46 5.47
Female 436 29.62 5.35
Gathering Occupational Information -.25 .80
Male 229 29.73 5.00
Female 436 31.02 4.47
Realistic Planning .04 .96
Male 229 31.00 4.38

According to the independent samples t-test results in Table 3, the career maturity scale total score (t=3.16,
p<.05) and the CDDQ lack of readiness subscale (t=2.10 p<.05) showed a significant difference by gender. The
difference in the career maturity scale total score and the lack of readiness subscale score favored female
students. There was no difference for gender in the CDDQ total score, the lack of information and
inconsistent information subscale scores, the CDMSES total score, the correct evaluation of personal and
occupational characteristics, gathering occupational information, and the realistic planning subscale scores.

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One-way variance analysis was applied to describe whether high school students’ career maturity, career
decision-making self-efficacy, and career decision-making difficulties total scores and subscale scores
changed for school type, and the results are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. One-Way Analysis of Variance Results by School Type
Variables Source of Variance Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p
Between Groups 74.86 2 37.43 1.08 .33
CMS Total In-group 22792.55 662 34.43
Total 22867.42 664
Between Groups 9655.00 2 4827.50 8.20 .00*
CDDQ Total In-group 389327.94 662 588.10
Total 398982.94 664
Between Groups 25.38 2 12.69 .39 .67
Lack of Readiness In-group 21409.08 662 32.34
Total 21434.47 664
Between Groups 2689.72 2 1344.86 9.49 .00*
Lack of Information In-group 93772.80 662 141.65
Total 96462.53 664
Between Groups 1627.08 2 813.54 9.10 .00*
Inconsistent Information In-group 59130.59 662 89.32
Total 60757.67 664
Between Groups 856.18 2 428.09 2.20 .11
CDMSE Total In-group 128792.28 662 194.55
Total 129648.47 664
Between Groups 101.43 2 50.71 1.51 .22
Correct Evaluation of Personal
In-group 22218.91 662 33.56
and Occupational Characteristics
Total 22320.35 664
Between Groups 31.98 2 15.99 .58 .55
Gathering Occupational
In-group 18158.23 662 27.42
Information
Total 18190.22 664
Between Groups 199.55 2 99.77 5.12 .00*
Realistic Planning In-group 12882.30 662 19.46
Total 13081.85 664
*p<.05

As seen in Table 4, the CDDQ total score (F=8.20, p<.05),the lack of information (F=9.49, p<.05), and the
inconsistent information (F=9.10, p<.05) subscale scores showed a difference for school type. Moreover, there
was a difference in the CDMSES, realistic planning subscale (F=5.12, p<.05). The Tukey test among Post Hoc
tests was performed to specify the school type with a significant difference, and the CDDQ total score
demonstrated a significant difference between Anatolian high schools, science high schools, and technical
high schools. Additionally, it is possible to mention that a lack of information and inconsistent information
subscales of the CDDQ were significantly in favor of Anatolian high schools. In terms of the realistic
planning subscale score of the CDMSES, science high school students had more problems realistic planning
than other high school students.
One-way variance analysis was applied to determine whether high school students’ career maturity, career
decision-making self-efficacy, and career decision-making difficulties total scores and subscale scores
changed for grade level, and Table 5 shows the results below.
According to Table 5, the CDDQ total score (F=4.42, p<.05), the lack of information (F=3.97, p<.05) and
inconsistent information (F=4.32, p<.05) subscale scores, and the CDMSES total score (F=3.17, p<.05), correct
evaluation of personal and occupational characteristics(F=2.78, p<.05), and gathering occupational
information (F=3.58, p<.05) subscales demonstrated a significant difference for thegrade level. Then, a Tukey
test was applied to determine the group with a significant difference. The CDDQ total score showed a
significant difference between the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. Based on this result, it was determined that
10th- and 11th-grade students had problems in the sub-dimension of lack of informationcompared to 9th
graders. Tenth graders scored higher in the inconsistent information subscales thandid other students. For

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International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies 2022, 9(1), 63-78

career decision-making self-efficacy, 11th graders had higher scores than did other grade levels. For the
subscale of gathering occupational informationof the CDMSES, there was a significant difference in favor of
11th graders.
Table 5. One-Way Analysis of Variance Results by Grade Level
Variables Source of Variance Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p
Between Groups 204.13 3 68.04 1.98 .11
CMS Total In-group 22663.28 661 34.28
Total 22867.42 664
Between Groups 7845.53 3 2615.17 4.42 .00*
CDDQ Total In-group 391137.41 661 591.73
Total 398982.94 664
Between Groups 134.91 3 44.97 1.39 .24
Lack of Readiness In-group 21299.55 661 32.22
Total 21434.47 664
Between Groups 1708.96 3 569.65 3.97 .00*
Lack of Information In-group 94753.56 661 143.34
Total 96462.53 664
Between Groups 1169.07 3 389.69 4.32 .00*
Inconsistent
In-group 59588.60 661 90.14
Information
Total 60757.67 664
Between Groups 1840.10 3 613.36 3.17 .02*
CDMSE Total In-group 127808.36 661 193.35
Total 129648.47 664
Correct Evaluation of Between Groups 279.00 3 93.00 2.78 .04*
Personal and In-group 22041.34 661 33.34
Occupational
Total 22320.35 664
Characteristics
Between Groups 291.51 3 97.17 3.58 .01*
Gathering Occupational
In-group 17898.70 661 27.07
Information
Total 18190.22 664
Between Groups 140.24 3 46.74 2.38 .06
Realistic Planning In-group 12941.60 661 19.57
Total 13081.85 664
*p<.05

A Pearson correlation test was performed to determine the relationships between high school students’
career decision-making difficulties and career maturity. Table 6 demonstrates the results.
Table 6. Correlation Results Between Career Decision-Making Difficulties and Career Maturity Scale
Variables CMS Total
r -.27**
CDDQ Total p .00
N 665
r -.16**
Lack of Readiness p .00
N 665
r -.25**
Lack of Information p .00
N 665
r -.26**
Inconsistent Information p .00
N 665
*p<.05

Table 6 shows a negative and low-level significant relationship between the CDDQ total score and CMS
(r=−.27, p<.05). In other words, as career maturity scores increased, career difficulties in decision-making
decreased, or vice versa. A significant relationship was found between all CDDQ subscales and the CMS
total scores. A significant low-level relationship was revealed between the lack of readiness (r=−.16), a lack

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of information (r=−.25), and inconsistent information (r=−.26) subscale scores and the CMS total score
(p<.05).
A Pearson correlation test was applied to describe the relationships between high school students’ career
decision-making difficulties and career decision-making self-efficacy, and the results are given in Table 7.
Table 7. Correlation Results Between Career Decision-Making Difficulties and Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy
Correct Evaluation of Personal and Gathering Occupational Realistic CDMSE
Occupational Characteristics Information Planning Total
r -.31** -.28** -.22** -.30**
CDDQ Total p .00 .00 .00 .00
N 665 665 665 665
r -.09* -.04 -.03 -.06
Lack of Readiness p .01 .27 .40 .08
N 665 665 665 665
r -.35** -.35** -.26** -.36**
Lack of Information p .00 .00 .00 .00
N 665 665 665 665
r -.30** -.26** -.22** -.29**
Inconsistent Information p .00 .00 .00 .00
N 665 665 665 665
*p<.05

The analysis results suggested a medium and significant negative relationship between the CDDQ total
score and the CDMSES total score (r=−.30) and the correct evaluation of personal and occupational
characteristics(r=−.31) subscale scores (p<.05). However, there was a significant low-level relationship
between the CDDQ total score, the CDMSES gathering occupational information(r=−.28), and the realistic
planning(r=−.22) subscale scores. There was significant relationship between the CDDQ subscale scores and
the CDMSES subscale scores (p<.05), and a low-level significant negative relationship between the lack of
readiness subscale scores and the correct evaluation of personal and occupational characteristics subscale
scores. Besides, a medium-level negative relationship was found between the lack of information subscale
scores and the correct evaluation of personal and occupational characteristics(r=−.35), gathering
occupational information(r=−.35), and CDMSES total scores (r=-.36), and a low-level relationship was
observed in realistic planning. There was a medium-level relationship between the inconsistent information
subscale and the correct evaluation of personal and occupational characteristics, and a significant low-level
relationship between gathering occupational information, realistic planning, and the CDMSES total scores.
The analysis was conducted on Process Macro (Model 4) to test the mediating role of high school students’
career decision-making self-efficacy between career maturity and career decision-making difficulties, and the
results are shown in Figure 2 and Table 8.

Figure 2. The Mediating Role Analysis Results

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Paths a, b, c, and cⁱare presented in Figure 2 for the mediating role of career decision-making self-efficacy
between career maturity and career decision-making difficulties. According to Figure 2, the standardized
regression coefficient for path a was 0.52 (p=.00), −0.45 (p=.00) for path b,−0.89 (p=.00) for path c, and −0.23 for
cⁱ.
Table 8. Analysis Results Regarding the Mediating Role of Each Transaction Path
The mediating of career decision- Total Direct Bootstrap Mediating
Indirect Effect
making self-efficacy Effect Effect Confidence Interval Effect Type
Career Maturity–Career Decision- (−0.35)
−1.13 −0.89 −0.23 Partial
Making Difficulties (−0.13)

The total effect of CMS on CDDQ total score was (β=−1.13, t=−7.29, F=53.16) −1.13, and the direct effect was
(β=−.89, t=−7.07, F=53.61) −.89 as shown in Table 8. The indirect effect of the CMS total score on the CDDQ
total score was −.23, which indicates that the impact of career maturity on career decision-making difficulties
decreased when the career decision-making self-efficacy variable was included in the analysis. Based on
these results, it is possible to express a partial mediating role of career decision-making self-efficacy. The
Bootstrap sample number was one thousand in the analysis. However, it was seen that the standardized
bootstrap intervals do not contain zero. Thus, it can be suggested that the mediating role of career decision-
making self-efficacy between career decision-making difficulties and career maturity was significant.
4. Conclusion and Discussion

The study revealed that female students had higher scores in the lack of readiness sub-dimension. Thus, it is
suggested that female students felt less prepared for career decision-making. Similarly, Harman (2017) found
that female students had higher scores in the lack of information and lack of readiness subscale scores.
Oztemel (2013) indicated that a lack of information subscale of the CDDQ significantly predicted gender
variables for high school students. There was no difference in the CDDQ total scores in terms of gender,
which can be explained by the fact that high school students sometimes experience career decision-making
difficulties regardless of gender. Because secondary education is the most critical step for students to
proceed to future careers, it might lead to students’ hesitation regarding career decision-making. In Turkey,
where a collectivist culture is dominant, ascribed gender roles can be an obstacle for female students. Beliefs
and discourses about women’s ability to enter certain professions may cause female students to turn to
certain professions by limiting their thinking in detail about their career choices. It might also lead students
to have irrational ideas, experience high levels of indecision between choosing a given or desired career and
display less motivation for occupation choice and career decision-making.
The study revealed that female students’ career maturity scale scores were higher than those of male
students. Therefore, it is possible to note that female students’ career maturity or, in other words,
competence in completing career development tasks is better than that of male students. Many similar
studies (Bozgeyikli et al., 2010; Cakar & Kulaksızoglu, 1997; Ulas & Yıldırım, 2015; Urun, 2010; Yon et al.,
2012) demonstrated that female students’ career maturity is greater than that of male students. Because
females mature earlier than males in developmental terms, this leads to a higher cognitive maturity among
females. In this sense, female students’ higher-level occupational thoughts and structures might provide
them with advantages. Besides, limited career options for female students due to Turkey’s culture and social
gender roles might have led students to decide in specific patterns and choose certain occupations, resulting
in greater career maturity. Social gender roles might have developed female students’ sense of responsibility.
Those female students encouraged to help with family tasks from an early age possess a higher sense of
responsibility and behave accordingly. Female students raised with a continuing sense of responsibility and
self-efficacy to cope with life challenges might feel more responsible in career decision-making than male
students.
In the study, there was no difference in the career decision-making self-efficacy total scores and the subscale
scores for gender, which is supported by some other studies (Chung, 2002; Nauta & Kahn, 2007; Ulas, 2016).
It is suggested that there was no difference in collecting information for a career, assessing, and identifying
individual and career properties, and comparing them to make realistic career plans. Because high school

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students are ina transitional period and are aware of the necessity to make a career choice, there may have
been no difference between genders. In this sense, students of both genders experience the same career steps.
Another result of this study was that science high school and vocational and technical Anatolian school
students had more difficulties than Anatolian high school students in career decision-making. Additionally,
it is possible to indicate that Anatolian high school students had fewer difficulties in the lack of information
and inconsistent information subscales of CDDQ. In terms of career decision-making self-efficacy, Anatolian
and vocational-technical Anatolian high school students had higher scores in making a realistic planning
subscale of the CDMSES. Atılgan (2017) and Oztemel (2012) found that vocational and technical Anatolian
high school students experienced more career indecision than students in general high schools. Sen (2017)
found that Anatolian high school students experienced more career indecision than science high school
students and had a higher score in the CDDQ inconsistent information and lack of information subscales.
Considering the current findings and the literature, there are specific differences. More severe difficulties
experienced by science high school students in decision-making can be discussed from different
perspectives. Science high schools help graduates to continue their education, mainly in science
departments. Therefore, students in such schools might feel they are target-focused on a specific field, which
might lead students to choose a career they do not desire or prefer unsuitable career options. Besides, both
teachers’ and parents’ expectations from those students are high, leading students to meet these
expectations.
Another point is the science high school students’ low scores in the realistic planning subscale. Science high
schools are for students with superior mathematics and science skills and performance, aiming to develop
scientists. Upon analyzing the studies, it can be observed that high school students are considered specially
gifted (Bozgeyikli et al., 2010; Kocak and Icmenoglu, 2016). The high levels of generalized and individual
intelligence of those students might encourage them to think of opportunities they will not typically achieve
or be given, leading them to possess unrealistic expectations. In other words, students might not make
realistic career plans because they want to achieve the ideal. Meanwhile, vocational, and technical high
schools aim to provide students with a certain general culture level, help them gain specific competence in
certain occupations, and prepare for higher education institutions. As vocational and technical highschool
students are occupied with an occupation since the high school period, they might have a more realistic
perspective for their future careers and maintain the current job.
Anatolian high school students can be viewed as a more disadvantaged group than other high school
students because of their graduation with average grades. Hence, they consider academic success a criterion
for career choice and career decision-making rather than personal desires and interests. Therefore, we can
infer that Anatolian high school students strive not to experience a lack of information, to make correct
decisions, and have less inconsistent information.
The study results indicated that 10th and 11th graders had more difficulties than 9th graders in career decision-
making, which stemmed from the lack of information. It can be said that 10 th graders experienced more
problems in inconsistent information dimensions than other students. For career decision-making self-
efficacy, it is possible to note that 11th graders had higher scores than did other grade levels. There was no
difference in the grade level for career maturity. Sen (2017) stated that 12th graders had more inconsistent
information than did 10th graders. Tansu (2011) suggested that vocational guidance service and grade level
were significant predictors of high school students’ career indecision. Seker (2013) concluded that 10th
graders had higher subscale scores for correct evaluation of personal and occupational characteristics than
did 11th graders.
Similarly, Urun (2010) found that students’ career maturity showed no difference in the grade level. Tenth
and 11th graders are expected to choose a specific field in secondary education. Those students might realize
their lack of information. Because information is essential for a career choice, insufficient or missing
information might make it more difficult for students. However, 11th graders might be stimulated to research
the options and reduce their information deficit, which, in turn, might have increased those students’ career
decision-making self-efficacy.
Another result of the study was the negative relationship found between students’ career maturity level and
career decision-making difficulties. In addition, increased career decision-making self-efficacy similarly

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contributed to a reduction in students’ career decision-making difficulties. Some studies found similar
findings (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2014; Harman, 2017; Mutlu, 2011). The lack of information for career
decision-making, resolving the career-related ambiguities, motivations, and the refinement of wrong ideas
about career choice is associated with students’ career maturity and can change with career decision-making
self-efficacy. These two variables can be acknowledged as advantageous for career choice. Both career
decision-making self-efficacy and career maturity seem important for students to complete career
development and career choice tasks and take the necessary responsibilities. Hence, it can be inferred that
these two competencies play a role in career decision-making difficulties.
The study’s last finding was the partial mediating role of career decision-making self-efficacy between career
decision-making difficulties and career maturity. Lee et al. (2012) determined that commitment to parents,
friends, and teachers affected career maturity, and career decision-making self-efficacy had a mediating role.
Jin et al. (2009) carried out a study on graduate students and found the mediating role of career decision-
making self-efficacy in the relationship between the five-factor personality model and career commitment.
Both career maturity and self-efficacy in career decision-making are influential in difficulties in career
decision-making. With the analysis of the mediating role, the shared effect between two different variables
was examined. Career maturity refers to the ability to complete development tasks; therefore, individuals
who complete the development tasks can carry out the necessary research for careers and go on to choose
career paths. In other words, they might experience fewer career decision-making difficulties. Similarly,
since career decision-making self-efficacy involves various career development competencies and career
choice, it seems to offset career decision-making difficulties.
5. Recommendations

This study was carried out to determine the variables explaining high school students ‘career decision-
making difficulties. Based on the study results and findings, several recommendations are offered for
researchers. Future studies can discuss variables such as the socioeconomic status and the issue of family
support in a career choice that might influence career decision-making difficulties. When the students’
feedback was reviewed in this study, it was understood that students wanted to express themselves
verbally, especially about career decision-making difficulties. Accordingly, qualitative studies can be
performed to deal with high school students ‘career decision-making difficulties from a different
perspective. The study found that science high school and vocational and technical Anatolian high school
students had more career decision-making difficulties than Anatolian high school students. Different studies
can be carried out to describe the high school student’s career decision-making difficulties in different types
of high school, and a new classification of attendant difficulties can be made in detail.
As a result of this study, a negative relationship was found between career decision-making difficulties and
career decision-making self-efficacy and career maturity. In this sense, some suggestions were made for
practitioners. Psycho education programs might include information and skills to improve career decision-
making self-efficacy and maturity. Because students’ career decision-making difficulties stem from a lack of
readiness dimension, psycho education programs can be developed considering the lack of readiness
dimension, determining the reasons, and identifying solutions. It was observed that 9th graders had fewer
career decision-making difficulties than other grade levels. School counselors can organize occupation
guidance and career counseling seminars for both students and teachers. Practitioners should plan group
counseling activities about career self-efficacy decision-making and career maturity. As a result of the study,
the male students were found to be in a more disadvantaged position than female students in terms of career
maturity. Studies can be conducted to analyze the reason for the difference. Besides, students experienced
difficulties in the lack of readiness dimension. Future studies can investigate the reasons for experiencing
difficulties in this subscale of the career decision-making scale.
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