Ecology and Geography

Topic 2 – Session 4
Geographical Science
Edaphological maps:

- Edaphological maps:
they represent the
different kinds of
soil.
Climatological maps:

- Climatological maps:
they represent the
different climates
occurring in the
regions of Earth
Urban map:

- Urban map: they

indicate the
distribution of
streets, suburbs,
schools, banks,
hospitals, etc.
 THERE ARE ALSO MAP PROJECTIONS THAT ALLOW THE
REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH’S SPHERICAL SURFACE ON A
PLANE. ESCOBAR (2007) DEFINES THEM AS “A PLAIN SYSTEM OF
MERIDIANS AND PARALLELS OVER WHICH A MAP IS TRACED”.
NEXT, YOU WILL FIND SOME OF THE DIFFERENT MAP
PROJECTIONS.
Terrestrial Globe or
Geographical Globe
- It is one of the most used ways
to represent the planet. It
offers a complete view of
Earth, observing the actual
proportions of the Earth’s
surface, because of its curved
surface.
Mercator or cylindrical

- It is widely used to create planispheres. Its

disadvantage is that it deforms the polar
regions. It is the most widely used projection,
mainly for maritime navigation. A modified
form of this projection, the Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) is the most
widely used worldwide.
Conic

- It is very useful to project the

continents, but it does not represent
the whole Earth, because it only
represents one hemisphere. The
regions near the prime meridian and
the Equator are deformed, especially in
the Equatorial area.
Azimuthal equal area
projection
- It is used to represent polar
zones. The equator is severely
deformed. Azimuthal
projections are used to plot
radio signals, seismic waves
and air-route maps.
Equidistant, Equal Area:

- These are cylindrical projections, in which meridians and

parallels form equal rectangles or squares. In some of them
areas conform but suffer some shape distortion. It shows a
more real dimension of the continents, but the polar regions
are still deformed. These projections are suitable for thematic
mapping. This group includes Gall-Peters, Behrmann,
Lamberts or Plate Caree projections.
Mollweide
- It is a pseudo-cylindrical projection where the
Earth is represented with a curved edge and
curved meridians. The tropical zone appears
without deformations because of the elliptical
form of the representation. This projection is
close to equal area; however the borders are
severely affected.
Goode Homolosine

- This is an interrupted version of the Mollweide, where

the Earth is cylindrically projected with an interrupted
latitude.
- They are used to project gores (the angled map
segments used to construct globes) and where there is
a need to focus on particular areas (e.g. continents).
The deformation in the continental areas is less;
however, the oceanic zones present great
discontinuities.
ECOLOGY AND
GEOGRAPHY
TOPIC 2 – SESSION 3
GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

By Bárbara Nova Franco, PhD

Earth’s
Representations

- Have you ever used some

kind of positioning system or
map? When studying
geography, the use of
different types of maps is
very important to explain the
geographical phenomena or
events, as the localization
principle says.
 Cartography:
- Cartography is the science used to create
maps to geographically represent a place. It
is a way to visualize the geographical
phenomena and events that the Earth’s
surface presents.

- Maps are plain representations that show an

Earth’s portion and address the general
aspects of the area through symbols.

- These are based on the geographical math

that started in the Classical Greece. Wise
cosmographers, astronomers, and
mathematicians created the first
representations of the Earth’s surface..
KINDS OF MAPS:
Historical maps:

- Historical maps: they

represent human events;
for example, the reach of
the German troops
during World War II.
Human maps:

- Human maps: they are useful

to represent the
infrastructure built up by
humans such as highways,
dams, railroads, etc.
Physical maps:

Physical maps: they represent

physical phenomena, for
example, the distribution of
different kinds of soil, climate
zones, etc.
 MAPS MUST HAVE THE
FOLLOWING ELEMENTS TO
ENSURE A CORRECT AND FULL
INTERPRETATION OF THEIR
INFORMATION:
 Scale:

- Scale: it refers to the relation

between the surface’s actual
measures and what has been
represented on the map. It is
regularly expressed as a
fraction (e.g. 1/100, where one
centimeter represents 100 m),
or as a ratio (e.g. 1:100).
Legend:

- Legend: it is an
explanatory list of the
symbols on a map. It
represents important
human or physical facts
that must be
highlighted.
Compass
rose:

- Compass rose: it is the

graphical representation of
the cardinal directions and
it helps to orientate the
user while reading the
map.
ESCOBAR (2007) MENTIONS THAT
THERE ARE ALSO SPECIALIZED
MAPS; THE MOST IMPORTANT
ARE:
Topographical maps:
- Topographical maps:
they are used to
locate rivers, towns,
cities, and
communication
means.
Land use maps:

- Land use maps: they

represent the intended
use, such as agricultural,
farm land, residential or
industrial areas.
Geological maps:

- Geological maps: they

represent mine location
and rock distribution.
B Y B Á R B A R A N O V A F R A N C , P H D

ECOLOGY AND
GEOGRAPHY
TOPIC 2 – SESSION 2
GEPGRAPHICAL
SCIENCES
EARTH LINES, SPOTS AND
CIRCLES
• To better comprehend the events and phenomena that occur
on Earth, it is necessary to consider the geographical
references, which are imaginary spots, lines and circles that
represent
• the terrestrial axis,
• the hemispheres,
• the poles,
• the equator,
• the parallels
• and the meridians
POLE AXIS
• There is an imaginary
line that runs from the
North Pole to the South
Pole and crosses the
Earth nucleus, on which
the Earth rotates from
west to east. It is called
the Earth’s axis or
the Pole Axis.
GREENWICH
MERIDIAN
• The Greenwich
Meridian is a line of
longitude defined to be 0°.
It is called also a prime
meridian and it is opposite
from the
180° meridian forming a
great circle. This great
circles divides the Earth’s
surface into
the Oriental (Eastern)
and Occidental (Western)
Hemispheres.
E Q UATO R
• The imaginary line that runs
horizontally, dividing the planet into
two hemispheres, North, and
South, is called the Equator. It has a
circumference of approximately
40,008.62 km, and is where the solar
rays hit the planet vertically during
the year.
PA R A L L E L S
• The circumferences that encircle
Earth from east to west are
called Parallels.

• There are two parallels called Tropics:

the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn, in the Northern and the
Southern Hemisphere, respectively.

• The sun rays hit the tropics

perpendicularly in one solstice
(summer and winter). During the
Northern Hemisphere’s winter
solstice, the sun rays hit the Cancer
tropic directly, and during the
Southern Hemisphere’s summer
solstice (or the Northern
Hemisphere’s winter solstice); the sun
rays hit the Capricorn tropic
perpendicularly.
 • The circumferences
located at the latitude
of 66°33’in both POLAR CIRCLES
hemispheres, mark the
beginning of Earth’s
cold zones. These
circumferences are
called the Polar
Circles. The circle
ARTIC
located on the northern ANTARTIC
hemisphere is called
the Arctic Circle,
whereas the circle
located in the southern
hemisphere is
the Antarctic Circle.
 ECOLOGY AN D
G EOG RAP H Y
TOP I C 2 – SESSI ON 1
G EOG RAP H I CAL
SCI EN CE

By Bárbara Nova-Franco, PhD

 MET H OD OLOG IC A L
P RINC IP L ES

• To be able to study Earth and

its relation with the organisms
that inhabit it, geography uses
methodological principles.
 LOCATION:
• All the geographical
elements occur in a
determined location of
space, so this principle
helps you to locate where
they happen.
• Answer the following
question:
• Where is it located? To
locate them you can use
geographical coordinates
and maps.
 LATITUDE
• It is the angular
measure (from 0° to
90°) that locates an
exact place from the
Equator: the line that
divides the Earth in
Northern and
Southern Hemispheres
towards the South and
North Pole.
• It is expressed through
the parallels, which are
the horizontal lines
you see drawn on a
map.
 LONGITUDE:
• It is an angular measure (from
0° to 180°) that locates any
point starting from the
Greenwich meridian (prime
meridian) towards the east or
the west.
• It is expressed through the
meridians, which are the
vertical lines you can see drawn
on a map.
• Parallels and meridians cross
with each other to form a grid
with identical vertical and
horizontal spaces. Each
intersection is the location's
exact position. This is the
theoretical basis of the Global
Positioning Systems (GPS).
ALTITUDE: • It is the height from the mean sea level to
any point on the Earth's surface.
• It is expressed in meters.
• If the places to locate are found above the
sea level, the altitude will be positive;
whereas if they are found below the sea
level, they will have negative altitudes.
 CAUSALIT Y:
It identifies the causes or the
events that trigger a determined
phenomenon or event and their
consequences. It answers the
question how and why does it
happen??
For example, the explanation on
how a hurricane is formed.
 RELATION:
It refers to the existing
coordination between the
geographical phenomena and
the social and biological events
that happen in a place.

It answers the question which

other events or phenomena is it
related with?

For example, it explains the

influence that a mountain has on
the flora and fauna that lives on
it.
GENERALIT Y
It establishes the identification and
comparison of the events and phenomenon
development in space and time

Answers the question when and where does

it happen?

For example, to know how often and

where El Niño (ENSO) phenomenon occurs.
 EVOLUTION
• It studies the transformation
that the geographical events
and phenomena undergo.
• It answers the question how
does the transformation occur?
• For example, it studies the
physical changes of mountains
and landscapes.