Battery energy storage systems with

grid-connected solar photovoltaics

A technical guide

Martin Cotterell, Chris Coonick, Steve Pester and Jonny Williams

BR514 cover.indd 2 16/08/2017 13:04:23

 Battery energy storage systems with
grid-connected solar photovoltaics
A technical guide

Written by Martin Cotterell (Tesla Energy and BRE National Solar Centre)

Edited by Chris Coonick, Steve Pester and Jonny Williams (BRE National Solar Centre)

BR514 prelims.indd 1 16/08/2017 13:32:51

 ii

BRE Group (BRE) is a world-leading centre of built environment Note to readers

expertise, research and training, and includes a third-party This guide was originally published as Batteries with solar
approvals organisation offering certification of products and power: a technical guide to the use of energy storage with
services to international markets. grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems. This current version
supersedes the original, which has now been withdrawn.
BRE is owned by BRE Trust, the largest UK charity dedicated
specifically to research and education in the built environment. Acknowledgements
BRE Trust uses the profits made by BRE to fund new research BRE National Solar Centre would like to thank all those who
and education programmes that advance knowledge, responded to the consultation. A special mention goes to
innovation and communication for public benefit. Wattstor and Green Acorn, who provided additional input
during the early stages of development. BRE National Solar
IHS Markit is the exclusive publisher of BRE publications. Centre would also like to thank the sponsors of this publication
for their financial support: Enphase Energy, Fronius International,
IHS Global Ltd is a private limited company registered in England Schneider Electric, Victron Energy and Wattstor.
and Wales (no. 00788737). Registered office: The Capitol
Building, Oldbury, Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 8FZ, www.ihs.com. In relation to solar energy storage, BRE National Solar Centre
provides a range of training courses, design reviews, onsite quality
BRE publications are available from www.brebookshop.com or assurance and certification services. See the website for more
IHS Markit, Tel: +44 (0) 1344 328038, information (www.bre.co.uk/nsc) or contact [email protected].
Fax: +44 (0) 1344 328005, Email: [email protected].

© 2017, IHS Markit™. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, or be stored in any retrieval system of any nature,
without prior written permission of IHS Markit. Requests to copy
any part of this publication should be made to: The Publisher,
IHS Markit, Verulam Point, Station Way, St Albans, Herts
AL1 5HE, Tel: +44 (0) 1727 733813, Email: [email protected].

Any third-party URLs are given for information and reference

purposes only and BRE and IHS Markit do not control or warrant
the accuracy, relevance, availability, timeliness or completeness
of the information contained on any third-party website.
Inclusion of any third-party details or website is not intended to
reflect their importance, nor is it intended to endorse any views
expressed, products or services offered, nor the companies or
organisations in question.

Any views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those

of BRE or IHS Markit. BRE and IHS Markit have made every effort
to ensure that the information and guidance presented here
were accurate when published, but can take no responsibility
for the subsequent use of this information, nor for any errors
or omissions it may contain. To the extent permitted by law,
BRE and IHS Markit shall not be liable for any loss, damage
or expense incurred by reliance on the information or any
statement contained herein.

Printed using FSC or PEFC material from sustainable forests.

Copyright © 2017, IHS Markit™. All rights reserved.

BR 514
First published 2017
ISBN 978-1-84806-471-3

Cover images
Left: © Shutterstock
Top right: © Shutterstock
Bottom right: © Shutterstock

BR514 prelims.indd 2 16/08/2017 13:32:55

 Contents iii

Contents

Executive summary v

Glossary vi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Storing solar surplus 1
1.2 Providing a back-up power supply 1

2 Batteries 2
2.1 Lead-acid batteries 2
2.2 Lithium-ion batteries 3
2.3 Battery characteristics 3

3 Battery charging 6
3.1 Charge profile for lead-acid batteries 6
3.2 Charge profile for lithium-ion batteries 6
3.3 Opportunity charging 6
3.4 Charge profile for grid-connected PV storage systems 6

4 System components and configurations 9

4.1 System components 9
4.2 System configurations 10

5 System operation 15
5.1 Introduction 15
5.2 Basic time-shifting operation 16
5.3 Average vs peak load profile 18
5.4 Winter mode 19
5.5 Other operating modes 19

6 Design and installation requirements 21

6.1 System sizing 21
6.2 Component intercompatibility 22
6.3 Battery protection 23
6.4 PV array/string overcurrent protection 23
6.5 DC cables and component ratings 24
6.6 Inverter/charger location 24
6.7 Battery installation 24
6.8 Isolation and switching for off-grid operation 25
6.9 Hazard warning signs 26

BR514 prelims.indd 3 16/08/2017 13:32:55

 iv Contents

7 References and further reading 27

7.1 References 27
7.2 Further reading 27

BR514 prelims.indd 4 16/08/2017 13:32:55

 Executive summary v

Executive summary

This guide covers battery energy storage systems for domestic Customer information
or small commercial grid-connected solar photovoltaics (PV). It is
intended for two audiences:
Items of particular interest or importance to customers are
• Customers. Information is provided to enable the benefits highlighted in boxes.
of energy storage systems to be assessed. The pros and
cons of different system types are discussed, as well as
the implications of different system sizes and operating
regimes.
• System designers and installers. Information is provided
to enable the safe and effective design, specification and
installation of energy storage systems.

This guide focuses on grid-connected solar PV systems,

although some principles also apply to other forms of energy
generation. Systems that make use of any ‘spare’ storage
capability available from an electric vehicle are not covered.

The guide looks at the design, sizing and specification of energy

storage systems that use established battery technologies to
store solar surplus for use later in the day. Typical operating
patterns and characteristics of these systems are also examined.
Examples are given of how such systems can be configured and
connected within a building, and the process for sizing batteries
and other system components is examined.

BR514 prelims.indd 5 16/08/2017 13:32:55

 vi Glossary

Glossary

AC Alternating current. An electric current that reverses direction at regular

intervals. The mains (grid) is an AC supply. The UK mains has a frequency of
50 Hz (ie the current reverses direction and back again 50 times per second).

AC coupled system A system design where the battery is connected on the AC mains (grid) side of
the solar PV inverter.

Amp hour (Ah) A unit of charge (in a battery), sufficient to deliver one ampere of current to
flow for one hour.

Back-up power supply A source of power designed to provide an emergency supply in the event that
the normal, typically mains (grid), supply fails.

Battery (charge-discharge) efficiency A measure of how effective a battery is throughout the full charge-discharge
profile (cycle). For example, a battery with a 90% efficiency will deliver 90 kWh
for every 100 kWh put into it.

Battery effective capacity The usable capacity of a battery; the amount of energy that can be delivered
during normal operation, where the depth of discharge (DOD) is restricted. The
effective capacity is less than the nominal capacity.

Battery nominal capacity Provided by the manufacturer; describes how much energy the battery can
nominally deliver from being fully charged, under a certain set of conditions.
The nominal capacity is more than the effective capacity.

C-rate A normalisation of the charge-discharge current relative to the battery

capacity. For example, a C20 rate for a 200 Ah battery is 10 A (200 ÷ 20).

DC Direct current. An electric current with a constant direction. The output of a

battery or PV array is DC.

DC coupled system A system design where the battery is connected on the DC (PV array) side of
the solar PV inverter.

Depth of discharge (DOD) Describes how fully a battery has been discharged during a discharge profile. It
is expressed as a percentage of battery capacity, eg 60%.

Efficiency See separate entries for battery (charge-discharge) efficiency and system
(charge-discharge) efficiency.

Energy density The amount of energy stored within a specific volume (or mass). A battery with
a high energy density is able to deliver more energy than one of the same size
with a lower energy density.

Essential loads A subset of a building’s loads, usually wired into a separate distribution board,
that still gets power when a system runs off-grid (non-essential loads get no
power).

FIT Feed in Tariff. A UK government scheme designed to encourage uptake of

small-scale renewable and low-carbon electricity generation technologies.
The scheme requires participating licensed electricity suppliers to make
payments on both generation and export from eligible installations.

Grid-connected PV system A solar PV system that is connected to – and is able to feed electricity into – the
mains (grid).

Inverter (multi-function) A device that is able to function as both a solar PV inverter and a stand-alone
inverter.

BR514 prelims.indd 6 16/08/2017 13:32:55

 Glossary vii

Inverter (solar PV) A device that provides the interface between a solar PV array and the mains
(grid) in a standard grid-connected PV system. A solar PV inverter will not
produce any output without the mains (grid) connected on its AC side.

Inverter (stand-alone) A device that converts DC (eg from a battery or PV array) into AC ‘mains’
voltage and frequency.

Mains (grid) The normal (AC) electricity supply that is provided to homes and businesses.
In the UK, the mains has a nominal voltage of 230 V and frequency of 50 Hz.

Mains (grid) charging The process of charging a battery using power from the mains (grid).

Off-grid An electrical supply that is not the mains (grid).

Power cut A period where the mains (grid) is unavailable.

Self-discharge The electrical capacity that is lost when a battery is not being used (ie not in a
charge or discharge cycle).

Solar surplus When the electricity generation of a solar PV system is greater than the
requirements of the building that it is connected to, the excess is termed ‘solar
surplus’.

System (charge-discharge) efficiency A measure of how effective the complete system is throughout the full charge-
discharge profile. For example, a system with 80% efficiency will deliver
80 kWh for every 100 kWh put into it.

Time shifting The process of storing electricity temporarily within a battery for use later in the
day (or week).

Winter mode An operating mode of a solar storage system. In winter mode, to protect the
battery from a prolonged period of low state of charge, either the system is put
to sleep or discharge from the battery is significantly reduced.

BR514 prelims.indd 7 16/08/2017 13:32:55

© Shutterstock

BR514 prelims.indd 8 16/08/2017 13:33:02

 1 Introduction 1

1 Introduction

Adding energy storage to a grid-connected PV system is Box 1: Off-grid operation

considered for many reasons. However, for domestic or small
commercial system owners in the UK, two main reasons
predominate: storing surplus solar PV energy for use later in the Just because a system has a battery, it does not necessarily
day; and providing a back-up power supply in the event of a follow that it is able to provide off-grid power. Many
power cut. grid-connected PV storage systems cannot provide power
during a power cut. Also, if a system can provide off-grid
power, its power capability (kW) will be limited. Ask your
supplier what your system can provide.
1.1 Storing solar surplus
For many systems there will be times during the year when the
power being generated by the solar PV system is greater than
the power requirements of the building that it is connected
to. During those periods, for a system without storage, all
the surplus electricity is exported to the grid. For systems
with storage, some of the energy that would otherwise be
exported can be retained for use later in the day – an operation
sometimes called ‘time shifting’.

Without a good understanding of the scale of the available

solar surplus, it is very difficult to properly design and specify a
storage system. Also, some sites may have a solar surplus that is
so small or infrequent that adding storage is simply not justified.

1.2 Providing a back-up power

supply
The provision of a back-up power supply is particularly relevant
for sites that suffer regular power cuts (although this is fairly
infrequent for most locations in the UK), or for sites that need to
guarantee they can run a critical load at all times.

In most customers’ minds, the addition of battery storage

generates an expectation that the system will then be able to
provide power during a power cut. However, for many systems
on the market this is just not the case, as they have not been
designed to fulfil off-grid functionality.

Additionally, the size/capability of battery storage systems will

limit what can be run during a power cut. For systems that are
designed to provide a back-up power supply, the size of the
battery, inverters and ancillary equipment is dictated by the load
the system needs to run when the mains (grid) is unavailable. In
particular, two main load characteristics need to be considered:
the combined size of the loads to be run in kilowatts (kW); and
the length of time each of the individual loads is expected to
operate.

There are other reasons for adding storage to a grid-connected

PV system, which are discussed later. However, the two listed
above predominate in the UK, particularly for smaller systems.
While the design and sizing of a storage system is influenced
significantly by its intended purpose, there are a number of key
safety factors that apply to all systems; these are covered in
Section 6 of this guide.

BR514 text.indd 1 16/08/2017 13:38:16

 2 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

2 Batteries

2 volts
In order to understand the operation and design of storage
systems, it is necessary to understand the characteristics of the
batteries used in such systems. This guide focuses on the two most V
commonly utilised battery technologies (lead-acid and lithium-ion),
which are compared in Table 1. Lead dioxide + –
(PbO2) Lead (Pb)

2.1 Lead-acid batteries

Cathode
Anode
Lead-acid batteries were invented in 1859 and are the oldest
type of rechargeable battery. They are relatively low cost and
are widely used in conventional cars, lorries and other transport
applications, primarily to start the engine.

There are a number of features of lead-acid batteries that make

Electrolyte (H2SO4)
them well suited for use within vehicles. These include their ability
to provide high-surge currents (a large, short-duration current
Figure 1: Basic chemistry of a lead-acid battery
is required to start an engine). Additionally, some of the more
© IHS Markit
negative features of a lead-acid battery are not a significant
problem in conventional automotive applications. For example,
lead-acid batteries are generally relatively slow to charge and
cannot be fully discharged (without risk of damage), but neither surface area for chemical reactions and to deliver high-surge
of these features causes a particular problem as much of the currents), whereas deep-cycle batteries‡ designed for solar
batteries’ work is done over a short period as the vehicle is started. applications have larger, thicker, more robust electrodes (for
a longer life and a deeper depth of discharge). Automotive
There are a number of different versions of the lead-acid battery, batteries are not generally suitable and are not advised for use in
but the basic chemistry is shown in Figure 1. Within a lead-acid solar PV storage applications.
battery, the two electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte to
facilitate the chemical reactions that occur during charging and Lead-acid batteries can be split into two main types:
discharging. The cathode (negative electrode) is composed of
• Vented lead-acid (VLA)
lead and the anode (positive electrode) is made of lead dioxide.
–– The original type of lead-acid battery where the
The electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid.
electrodes are immersed in a liquid electrolyte.
–– Require regular topping up with distilled water to keep
The design of a lead-acid battery varies considerably depending
electrodes immersed.
on the application. This includes modifications to the shape,
–– Require good ventilation as hydrogen and oxygen are
size and composition of the electrodes and to the formation
released during charging.
of the electrolyte. For example, automotive batteries tend to
–– Need to be kept upright.
be constructed of many thin plate electrodes (to maximise the

‡ Deep-cycle batteries are designed to be regularly deeply

discharged, using much of their capacity.

Table 1: Typical battery characteristics

Characteristic Lead-acid Lithium-ion

Energy density (Wh/kg) 30–50 75–250
Cycle life (number of cycles) 200–1000 4000–10,000
Typical charge-discharge efficiency (%) 63–90 75–90
Typical lifetime (years) 5–20 5–15

Note: The table shows typical figures (2014) only; as technology advances these figures are constantly being improved.
Wh – Watt hours.

BR514 text.indd 2 16/08/2017 13:38:17

 2 Batteries 3

Figure 2: A large lead-acid battery installation Figure 3: An example of a lithium-ion storage system
© Shutterstock © IHS Markit

• Valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) Lithium-ion battery banks are generally supplied with
–– Nominally sealed batteries that do not require topping incorporated battery management circuits that control charge
up (oxygen is captured and recombined within the and discharge profiles. The advantages of lithium-ion over
battery; features a safety valve should internal gas traditional lead-acid batteries include:
pressures become too high).
• better energy density
–– As sealed units, they require little maintenance, may
• improved efficiency
not need to be kept upright and require less ventilation.
• improved depth of discharge (DOD)
–– Generally more costly and with a shorter life. They are
• low self-discharge
more sensitive to charging regimes and overcharging
• increased lifetime (better cycle life in deep-discharge
can cause failure.
applications)
–– VRLA gel batteries feature an electrolyte gel (rather
• low maintenance.
than liquid).
–– VRLA absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries contain the
electrolyte within mat separators located between the Lithium-ion batteries are also subject to a few disadvantages
electrodes. compared with lead-acid batteries. These include a higher cost
and some safety considerations such as, most significantly, the
potential for thermal runaway, which in extreme circumstances
A single lead-acid cell generates about 2 V. For systems
can result in fire and explosion of the cell. Thermal runaway can
needing larger capacity, a number of cells or batteries will be
occur due to excessive cell temperature and/or overcharging.
interconnected (Figure 2). Within automotive 12 V batteries, six
Protective circuits are built into lithium-ion batteries to protect
cells are wired together within the case to provide the required
against the risk of thermal runaway.
voltage.

Due to their ready availability and low price, deep-cycle lead-

acid batteries currently remain the predominant choice in most
off-grid PV systems.
2.3 Battery characteristics
Batteries (both lead-acid and lithium-ion) have a number of key
operating characteristics that significantly impact on system
design and component selection.
2.2 Lithium-ion batteries
‘Lithium-ion’ is used to describe a family of related lithium-ion
battery variants. While there are a number of variations in
2.3.1 Nominal capacity
the design and composition of the key parts, in all types the
This information is provided by the manufacturer and describes
battery chemistry is broadly similar: lithium-ions move between
how much energy the battery can nominally deliver from being
electrodes during the charge-discharge profile.
fully charged, under a certain set of conditions.
Lithium-ion batteries (Figure 3) are a relatively new technology.
The performance of a battery will vary depending on how it
They were originally developed for laptops, mobile phones,
is discharged and the environmental conditions it is operating
cameras and other small portable electronic devices. Cost
under, most significantly battery temperature. Hence, it is
reductions due to economies of scale driven by the growing
important to understand the set of conditions that the nominal
electric vehicle market have led lithium-ion batteries to the point
capacity applies to.
where they are increasingly the battery of choice for domestic or
small commercial grid-connected solar storage applications.

BR514 text.indd 3 16/08/2017 13:38:32

 4 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

Battery capacity is normally described in Amp hours (Ah) at a Box 3: More thoughts on battery selection
particular discharge current, eg 500 Ah at C100 rate (a rate of
C100 equates to the current that will completely discharge the
battery in 100 hours). The C-rate (described in more detail in While Ah is the common unit for describing battery
Section 2.3.2) can have a significant effect on battery capacity, capacity, it can lead to confusion when comparing
particularly with lead-acid batteries. In general, the quicker a different batteries.
battery is discharged, the smaller its capacity. A real example The energy (kWh) delivered by a battery is calculated from
from a commercially available deep-cycle lead-acid battery is the following formula:
shown in Table 2. Energy = battery voltage x Ah rating

The capacity of most lead-acid deep-cycle batteries is described Hence, while a 500 Ah battery may sound larger than the
at the C20 rate, and this rate is generally a good figure to use 300 Ah version, if it has a lower voltage it may actually
when considering batteries for a solar PV system. However, have a smaller capacity:
when comparing battery options, it is vital to determine the • 500 Ah @ 12 V = 500 × 12 = 6 kWh
C-rate for the quoted capacity. Note that C5 rates are quoted for • 300 Ah @ 24 V = 300 × 24 = 7.2 kWh.
some lithium-ion batteries.

2.3.2 C-rate While lead-acid batteries are available in both shallow- and
deep-cycle variants, lithium-ion batteries are all generally
To enable simple comparison between batteries, the discharge suitable for deep-cycle operation. Most lithium-ion batteries
current is expressed in terms of a C-rate. The C-rate normalises can be discharged to around 80% of nominal capacity without
the discharge current relative to the battery capacity. significant effect on lifetime.
• A rate of C1 equates to the current that will completely
The number of life cycles varies depending on how deeply the
discharge the battery in one hour. For example, for a battery
battery is discharged. Typically the lower the DOD the higher
rated 500 Ah at the C1 rate, this means a discharge current
the number of battery cycles there are for a given chemistry.
of 500 A (500 ÷ 1).
This relationship is not linear and there is a higher total energy
• A rate of C20 equates to the current that will completely
throughput for a lower DOD. Some of the newer lithium-ion
discharge the battery in 20 hours. For example, for a battery
technologies last up to 10,000 cycles at full DOD while lead-acid
rated 200 Ah at the C20 rate, this means a discharge
figures of around 2000 cycles at full DOD are typically quoted.
current of 10 A (200 ÷ 20).

Box 2: C-rate vs Ah rating 2.3.4 Effective capacity

As it is common for a system to be programmed to limit the
If you are comparing the Ah rating (capacity) of different DOD, the term ‘effective capacity’ is often used to describe the
battery options, make sure you are comparing like with usable capacity of the battery. The effective capacity is less than
like, ie check you have the same C-rate figures. the nominal (nameplate) capacity. This effectively means that, as
a customer, you have to ‘purchase’ more battery kWh than you
will routinely use. For example, for a battery with a 500 Ah
capacity on a system programmed to limit DOD to 60%, the
effective capacity is 500 × 0.6 = 300 Ah.
2.3.3 Depth of discharge
DOD describes how fully a battery has been discharged during Box 4: Effective capacity
a discharge profile. It is expressed as a percentage of battery
capacity, eg 60%. A discharge of around 80% represents deep-
Make sure your supplier provides information on the DOD
cycle operation.
for your batteries, and what this means for the effective
battery capacity. When you are comparing potential
DOD can have a significant impact on battery lifetime,
systems, make sure you are comparing like with like, ie
particularly for some technologies such as traditional lead-acid.
ensure that it is effective battery capacity that you are
The higher the DOD, the shorter the lifetime. Hence, for many
comparing.
systems it is relatively common to program the system so as to
limit the routine DOD.

Table 2: Battery capacity variations for a 468 Ah C20 battery

C-rate Capacity (Ah) Discharge current (A)

C100 605 6.05
C20 468 23.4
C10 398 39.8
Ah – Amp hours. A – Amps.

BR514 text.indd 4 16/08/2017 13:38:33

 2 Batteries 5

2.3.5 System (charge-discharge) 2.3.6 Self-discharge

efficiency Self-discharge describes a normal characteristic of all batteries
to gradually lose charge over time. The degree of self-discharge
All batteries are subject to some losses during the charge-
varies with battery type, age and temperature. A typical lead-
storage-discharge profile. The charge-discharge efficiency
acid battery can expect to lose around 5% over a month.
describes how effective a battery is throughout the full cycle. For
example, for a battery with a 80% charge-discharge efficiency,
While lithium-ion has a generally lower self-discharge rate than
for every 100 kWh put into the battery only 80 kWh will get
lead-acid, the battery safety and control circuits incorporated
removed. The efficiency is influenced by a number of factors
into lithium-ion battery banks contribute to the standing losses.
including battery type, battery temperature, the rate of charge
and discharge, the storage interval and the age of the battery.

While battery efficiency is a key factor, it is the overall efficiency

of the complete battery storage system (eg battery, inverter,
charger) that needs to be understood. The overall or system
efficiency is calculated from the ratio between power delivered
by the system and the power put into the system:

System efficiency = power out ÷ power in

Box 5: System efficiency

The charge-discharge efficiency will vary depending

on the nature of the system and how it is set up and
operated. Ask your supplier for an estimate of the charge-
discharge efficiency for your system so that you have an
idea of how much energy you may lose.

BR514 text.indd 5 16/08/2017 13:38:33

 6 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

3 Battery charging

3.1 Charge profile for 3.3 Opportunity charging

lead-acid batteries Opportunity charging describes a charging regime that occurs
whenever power is available, such as from the intermittent
Figure 4 shows a typical lead-acid battery charge profile. This
output of a solar PV system. The nature of an intermittent
three-stage cycle is generally the preferred method for charging
charge current means that opportunity charging does not wait
and maintaining the lifetime of lead-acid batteries.
for a battery to be fully discharged before commencing, nor
• Stage 1 (bulk). The charger delivers a constant current until does it always continue until the battery is fully recharged.
a threshold voltage is reached.
• Stage 2 (absorption). The charger keeps a constant voltage The effectiveness of opportunity charging can vary enormously.
for a set period of time, or until the charge current needed Long-term, repeated incomplete recharge profiles can have a
to hold it at the float voltage has reduced to a set level. significant detrimental impact on battery lifetime. Lithium-ion
• Stage 3 (float). The charger maintains the battery at the batteries are more tolerant to intermittent partial charging
float voltage§. patterns as they respond relatively well to partial charging and
do not need a frequent full charge in the same way that most
lead-acid batteries do.
Some batteries also require a periodic equalisation charge.
This is a controlled overcharge, where the charger holds the
battery at a high voltage (high voltage, low current). VLA
batteries require a periodic equalisation to reduce sulfation
of the electrodes and to de-stratify the electrolyte. Note that
3.4 Charge profile for grid-
VLA batteries need fluid levels checking after equalisation, as connected PV storage systems
equalisation can liberate significant amounts of hydrogen and
oxygen. To maximise battery life and system efficiency, the charge
controller built into a grid-connected PV storage system will aim
to provide a charge profile as close as possible to the ideal for
the particular battery technology it is connected to. However,
3.2 Charge profile for variations in sunlight levels (and for some system configurations,
local loads) will have a significant impact on the availability
lithium-ion batteries of sufficient charge current to deliver the ideal charge profile
(Figure 6).
Figure 5 shows a typical lithium-ion battery charge profile.
Precise control of charge voltage is required with lithium-ion
In addition to daily variations in sunlight levels, a number of
batteries.
other factors influence the way the charge profile in a grid-
• Stage 1 (bulk). The charger maintains a constant current as connected PV storage system operates, as follows.
voltage rises and halts at a threshold voltage.
• Stage 2 (absorption). The charger runs at a constant
voltage. Charge current gradually reduces until the charger 3.4.1 PV array:battery size ratio
terminates cycle at a current threshold.
• Stage 3 (ready). The battery is fully charged and can be The relative size of the battery compared with the PV array
discharged. will have a significant impact on the ability of the opportunity
• Stage 4 (standby). Some charges apply a brief topping charging provided by the PV system to deliver an ideal/
charge while in standby mode to compensate for self- full recharge. Where the battery capacity is relatively small
discharging of self-consumed charge. This function reduces compared with the PV array, there is a higher chance that
voltage-related stress and prolongs battery life. sufficient solar charge current is available to perform a full and
complete recharge profile. Where a larger battery is connected
to a system with a smaller array, the chances of sufficient charge
current being available are reduced.

§ This is lower than what is applied during the absorption stage as

it brings the battery from a 98% state of charge to a 100% state
of charge. This maintains the battery in a 100% state-of-charge
condition.

BR514 text.indd 6 16/08/2017 13:38:33

 3 Battery charging 7

Stage 1: Bulk Stage 2: Absorption Stage 3: Float

(Constant current) (Constant voltage) (Constant voltage)

Voltage per cell

Current (A)

Voltage (V)
Charge current

Time (h)

Figure 4: Typical lead-acid battery charge profile

© IHS Markit

Stage 1: Bulk Stage 2: Absorption Stage 3: Ready Stage 4: Standby

(Constant current) (Constant voltage) (No current) (Topping charge)

Voltage per cell

Voltage (V)
Current (A)

Charge current

Time (h)

Figure 5: Typical lithium-ion battery charge profile

© IHS Markit

Charge current available Charge current available

on a clear sunny day on a day with patchy clouds
kW

Figure 6: Example of a daily electrical load profile in line with a solar generation profile under different sunlight levels, demonstrating the difference
in electricity available for storage
© IHS Markit

BR514 text.indd 7 16/08/2017 13:38:36

 8 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

3.4.2 Seasonal variations Box 6: Mains (grid) charging

The availability of solar charge current varies considerably during It is important to determine to what extent the mains
the year. This impacts on the ability of the PV system to perform (grid) may be used to recharge your battery pack. Ask your
a full recharge and therefore influences the sizing of the battery. installer for an annual estimate.

Off-grid solar systems (without any other charge source) that

need to provide electricity all year round are sized such that
the PV array is able to provide sufficient power to recharge the
battery even in the depths of winter. This means that there is
significant oversizing during the summer months.

For grid-connected PV systems, there is not the same imperative

to have a large PV array with respect to the battery because:
• the mains (grid) can be used to complete the charge profile
• the mains (grid) can be used instead of the battery at times
of low solar input.

3.4.3 Mains (grid) charging

As repeated poor recharge can impact on battery lifetime, most
systems will on occasion draw power from the grid to complete
the charge profile. The extent to which this occurs will depend
on the system specification and the operating program. In some
scenarios, the amount of mains (grid) electricity used to boost
and complete the solar charge can be significant. Mains (grid)
charging is normally implemented automatically by the control
system; it is not generally something that an end user needs to
initiate.

BR514 text.indd 8 16/08/2017 13:38:36

 4 System components and configurations 9

4 System components
and configurations
4.1 System components
+ – AC
Aside from the battery, a grid-connected solar PV storage DC
Stand-alone AC
system includes the system components described below. Battery inverter loads

4.1.1 Inverter
An inverter is an electronic device that converts direct current Figure 8: Stand-alone inverter providing AC supply from battery
(DC) to alternating current (AC). © IHS Markit

AC loads can be run directly from a stand-alone inverter:

a) Solar PV (grid-connected) inverter
• The size/number of loads that can be run is limited by the
A solar PV inverter is used in conventional grid-connected solar rating of the inverter.
PV systems (without a battery). The inverter sits between the PV • The length of time the loads can be run is dictated by the
array and the grid, converting the DC output of the array into an size of the battery.
AC output that is synchronised with the grid (Figure 7).

A maximum power point tracking (MPPT) function is built

c) Multi-function inverter
into the input stage of the solar PV inverter and adjusts the
DC operating voltage to ensure the array is operating at the
Inverters are available that can operate in both grid-connected
maximum power point at all times.
and stand-alone modes. These inverters are used for grid-
connected systems that need the additional functionality of
As well as synchronising its output voltage and frequency with
being able to operate in stand-alone mode during a power cut.
the AC mains (grid), the solar PV inverter also monitors the grid
and temporarily switches off (disconnects) if the voltage or
frequency go outside allowable limits or there is a loss of mains
(grid).
4.1.2 Charger/charge control
A charger provides and controls the electricity flowing to the
A solar PV inverter will not produce any output without the
battery during the recharging phase. The charger manages
mains (grid) connected on its AC side. Hence, a conventional
the whole charge sequence and provides a charge profile
solar PV inverter will not provide any output during a power cut.
appropriate to the battery size and type. This involves precise
control of output voltage and current. For many chargers, a
temperature sensor connected to the battery provides feedback
b) Stand-alone inverter
to the charger to enable it to adjust the charge profile to battery
cell temperature.
A stand-alone inverter is designed to be connected to a battery
to provide AC power without the grid present (Figure 8).

+
AC Distribution board
PV Solar PV
DC (grid-connected) Grid
array
inverter
–

Local loads

Figure 7: Typical solar PV system with a grid-connected inverter

© IHS Markit

BR514 text.indd 9 16/08/2017 13:38:38

 10 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

a) DC charge controller

A DC charge controller is used as a direct interface between a

DC source (such as a solar PV array) and the battery. It converts
the variable DC input voltage to the required DC charge voltage.
Like all chargers, the DC charge controller manages the charge
sequence, adjusting the output current as required and halting
the charging process once the battery is fully recharged.

b) AC charger

An AC charger is designed to provide a controlled DC charge

sequence from an AC source, such as from the mains (grid) or a
generator. Like all chargers, the AC charger manages the entire
charge sequence, adjusting the output voltage and current as
required and halting the charging process once the battery is
fully recharged.

c) Inverter-charger

Some inverters can function as a combined inverter-charger,

taking DC power out of the battery when working in ‘inverter
mode’ and operating as a battery charger when operating in
‘charger mode’.

4.1.3 Discharge control Figure 9: Example of a multi-component packaged system

© Wattstor
As well as needing control of the charging phase, control over
discharge is also required. Discharge control functions typically
include: While applicable to any system type, the options for replacing
a battery in a packaged system need particular consideration.
• ensuring discharge is halted at a set battery DOD
Battery availability and replicability are among the factors to be
• limiting the rate of discharge (discharge current)
considered, as are the options for possibly upgrading the battery
• providing temperature feedback (adjusting the discharge
if required (for a bigger/better battery).
profile to battery cell temperature).
Batteries are constantly evolving, so systems with the flexibility
For grid-connected battery storage systems, the discharge to be configured for different battery characteristics provide
control system may also control and restrict when discharge can improved ‘future-proofing’.
occur. Examples include:
• restricting discharge to certain time windows during the
day Box 7: Battery replacement
• preventing discharge until certain recharge/battery voltage
thresholds have been reached. Ensure you understand the predicted lifetime of the
battery fitted to your system and if it needs/can be
replaced or upgraded. Where applicable, ensure you
In determining whether to halt discharge, control systems may
understand what would be involved in replacing or
factor in both the battery voltage and the discharge current
upgrading the battery.
(higher currents will cause the battery voltage to fall lower).

4.1.4 Packaged systems

Commercially available grid-connected battery storage systems 4.2 System configurations
vary considerably in the way they are packaged and installed.
Some systems are formed of a number of discrete components
that are interconnected on site. Other systems come in a single 4.2.1 DC vs AC coupled systems
pre-wired unit ready for connection to the PV array and the
mains (grid). An example of a multi-component system is shown There are two main ways of integrating a battery into a grid-
in Figure 9. connected PV system: either coupling it on the DC side of the
system or the AC side. This is shown in Figures 10 and 11 (note
Irrespective of whether a system is pre-packaged or site- that both diagrams omit a number of key system components
assembled, it is important to know what building blocks make for simplicity, eg isolators, changeover switches, fuses). The
up the system and how they are interconnected, as this can main differences/considerations between AC and DC coupled
significantly impact on the way a system operates and performs. designs are shown in Table 3.

BR514 text.indd 10 16/08/2017 13:38:42

 4 System components and configurations 11

PV array PV array

DC:DC DC:DC
converter converter
MPPT MPPT

DC:AC
DC:DC grid-
converter/ Battery connected
charger inverter

DC:AC
grid-
connected kWh
inverter Battery

kWh
DC:AC
inverter/
charger
Distribution board

Distribution board
Grid

Grid Figure 11: Example of an AC coupled system configuration (battery

connected on the AC side of the inverter)
Note: The inverter/charger may be connected into the main distribution
board (as shown) or connected into a sub-board. Connection to a sub-
Figure 10: Example of a DC coupled system configuration (battery board located between the grid and main distribution board is also a
connected on the PV side of inverter) common design
© IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid- © IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid-
connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015) connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015)

BR514 text.indd 11 16/08/2017 13:38:45

 12 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

Table 3: Key considerations for AC and DC coupled systems

AC coupled system DC coupled system*

Equipment
Can use any conventional solar PV inverter Requires specific solar PV inverter
Battery charge-discharge system is wholly separate from the Battery charge-discharge system is an integral part of the grid-
grid-connected PV system connected PV system
Typically provided by a number of separate and discrete devices All functions typically provided in a single device. Usually
Can be retrofitted to an existing system simpler to install
Locating the battery away from the PV array and inverter is Needs to be installed from the start (or the existing solar PV
generally simpler inverter needs replacing)
Provides more choice in battery location Battery needs to be located with solar PV inverter
Solar PV inverter needs to be sized to array Less choice in battery location or requires longer DC cabling
Solar PV inverter can be significantly smaller (cost savings)

Battery charge efficiency

Increased losses as electricity from PV array gets converted first Reduced losses as less conversion stages between PV array and
to AC then back to DC to charge battery battery

FIT income
No effect on FIT income. Can use a standard generation meter Reduced FIT income. As there are no DC kWh generation
arrangement (meter located on inverter output) meters currently accredited, an AC meter is used on the output
of the whole system. Hence, for energy that passes through the
battery, the losses in the charge-discharge profile will reduce
the FIT income

* These comments refer to typical DC coupled systems, using an inverter designed to fulfil this function. It is also possible to have a DC coupled
system using a standard solar PV inverter and a DC:DC converter. This may increase losses in the system, but it does allow the use of a standard
inverter and also facilitates retrofitting.

4.2.2 Off-grid operation System providing

DC off-grid supply
System providing
AC off-grid supply
There are two ways that a storage system can provide power AC loads
during a power cut: either DC power provided direct from
the battery or AC power provided via the inverter. While the
provision of DC power may be effective for some loads, many
customers want the ability to run AC loads.
Inverter
DC loads
Figures 12–15 show the different ways that off-grid power
can be provided. In each case, the system (ie inverter, charger,
isolation relay etc) needs to be specifically designed to provide
the off-grid power facility.
Battery Battery
a) Systems where the load is run directly from the battery

In these systems (Figure 12), the load is powered solely via the Figure 12: Example of load supply during off-grid operation
battery, either permanently or just plugged in during the power © IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid-
cut. connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015)

• DC devices. While many devices run off DC, the voltage

they require is usually well below the battery voltage found
in grid-connected storage systems. Hence, while DC devices
may run ‘direct from the battery’, some form of DC:DC Box 8: Off-grid operation
converter will be required to provide the appropriate DC
voltage.
• AC devices. A stand-alone inverter is used to provide a Just because a system has a battery does not mean it is
suitable AC output from the battery. Where the inverter has able to provide off-grid power. Many grid-connected PV
an AC socket, loads can be plugged in and out as required. storage systems cannot provide power during a power
cut. Also, if a system can provide off-grid power, its power
capability (kW) will be limited. Ask your supplier what your
system can provide.

BR514 text.indd 12 16/08/2017 13:38:46

 4 System components and configurations 13

b) Systems with isolation relay, where AC loads can be PV array

run from the grid or the battery

Figures 13–15 show some of a number of different possible

different system configurations. However, in all systems the
load is normally powered from the grid. During a power cut an
isolation relay (or manual changeover switch) is operated so that
loads are isolated from the grid and connected to run from the
inverter instead.
Inverter/
charger Battery
These systems require either an inverter package that is able to
be switched between on- and off-grid modes or an installation
that includes separate grid-connected and stand-alone
inverters.
• Splitting off ‘essential loads’. As the output of the inverter
has a limited power capacity, it is generally not practical Grid
to leave all the building loads connected during a power Essential
cut. A common approach is to select a subset of loads (the
essential loads) and wire these into a separate distribution
board. During a power cut, only the essential loads are
isolated from the grid and switched to run from the inverter.
• Changeover speed. The speed of switching between Non-essential
normal (grid-connected) and off-grid (power cut) modes
will affect how the system is used. Most systems will not
operate in the same way as an uninterruptable power Figure 14: DC coupled system using multi-function inverter for off-grid
supply (UPS), ie they will have enough of a delay during the operation of essential loads
switching cycle that loads will turn off for a short while. As © IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid-
well as the speed of transition between normal and off-grid connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015)
(power cut) mode, the transition speed on return of the
grid, when the power cut ends, is also important.

It is also vital to ensure that suitable earthing arrangements are

PV array
maintained throughout the period of transition and off-grid
operation (see Section 6.8).

PV array

Battery

DC:AC
Inverter/ inverter/
charger Battery
Distribution board charger

Grid
Distribution board
Grid
Figure 13: DC coupled system using multi-function inverter for off-grid
operation
© IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid-
Figure 15: AC coupled system using stand-alone inverter for off-grid
connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015)
operation
Note: With AC coupled systems, the intercompatibility of all parts of the
system needs to be verified. In particular, a check needs to be made to
ensure that component parts of the system will not be damaged during
off-grid operation. See Section 6 of this guide for more information
© IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid-
connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015)

BR514 text.indd 13 16/08/2017 13:38:49

 14 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

Box 9: Changeover speed Box 10: Isolation relay

If you intend to run computers or other sensitive The isolation relay performs an important safety function.
equipment off the ‘essential load’ side of your storage Where a system is designed to operate independently
system, talk to your supplier about the changeover speed. of the grid (ie off-grid or ‘islanded’), the design needs to
It may be that you need a separate UPS to ride through the ensure that there is suitable isolation between the grid
switching cycle. and the system during islanded operation and that a
suitable earthing arrangement is maintained throughout.
Conventional solar PV inverters include control systems
to ensure that they are unable to re-energise part of the
electricity network. Electricity companies require testing
of these inverters to ensure that they cannot inadvertently
operate in island mode and re-energise part of the
electricity network. This is an important safety function
designed, amongst other things, to protect electricity
company engineers.
More information on isolation relays and wiring for off-
grid operation is given in Section 6.8.

BR514 text.indd 14 16/08/2017 13:38:49

 5 System operation 15

5 System operation

5.1 Introduction
In order to consider the purchase or design of a solar PV storage

kW
system, it is necessary to have an understanding of how the
system operates in general and how it will operate at a given site.

A common way to visualise how a system will operate is by the 0h 6h 12h 18h 24h
use of a series of graphs, showing how electricity generation
and use vary during the day. These charts appear regularly in Figure 17: Example of a solar generation profile on a clear sunny day
sales brochures and manuals, but are sometimes skipped over as © IHS Markit
they can be difficult to interpret. However, understanding what
is represented in these charts is vital for customers and designers
alike. The basic chart is produced by overlaying two graphs
showing the daily load profile and the solar generation profile.
kW

5.1.1 Daily electrical load profile

Figure 16 shows how the load used in a building varies during
the day. While generally shown as a jagged line, the real load 0h 6h 12h 18h 24h
use may be considerably more variable, with more pronounced
spikes and troughs. The effect of the load profile shape on Figure 18: Example of a solar generation profile on a sunny day with
system operation is discussed later. passing clouds
© IHS Markit

5.1.2 Solar generation profile

Figure 17 shows the generation of the solar PV system during
the day. For simplicity, the ‘ideal’ bell-shaped curve profile from
a sunny day with no clouds is typically used. In reality, the curve
kW

will vary as irradiance levels vary during the day (due to clouds), Available
as illustrated in Figure 18.

0h 6h 12h 18h 24h

5.1.3 Load + solar chart
Figure 19: Example of a daily electrical load profile in line with a solar
Figure 19 shows the overlay of the load profile and solar generation profile demonstrating available electricity for storage
generation graphs. The orange area marked ‘available’ © IHS Markit
represents solar electricity that is not needed within the
building. In a conventional solar PV installation (without
storage), all of the ‘available’ electricity (ie electricity not used by PV array
loads) is exported into the grid (Figure 20).
kW

Distribution board Grid

0h 6h 12h 18h 24h

Electrical
Figure 16: Example of a daily electrical load profile loads
© IHS Markit
Figure 20: Functionality of a grid-connencted solar PV system without
storage
© IHS Markit

BR514 text.indd 15 16/08/2017 13:38:54

 16 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

5.2 Basic time-shifting operation PV array

With a solar storage system, some of the electricity that would

otherwise have been exported to the grid gets diverted into a
battery. The electricity stored in the battery can then be used
later in the day. This process is often termed ‘time shifting’
(Figure 21):
• Mode A. Loads run from grid supply; no solar output and
battery discharged (Figure 22).
Battery
• Mode B. Solar supplies loads, excess energy used to charge
battery (Figure 23).
• Mode C. Stored solar energy used to run loads until battery
discharged (Figure 24). Distribution
board Grid

This is an idealised scenario. Variations in load use and solar

availability mean that in real systems operation is more complex Electrical
and the system will switch between different modes (or a loads
combination) on multiple occasions during the day. Hence, in
an idealised situation a solar storage system operating in time- Figure 23: Mode B: Solar supplies loads, excess energy used to charge
shifting mode can be thought of as running as follows: battery
• Start of the day (early morning). Running off the grid. © IHS Markit
• As the sun comes out. Shifting to a stage where the battery
is recharged.
• In the evening. Using the power stored in the battery to run
the loads. PV array

Once the system has determined that the battery is fully

discharged, the system switches back into grid-only mode, ready
to start the whole cycle again (Figure 25).

Battery
Battery stores PV
power for evening
Loads run from grid loads
kW

Available Distribution
board Grid

0h 6h 12h 18h 24h

Electrical
Mode A Mode B Mode C loads

Figure 21: Example of battery storage being used to time-shift excess Figure 24: Mode C: Solar stored energy used to run loads until battery
solar generation to run evening loads discharged
© IHS Markit © IHS Markit

Distribution board

Grid

Electrical
loads

Figure 22: Mode A: Loads run from grid supply (no solar output and
battery discharged)
© IHS Markit

BR514 text.indd 16 16/08/2017 13:38:58

 5 System operation 17

Loads run from grid Battery stores PV power for evening loads
kW

Available

0h 6h 12h 18h 24h

Mode A Mode B Mode C

Battery
Distribution board

Battery Distribution board

Electrical
loads Grid Distribution board
Electrical
loads

Electrical
loads

Figure 25: Example of solar energy storage system operation

© IHS Markit

All of excess diverted

5.2.1 The impact of battery size into battery
on solar storage and time shifting Battery
kW

For a solar storage system operating in time-shifting mode,

the size of the battery has a significant impact on the way the
system performs. 0h 6h 12h 18h 24h

For a simplified system, the effect of battery size is shown in Figure 26: Illustration of solar energy stored when battery is sufficiently
Figures 26 and 27. Where the battery size is sufficiently large, all sized for excess solar generation
of the daily solar excess can be stored. However, systems with a © IHS Markit
relatively smaller battery will not be able to store all the excess
electricity.
Battery
While these diagrams are a useful way of illustrating the impact charged
of battery size, real-world considerations are more complex as until full Battery
the solar excess varies very significantly across the year and from
site to site.
kW

Exported to grid
As noted earlier, real system operation is far more complex than
the ideal picture painted above. Constant variations in load use
and solar availability mean that the system will switch between 0h 6h 12h 18h 24h
different modes – or a combination of modes – on multiple
Figure 27: Illustration of solar energy stored when battery is undersized
occasions during the day. Examples of other operational modes
for excess solar generation
are shown in Figures 28 and 29.
© IHS Markit

BR514 text.indd 17 16/08/2017 13:39:02

 18 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

250
Battery 200
150

Watts
100
Distribution
board 50
Grid 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Time blocks
Electrical
loads Smoothed load profile Solar generation profile
Actual load profile
Figure 28: Example 1: Load size is too big to be supplied solely by
battery so loads are run from energy drawn both from battery and Figure 30: Difference in correlation between solar generation profile
from grid and actual/smoothed load profile
© IHS Markit © IHS Markit

PV array
250 Average load – solar generation = 138 Wh
200 (load appears to be mostly provided by solar)
150
Watts
100
50
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Time blocks
Battery
Smoothed load profile Solar generation profile
Figure 31: Example of correlation between solar generation profile and
Distribution average load profile
board © IHS Markit
Grid
Electrical
loads
Average load – solar generation = 410 Wh
Figure 29: Example 2: Output from solar system is high, load use low (actual load peaks above solar generation)
and battery recharge requirement low (eg battery nearly fully charged). 250
Electricity exported as well as being fed to battery and loads 200
150
Watts

© IHS Markit
100
50
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
5.3 Average vs peak load profile Time blocks
Actual load profile Solar generation profile
In considering solar storage, it is common to look at a simplified
load profile. In real life, load use is generally considerably more Figure 32: Example of correlation between solar generation profile and
variable than the smoothed load charts tend to suggest. The actual load profile
same is also true, albeit to a lesser extent, for the output of the © IHS Markit
solar PV system. There are two main effects that these peaks in
the load profile have on system operation (see below).

5.3.1 Load:solar matching 5.3.2 Inverter sizing

When considering what size of inverter may be needed for
While the smoothed load and solar output curves may indicate
off-grid operation, the peak load that an inverter may have to
a close correlation, the ability of the solar system to provide
handle (including surge/start-up currents) may be considerably
power to local loads may be less than at first envisaged. It is not
higher than the simplified average load curve suggests.
possible to quantify these differences as they will vary from site
to site and from load to load. However, the example in Figure 30
The surge or start-up load from an appliance can be
shows the effect.
considerable. While the system may be able to cope with
surges for short periods of time, the surge from some loads
Figures 31 and 32 show a small section of a daily chart, divided
(such as motor loads) may be beyond the ability of the inverter/
into discrete time blocks. The smoothed curve (Figure 31) looks
battery to handle. Manufacturers should be consulted where
to be in excess of the power from the solar system on only a few
it is suspected that loads with significant start-up currents are
occasions. However, the real load (Figure 32) is actually in excess
present in a system.
on far more occasions.

BR514 text.indd 18 16/08/2017 13:39:06

 5 System operation 19

5.4 Winter mode 5.5.1 Peak limiting

Due to the reduced solar power that is available during winter, ‘Peak limiting’ is a term generally used to describe a system set
many systems have a winter mode setting. In winter mode, up to limit the grid export (kW limit) from a solar PV system.
the storage system is either put to sleep or discharge from the
battery is significantly reduced. In some cases, systems may The level of power that can be acceptably injected into a
utilise grid charging in winter mode to maintain battery health. network at any one point is provided by the distribution network
operator (DNO). The power limit is derived from a network study
Winter mode functionality prevents the battery being left sat for the site in question, a study that is typically triggered by an
partially discharged for long periods of time. Leaving a battery application to connect generation of over 16 A/phase at the site.
discharged can reduce the lifetime of the battery (which is For some sites, the size of the proposed solar system will be less
particularly important for lead-acid batteries). than the export limit. For other sites there may be a desire to
install a system that is larger than the export limit.

Some sites have a level of self-consumption (local load profile)

5.5 Other operating modes that warrants installing a solar system that is larger than the
export limit for the site. On such sites, for much of the time
Within the UK, the majority of domestic or small commercial the local load will be sufficient that much or all of the energy
solar storage systems will operate in daily time-shifting mode, ie generated by the solar system is consumed on site. However,
storing power during the solar day for use later in the day. There should the local load level fall for any reason, more and more
are, however, a number of other possible operating modes, with energy from the solar system will get exported, ultimately
the most common shown in Table 4. These are explored in more reaching a point where it could potentially exceed the export
detail in the following sections. limit set by the DNO.

Box 11: Operating mode

It is important to understand how your system will

operate, ie what triggers it to charge the battery and
when exactly (and under what circumstances) the battery
power gets released.

Table 4: Operating modes of solar storage systems (other than time shifting)

Operating mode Features Key issues

Makes sense where local load profile might fail

and export limit could be exceeded
Peak limiting Used to limit the export from a particular site
Peak output can be diverted into batteries or
other loads such as water heating

Excess solar capacity stored in battery then Only makes sense where export tariffs vary during
Export time shifting
exported to grid later in day the day

Makes sense where site has critical loads that

Battery kept fully (or mostly) charged at all times must run at all times
Energy security
Battery only comes into play during power cut Battery always kept fully charged to ensure
maximum run time if power cut occurs

A combination of time shifting and energy Limiting DOD during normal (time-shift mode)
security modes means that when a power cut occurs, there
Time shifting + back-up
System programmed so in normal (time-shift remains sufficient power in the battery to run
mode) battery only ever partly discharged loads

Solar array output above a specific power (kW) is

diverted temporarily into the battery Can provide a reduced initial outlay as a smaller
Inverter undersizing solar PV inverter can be specified (cost saving of
Allows a system design with a smaller solar PV inverter vs extra for battery needs consideration)
(cost saving)
inverter
Only possible in DC coupled systems
Can be combined with other operating modes

BR514 text.indd 19 16/08/2017 13:39:06

 20 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

Excess diverted
into battery
Battery Portion of battery
kW

Export limit used day to day

Retained for
energy security
0h 6h 12h 18h 24h Unused (DOD restricted
to maintain battery life)
Figure 33: Example of battery storage in conjunction with an export
limit on solar generation Figure 34: Illustration showing how a portion of battery capacity can be
© IHS Markit set aside for use during power cuts
© IHS Markit

An export-limiting system is designed to prevent export above a

set limit, so that the solar system can be safely installed at these
sites. Diverting the peak output of the solar system into a battery 5.5.4 Time shifting + back-up
storage system is one means of achieving this (Figure 33). In
practice, however, due to the cost of batteries, diverting into In practice, designing a system solely for energy security mode
other loads (eg water heating) is usually more cost effective. operation will be rare. Where energy security is relevant, most
systems will simply set aside part of the battery capacity for
In Germany, the number of solar installations has reached such back-up power usage.
a point that peak limiting is required on most new systems,
even small domestic systems. Many of the solar storage systems In these scenarios, the system is programmed to limit the
that have appeared on the UK market were developed for the normal day-to-day battery DOD. This ensures that at all times
German market. However, as these products were designed a guaranteed minimum back-up capacity is always available
for the nature of German rules and incentive schemes, they are should a power cut occur. The proportion of the battery retained
not necessarily the best fit for a UK customer wanting a time- for back-up use will depend on the site and the size of the loads
shifting solar storage system (eg they may discharge the battery that need to be kept running during the power cut (Figure 34).
into export rather than waiting until there is a load demand).
Where power cuts are less frequent or load demands less critical,
many system operators simply rely on chance and accept whatever
5.5.2 Export time shifting battery capacity is available, if and when the power cut occurs.
Export time shifting is a means of saving up solar energy until a
point in the day when it can be exported and sold for the best
price. For export time shifting to make sense:
5.5.5 Inverter undersizing
• there needs to be an export tariff that varies throughout the Grid-connected solar PV systems with batteries can enable
day a design with an inverter that is relatively smaller than that
• the system needs to be connected via an export meter that specified in a conventional system.
includes time-of-day recording.
Some degree of inverter undersizing is common practice in
conventional system design. In these conventional systems,
For domestic and small commercial systems in the UK, export
at times when the array output is greater than the inverter
time shifting is not relevant. This is primarily due to the nature
capacity, the excess is wasted. A system with batteries allows
of the UK Feed-in-Tariff (FIT) system where, for systems under
this excess to be diverted into the batteries and facilitates a
30 kWp, export levels are generally deemed¶ and there is no
larger degree of inverter undersizing. This mode of operation is
export meter fitted. However, some sites may be subject to
only possible in DC coupled systems.
timed/seasonal export restrictions (ie times of the day when
export needs to be limited).
While this design philosophy can provide a reduced initial outlay on
the solar PV inverter, there is obviously the significant extra cost of
the battery to consider. Hence, in most cases inverter undersizing is
5.5.3 Energy security a consideration when specifying a battery system, rather than the
sole cause for specifying the battery in the first place.
Systems set up to provide energy security are designed to
provide an alternative source of power in the event of a power
cut (similar to a UPS system). This operating mode is particularly
relevant at sites subject to frequent power cuts or where the site
has important loads that need to run at all times.

To maximise the amount of time that a system could provide

electricity, the system battery needs to be kept fully charged at
all times. This would mean, for most UK sites, that the battery
is unused for much of the time. Systems designed wholly for
energy security mode operation will be rare.

¶ ‘Deemed’ in this context means that when a PV system is installed

the export level from it is estimated based on local generation and
load requirements. The customer is paid for this level of export
under FIT and so there is no need for an export meter.

BR514 text.indd 20 16/08/2017 13:39:10

 6 Design and installation requirements 21

6 Design and installation

requirements
This guide has been written to accompany and augment the Box 12: Code of practice and BS 7671
design and installation standards described in the IET Code of
practice for grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems[1]. The
majority of the design of a grid-connected solar PV storage For all PV storage systems, the design, installation, test
system is described in Code of practice for grid-connected solar and commissioning practices described in the IET Code of
photovoltaic systems. While some design considerations are practice for grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems[1]
presented in this publication, it does not replace the IET code of should be followed. Systems also need to be designed,
practice. It does, however, provide additional information on: installed, tested and commissioned to the requirements of
BS 7671:2008 (Requirements for electrical installations)[2].
• the sizing of some system components
• the hazards associated with lead-acid and lithium-ion
batteries
• considerations on battery location
• battery maintenance. • Back-up capacity. Where power is required during a power
cut, some or all of the battery capacity can be set aside for
these occasions. This will generally mean that a significantly
larger battery is required than one specified solely for time-
6.1 System sizing shifting mode.
• Maximum charge-discharge rate. For some systems, the
This section augments the equipment sizing information maximum charge or discharge rate the battery is able to
contained within the IET Code of practice for grid-connected handle will be relevant. For example, a battery selected for
solar photovoltaic systems. use in a system providing off-grid functionality needs to
be able to deliver the worst-case (surge) currents that the
inverter will require during off-grid operation.
6.1.1 Battery sizing
There is a common perception when selecting a battery that
Modelling
bigger is always better. However, for grid-connected solar
storage systems this is not necessarily the case.
Manufacturers’ and other modelling tools are available to
help select the most appropriate battery size. These generally
Sizing a battery for a solar storage system is complex, depending
include solar data and typical load profiles that assist the user in
on the nature of the site and the intended use. The choice of size
evaluating different options.
lies somewhere along a continuum between two extremes:
• Battery too small. When the additional cost of the In practice, these modelling tools are usually the best means to
installation is more than the financial benefit from the determine the most appropriate system specification. However,
stored power. they will only provide an estimate of performance as the
• Battery too big. When the battery cannot be fully charged generalised load profiles they assume can be very different to
except on a few very sunny days of the year. those of the site in question.

In considering where on this spectrum the battery should be

sized, the following factors need to be considered:
6.1.2 Back-up systems
• Solar array output (PV system size). As battery size increases Where the back-up capability of the solar storage system is a
there comes a point where the daily solar input becomes key part of the design, a load evaluation needs to be performed.
insufficient to fully recharge the battery. Although solar This needs to examine the power rating of the load(s) to be run
output varies considerably during the year, the maximum (W) and how long they will need to run for (hours). These can
daily output is relatively easy to determine and can be used then be multiplied together to provide the energy required (Wh).
to fix an upper battery threshold.
• Load use. Load use and character vary considerably from Note: Nameplate ratings may not provide accurate information
site to site. Sites with loads that run throughout the day will on all loads. For some loads the figure will be the peak or surge
reduce the available solar power for battery recharging and rating, hence actual continuous power use may be less. For
mean that a smaller battery is generally required. more accurate information, load power use can be measured
• Winter mode. Where systems feature a winter (sleep) using an appropriate meter. A table like that shown overleaf
mode, system operation for the period of the year when (Table 5) can be used to evaluate the load requirements. The Wh
the system will be put into winter mode can typically be (or kWh) figure derived can be used to help determine what size
ignored. of battery (or what proportion of battery capacity) needs to be
provided to provide power for loads during off-grid operation.

BR514 text.indd 21 16/08/2017 13:39:10

 22 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

Table 5: Example energy storage calculation

Item Rating (W) Run time (hours) Energy (Wh)

Laptop 50 2 100
Light 25 2 50
Subtotal 150
Multiplier to allow for system losses* 1.1
Total energy storage required in battery 165
* A multiplier of 1.1 is used here to allow for system losses. The system designer needs to select an appropriate value for the system, but it is
generally recommended that a figure of at least 1.1 is used.
W – Watts. Wh – Watt hours.

Both the continuous and surge ratings of the inverter should

6.1.3 Inverter sizing be considered. While inverters are able to cope with surges for
short periods of time, the surge from some loads may be beyond
The appropriate procedures for the selection of solar PV
the ability of the inverter to handle. The surge current from
inverters for use in a grid-connected PV system are contained
some loads can be significant; loads such as motors (including
within the IET Code of practice for grid-connected solar
those in fridges and freezers) will need particular investigation. It
photovoltaic systems, which also describes the sizing of solar
should also be considered that, following switch-over to inverter
PV inverters. However, for solar storage systems the following
operation, unless prevented it is likely that all loads will restart
considerations also apply.
simultaneously.

To prevent users from inadvertently overloading a system during

a) Increased undersizing
off-grid operation, a label showing the maximum capacity of
the system may be appropriate. This is particularly of relevance
As described earlier in this guide, DC coupled solar storage
where the circuits provided during a power cut include sockets
systems can use a solar PV inverter size that is smaller than what
accessible to the user.
would normally be specified in a system without a battery. Typical
power ratios for the UK are in the range of 80–110% (ie an
Careful selection of circuit-protective devices (eg miniature
inverter size of 0.8–1.1 kW for a 1 kWp array). For systems with
circuit breakers) can help to ensure that the inverter is not
batteries, ratios of less than 80% may be economically justifiable.
overloaded during off-grid operation. Where appropriate, this
may include – for the circuits provided during a power cut – the
It is to be noted, however, that once a battery is full, the system
use of circuit-protective devices with a lower rating than would
output will be restricted by the decreased inverter size. Where
otherwise normally be specified for that circuit.
designers are specifying solar storage systems with reduced
inverter capacity, it is recommended that this design philosophy
is fully explained to the end customer; this should include
clarifying that, once batteries are fully charged, system output
will be limited by the reduced inverter capacity.
6.2 Component intercompatibility
Modelling programs, such as those provided by the inverter
manufacturers, are typically the best means of evaluating if
6.2.1 AC coupled system design
decreasing inverter size is economically justifiable.
With AC coupled systems, the intercompatibility of all parts of
the system needs to be verified. In particular, a check needs to
be made to ensure that component parts of the system will not
b) Systems with off-grid functionality
be damaged during off-grid operation.
Where a system includes an inverter with off-grid functionality,
AC coupled systems are commonly installed as a retrofit to an
the size of this inverter may need to be considered.
existing system. In such cases it is important for the installer to
ensure that the existing PV inverter(s) is compatible with the
Where it is critical that the inverter powers specific loads during a
new equipment being installed. Similarly, the new AC coupled
power cut, the rating of the critical load (or combination of loads)
inverter/charger needs to be checked to ensure compatibility
needs to be determined. The rating of the inverter should be
with the existing PV inverter(s).
greater than the critical load(s). For some system configurations/
products it is essential that the inverter has a higher capacity than
Where an AC coupled design features an isolation relay on
the total generation capability to which it is connected, not just
the grid supply (to enable off-grid operation), the existing PV
larger than the load demanded of it (see also Section 6.2).
inverter will still ‘see’ an electrical supply during a power cut.
This electrical supply is that generated by the new AC coupled
Note: In an off-grid scenario, there is the possibility of large
inverter/charger. Hence, the PV inverter will try to resume
demand during a time of high generation. If the demand is
generation and feed electricity into the ‘islanded’ system
switched off suddenly there may be a period where there is
(Figure 35). All parts of the system need to be checked to ensure
excess generation with nowhere for this to go. If the inverter/
that they are compatible with this island operation.
charger cannot accommodate this generation, major failure can
occur. This can be mitigated by sizing the inverter/charger to a
higher level than the generation.

BR514 text.indd 22 16/08/2017 13:39:10

 6 Design and installation requirements 23

PV array PV array

Existing Existing
Battery
PV inverter PV inverter Battery

Isolation relay
DC:AC
inverter/
charger DC:AC
Distribution board
inverter/
New Distribution board charger
inverter/
charger New
inverter/
charger

Grid
Grid

Figure 35: Example of system configuration where components are

compatible during off-grid operation (the intercompatibility of the PV
Figure 36: Example of system configuration where components are not
inverter and inverter/charger needs to be ensured)
compatible (so extra relay is required)
© IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid-
© IHS Markit (adapted from original work, Code of practice for grid-
connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015)
connected solar photovoltaic systems, © IET 2015)

As noted in Section 6.1.3a, the relative power ratings of the two

devices need to be checked. For most systems designed to work
in ‘island’ mode, the inverter/charger will need to have a capacity 6.3 Battery protection
that is greater than that of the PV inverter(s). In an off-grid
scenario there is the possibility of large demand during a time of
high generation. If the demand is switched off suddenly there 6.3.1 Main overcurrent protection
may be a period where there is excess generation with nowhere
for this to go. If the inverter/charger cannot accommodate this All battery systems need to have an overcurrent protective
generation, major failure can occur. This can be mitigated by device installed. The requirements for this device are described
sizing the inverter/charger to a higher level than the generation. in the IET Code of practice for grid-connected solar photovoltaic
systems.
Some inverter/chargers rely on controlling the output of the
inverter during a power cut. Again, the intercompatibility of
all devices needs to be verified before putting a system into 6.3.2 Battery isolation
operation.
All battery systems need to have a means of battery isolation.
Where intercompatibility cannot be verified, the inverter can be The requirements for this are described in the IET Code of
connected to the grid via an isolation relay (coupled to the main practice for grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems.
isolation relay) that disconnects the inverter from the rest of the
system during a power cut (Figure 36).

6.4 PV array/string overcurrent

6.2.2 DC coupled system design protection
While AC coupled systems can be retrofitted, this is much
As a battery has the capacity to deliver large fault currents, the
less likely for DC coupled systems. Most (although not all)
addition of a battery to a grid-connected PV system significantly
DC coupled systems will be installed as part of the PV system
alters the prospective fault currents that the system has to
installation. In the design of a DC coupled solar storage system,
be designed to handle. The considerations for array/string
all component parts need to be checked to ensure they are
overcurrent protection are described in the IET Code of practice
compatible with each other and with the overall system design.
for grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems.

BR514 text.indd 23 16/08/2017 13:39:11

 24 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

6.5 DC cables and component 6.7.3 Short circuits

ratings A large amount of energy can be stored within a battery,
making the accidental short circuiting of the battery terminals a
Where a system includes a battery, the ratings of the cables and
potential hazard. This can result in large fault currents with the
other components on the DC side can be different to those of a
risk of burns and explosion.
system without a battery. The requirements for DC cables and
component ratings are described in the IET Code of practice for
Protection of the battery terminals is a key consideration in
grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems.
preventing accidental short circuits. The terminals need to be
protected during normal operation and care needs to be taken
to prevent shorts during installation and maintenance (eg by the
use of insulated tools and removal of metallic jewellery before
6.6 Inverter/charger location carrying out work).
An inverter/charger needs to be mounted in a suitable location –
taking into account factors such as accessibility, cable routes, IP
rating**, heat dissipation and noise. Considerations for inverter
6.7.4 Fire
locations are described in the IET Code of practice for grid-
Lithium-ion batteries can be subject to thermal runaway, which
connected solar photovoltaic systems.
in extreme cases can result in cell rupture, explosion and fire.
Lithium-ion battery packs contain control circuitry that protects
the battery against these hazards. However, care needs to be
taken to ensure:
6.7 Battery installation
• manufacturers’ installation guidance is followed
In determining an appropriate location and means of installation • control circuits are not damaged or modified
for a battery, a number of hazards need to be considered. These • battery terminals are not shorted or connected in reverse
include chemical composition, battery gassing, short circuits, fire polarity
and weight. • batteries are only connected to approved charge-discharge
units
• battery cases are not damaged or punctured
6.7.1 Chemical composition • batteries are not subject to excessive heat.

Batteries can contain hazardous chemicals that can be highly

corrosive, poisonous, burn skin and seriously damage eyes. The
Box 13: Control circuitry
chemicals in lead-acid batteries are considered more hazardous
than those in lithium-ion batteries: lead is a toxic metal that
is harmful to human health; sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive Occasionally, a supplier may offer a lithium-ion battery
substance that can cause damage to eyes or other organs. without control circuitry. A properly specified control
circuit is vital to battery safety. The use of a battery
Manufacturers’ safety data sheets (SDS) should be consulted. without a suitably matched control circuit should be
These describe the hazards the chemicals contained in the avoided.
battery may present, and give information on handling, storage
and emergency measures in case of accident.

6.7.2 Battery gassing 6.7.5 Weight

The weight of the battery bank needs to be considered, as this
Charging some batteries, particularly wet-cell lead-acid
can cause manual handling issues during installation. The weight
batteries, can result in the production of gases such as
also needs to be considered with respect to mounting (floor/wall
hydrogen, which is flammable. Hydrogen, being lighter than
fixings suitable for weight).
air, will gather in the upper part of a battery enclosure/room
and a concentration of more than 4% hydrogen in air creates
Systems providing off-grid functionality usually have a larger
an explosion hazard. The gases emitted during charging may
battery and this can have a substantial weight (hundreds of
also contain a mist of the chemicals within, such as sulfuric acid,
kilograms). Such batteries will need a robust base, typically a
which can be a hazard to breathing and to eyes.
ground-floor concrete pad. Mounting such batteries on upper
stories or in a loft should generally be avoided.

6.7.6 Installation requirements

Information on the safe installation of batteries is contained in
BS EN 50272 (Safety requirements for secondary batteries and
battery installations)[5, 6]. Information is also provided in the IET
Code of practice for grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems.

** IP (‘Ingress Protection’) ratings are defined in International

Standard EN 60529 (British BS 60529:1992[3], European
IEC 60529:1989 [4]). They classify levels of sealing effectiveness
of electrical enclosures against intrusion from foreign bodies (eg
tools, dirt) and moisture.

BR514 text.indd 24 16/08/2017 13:39:11

 6 Design and installation requirements 25

6.7.7 Location 6.8 Isolation and switching

In determining where a battery is to be located, the following
for off-grid operation
factors need to be considered:
Where a system is designed to operate independently of the
• manufacturers’ instructions grid (‘islanded’), the system design needs to ensure that there
• battery to inverter/charger cable length – may be limited by is suitable isolation between the grid and the system during
the pre-supplied leads. Normally needs to be kept as short islanded operation and that a suitable earthing arrangement is
as possible (typically 2–5 m) maintained throughout. Systems should also be earthed at one
• access for installation and maintenance point only[2]. More information is provided in the IET Code of
• ventilation requirements practice for grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems.
• ambient temperature range
• distance to other heat sources
• location with respect to fire escape routes and exits
• presence of fire detection systems
• presence of sources of ignition (eg gas boiler pilot light).

While good guidance is available for the installation of lead-

acid batteries (eg BS EN 50272), there is not an equivalent for
lithium-ion batteries. Due to the potential fire risk that is present
with lithium-ion batteries, a fire risk assessment should be
undertaken when considering suitable battery locations.

It is not practical to provide hard and fast rules on battery

locations within buildings. However, Table 6 highlights some of
the considerations for some of the key locations currently used
to locate lithium-ion batteries in solar storage systems.

Table 6: Considerations when locating lithium-ion batteries

Location Considerations
Can the battery tolerate the high temperatures present in the loft over the year? (Note: While loft
temperatures may not present a risk of triggering thermal runaway, they may be out of normal
operating range and could reduce battery lifetime.)
Can the battery tolerate the low temperatures present in the loft over the year?
Loft Is suitable fire detection present?
Is there suitable access for installation and maintenance?
Is there suitable access to emergency shutdown apparatus?
Are the loft joists suitable for additional weight?

Can the battery tolerate the increased temperature from adjacent appliances (such as ovens and
fridges)?
Under kitchen or utility
room cabinets Is the battery access suitably restricted to authorised personnel?
Is the battery suitably ventilated?

Does the location compromise fire escape routes?

Understairs cupboard Is the battery access suitably restricted to authorised personnel?
Is the battery suitably ventilated?

Can the battery tolerate the ambient temperature range?

Garage
Is suitable fire detection present?

Can the battery tolerate the ambient temperature range?

Outside
Are the components suitable for outdoor installation (appropriate IP ratings)?

BR514 text.indd 25 16/08/2017 13:39:12

 26 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics: a technical guide

6.9 Hazard warning signs

Suitable hazard warning signs need to be displayed to highlight
battery hazards. The appropriate signs will depend on the
battery type. For example, for a lead-acid battery, the signs
shown in Figures 37–39 would be appropriate.

In many circumstances, particularly for larger battery

installations, a suitable warning sign at the main incomer (and
other generators, where fitted) should also be considered to
warn the emergency services that a battery bank is installed on
the premises.

Other labelling will also be required throughout the system. This

is described in more detail in the IET Code of practice for grid-
Figure 37
connected solar photovoltaic systems. The IET code of practice
© Shutterstock
describes placing these warning signs at the main incomer to
the site (the grid supply point). However, in storage systems
there are often several energy sources, eg generator, PV system,
mains (grid). Suitable warning signs must be located adjacent
to all appropriate generators and switchgear. Signs should also
reference all the sources of generation installed on the site.

Figure 38
© Shutterstock

Figure 39
© Shutterstock

BR514 text.indd 26 16/08/2017 13:39:16

 7 References and further reading 27

7 References
and further reading
7.1 References 7.2 Further reading
1. Cotterell M, Goss B, Jones G et al. Code of practice for grid- BSI. Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical installations.
connected solar photovoltaic systems. London, Institution of BS 7430:2011+A1:2015. London, BSI, 2011.
Engineering and Technology (IET), 2015.
Energy Networks Association (ENA). Recommendations for the
2. BSI. Requirements for electrical installations – IET Wiring connection of generating plant to the distribution systems of licensed
Regulations. BS 7671:2008+A3:2015. London, BSI, 2015. distribution network operators. Engineering Recommendation G59-3.
London, ENA, 2014.
3. BSI. Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code).
BS 60529:1992+A2:2013. London, BSI, 1992. Energy Networks Association (ENA). Recommendations for the
connection of type tested small-scale embedded generators (up to 16A
4. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
per phase) in parallel with low-voltage distribution systems. Engineering
Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code).
Recommendation G83-2. London, ENA, 2012.
IEC 60529:1989+AMD1:1999+AMD2:2013. Geneva, IEC, 1989.
Energy Storage Operators Forum (ESOF). A good practice guide on
5. BSI. Safety requirements for secondary batteries and battery
electrical energy storage. Chester, EA Technology, 2014.
installations – General safety information. BS EN 50272-1:2010.
London, BSI, 2011.
6. BSI. Safety requirements for secondary batteries and battery
installations – Stationary batteries. BS EN 50272-2:2001. London,
BSI, 2001.

BR514 text.indd 27 16/08/2017 13:39:16

 Publications from IHS Markit
Fire performance of external thermal insulation for walls of Evacuating vulnerable and dependent people from buildings in an
multistorey buildings. 3rd edn. BR 135 emergency. FB 52
External fire spread. 2nd edn. BR 187 Refurbishing stairs in dwellings to reduce the risk of falls and
Site layout planning for daylight and sunlight. 2nd edn. BR 209 injuries. FB 53
Radon: guidance on protective measures for new buildings. Dealing with difficult demolition wastes. FB 54
2015 edn. BR 211 Security glazing: is it all that it’s cracked up to be? FB 55
Thermal insulation: avoiding risks. 4th edn. BR 262 The essential guide to retail lighting. FB 56
Cracking in buildings. 2nd edn. BR 292 Environmental impact of metals. FB 57
Fire safety and security in retail premises. BR 508 Environmental impact of brick, stone and concrete. FB 58
Automatic fire detection and alarm systems. BR 510 Design of low-temperature domestic heating systems. FB 59
Handbook for the structural assessment of large panel system Performance of photovoltaic systems on non-domestic buildings.
(LPS) dwelling blocks for accidental loading. BR 511 FB 60
Performance and durability of concrete made using lower carbon Reducing thermal bridging at junctions when designing and
belite-ye’elimite-ferrite cement. BR 512 installing solid wall insulation. FB 61
Hydraulically treated soils in residential construction. BR 513 Housing in the UK. FB 62
Ventilation for healthy buildings: reducing the impact of urban air Delivering sustainable buildings. FB 63
pollution. FB 30 Quantifying the health benefits of the Decent Homes programme.
Financing UK carbon reduction projects. FB 31 FB 64
The cost of poor housing in Wales. FB 32 The cost of poor housing in London. FB 65
Dynamic comfort criteria for structures: a review of UK standards, Environmental impact of windows. FB 66
codes and advisory documents. FB 33 Environmental impact of biomaterials and biomass. FB 67
Water mist fire protection in offices: experimental testing and DC isolators for photovoltaic systems. FB 68
development of a test protocol. FB 34
Computational fluid dynamics in building design. FB 69
Airtightness in commercial and public buildings. 3rd edn. FB 35
Design of durable concrete structures. FB 70
Biomass energy. FB 36
The age and construction of English homes. FB 71
Environmental impact of insulation. FB 37
A technical guide to district heating. FB 72
Environmental impact of vertical cladding. FB 38
Changing energy behaviour in the workplace. FB 73
Environmental impact of floor finishes: incorporating The Green
Lighting and health. FB 74
Guide ratings for floor finishes. FB 39
Building on fill: geotechnical aspects. 3rd edn. FB 75
LED lighting. FB 40
Changing patterns in domestic energy use. FB 76
Radon in the workplace. 2nd edn. FB 41
Embedded security: procuring an effective facility protective
U-value conventions in practice. FB 42
security system. FB 77
Lessons learned from community-based microgeneration projects:
Performance of exemplar buildings in use: bridging the
the impact of renewable energy capital grant schemes. FB 43
performance gap. FB 78
Energy management in the built environment: a review of best
Designing out unintended consequences when applying
practice. FB 44
solid wall insulation. FB 79
The cost of poor housing in Northern Ireland. FB 45
Applying Fabric First principles: complying with UK energy
Ninety years of housing, 1921–2011. FB 46 efficiency requirements. FB 80
BREEAM and the Code for Sustainable Homes on the London The full cost of poor housing. FB 81
2012 Olympic Park. FB 47
The cost-benefit to the NHS arising from preventative housing
Saving money, resources and carbon through SMARTWaste. interventions. FB 82
FB 48
Measuring fuel poverty. FB 83
Concrete usage in the London 2012 Olympic Park and the
Assessing the performance of Phase Change Materials in
Olympic and Paralympic Village and its embodied carbon content.
buildings. FB 84
FB 49
Material resource efficiency in construction. FB 85
A guide to the use of urban timber. FB 50
Managing risks in existing buildings: an overview of UK risk-based
Low flow water fittings: will people accept them? FB 51
legislation for commercial and industrial premises. FB 86

For a complete list of IHS Markit publications visit www.brebookshop.com

BR514 text.indd 28 16/08/2017 13:39:17

 Battery energy storage systems with grid-connected solar photovoltaics

This guide covers battery energy storage systems for This guide focuses on grid-connected solar PV systems,
domestic or small commercial grid-connected solar although some principles also apply to other forms of
photovoltaics (PV). It is intended for two audiences: energy generation. Systems that make use of any ‘spare’
storage capability available from an electric vehicle are not
• Customers. Information is provided to enable the
covered.
benefits of energy storage systems to be assessed.
The pros and cons of different system types are
The guide looks at the design, sizing and specification
discussed, as well as the implications of different
of energy storage systems that use established battery
system sizes and operating regimes.
technologies to store solar surplus for use later in the day.
• System designers and installers. Information is
Typical operating patterns and characteristics of these
provided to enable the safe and effective design,
systems are also examined. Examples are given of how
specification and installation of energy storage
such systems can be configured and connected within a
systems.
building, and the process for sizing batteries and other
system components is examined.

Related titles from IHS Markit

Renewable energy: a collection of BRE expert guidance Installation of photovoltaic panels on existing flat roofs:
on installing renewable energy systems in the built some lessons learned
environment IP 8/14
AP 311
Building-integrated photovoltaic systems: challenges
Renewable energy technologies: key factors for and opportunities for manufacturers and specifiers
successful installations IP 11/12
AP 287
Photovoltaic systems on dwellings: key factors for
DC isolators for photovoltaic systems successful installations
FB 68 IP 8/11

Wind loads on roof-mounted photovoltaic and solar

thermal systems
DG 489

ISBN 978-1-84806-471-3

IHS Markit, The Capitol Building

Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 8FZ
www.brebookshop.com
BR 514 9 781848 064713

BR514 cover.indd 1 16/08/2017 13:03:28