Transformers

Transformer
1. Transformers will work only with AC supply. There is
no rotating parts. Only the flux is changing
(alternating) and the conductor is stationary. Hence it
is statically induced emf (self induced emf and mutual
induced emf )

2. We assumed that all of the flux links all of the windings of

both coils. Thus, the voltage across each coil is
proportional to the number of turns on the coil.

v2 t   v1 t 
N2
N1
2. We assumed that the reluctance of the
core is negligible, so the total mmf of both
coils is zero.
i2 t   i2 t 
N1
N2
3. A consequence of the voltage and
current relationships is that all of the
power delivered to an ideal transformer
by the source is transferred to the load.
P1  P2
TRANSFORMER
CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION
 BASICS
A transformer is a static device which uses the
phenomenon of mutual induction to change the
values of alternating voltages and currents.
One of the main advantages of a.c. transmission
and distribution is the ease with which an
alternating voltage can be increased or
decreased by transformers.
Losses in transformers are generally low and thus
efficiency is high.
Being static they have a long life and are very
stable.
 Transformer
principle of operation
When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1
is applied to the primary winding, a small current—called the no-load
current I0—flows, which sets up a magnetic flux in the core. This alternating
flux links with both primary and secondary coils and induces in them e.m.f.’s of
E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction.
The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by
 Principle of operation

V1/V2 is called the voltage ratio and N1/N2 the turns ratio, or the
‘transformation ratio’ of the transformer.

If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and the device is termed

a step-down transformer.

If N2 is greater then N1 then V2 is greater than V1 and the device is termed a

step-up transformer.
 Principle of operation

When a load is connected across the secondary winding, a current I 2

flows. In an ideal transformer losses are neglected and a transformer is
considered to be 100% efficient.

Hence input power = output power, or V1I1 = V2I2, i.e., in an ideal

transformer, the primary and secondary volt-amperes are equal.
EMF Equation

E = 4.44 Nf φmax
• If the transformer is fed with pure d.c.
supply voltage, the core of the transformer
gets heated up.
• For a constant no. of turns and given flux
density, the E/f for d.c. is very large since
the frequency tends to zero.
• Thus, this leads to very large flux and
hence currents in a closed path of the core
thus saturating the magnetic core, heating
up the core and damaging it.
 Principle of operation

The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the volt-amperes that

it can transform without overheating.

the transformer rating is either V1I1 or V2I2, where I2 is the full-load

secondary current.
 Ideal Transformer
no-load phasor diagram
 No-load phasor diagram

The core flux is common to both primary and secondary windings in

a transformer and is thus taken as the reference phasor in the diagram.

On no-load the primary winding takes a small no-load current I0 and since,
with losses neglected, the primary winding is a pure inductor, this current lags
the applied voltage V1 by 90°.

Assuming no losses, current I0 produces the flux and is drawn in phase with
the flux.

The primary induced e.m.f. E1 is in phase opposition to V1 (by Lenz’s law)

and is shown 180° out of phase with V1 and equal in magnitude. The
secondary induced e.m.f. is shown for a 2:1 turns ratio transformer.
 Practical transformer

A no-load phasor diagram for a practical

transformer is shown.

If current flows then losses will occur.

When losses are considered then the
no-load current I0 is the phasor sum
of
two components
(i) IM , the magnetizing component, in
phase with the flux, and
(ii) IC , the core loss component
(supplying the hysteresis and eddy
current losses).
on-load phasor diagram
Transformer
construction
Transformer windings are usually of
enamel-insulated copper or aluminium.

Cooling is achieved by air in small

transformers and oil in large transformers.
 Transformer
construction
There are broadly two types of single-phase
double-wound transformer constructions—
the core type and the shell type, as
shown. The low and high voltage windings
are wound as shown to reduce leakage
flux.
 TYPES of Transformer
For power transformers, rated possibly at several MVA and
operating at a frequency of 50 Hz in, the core material used is usually
laminated silicon steel or stalloy, the laminations reducing eddy
currents and the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a minimum.

Large power transformers are used in the main distribution

system and in industrial supply circuits. Small power transformers
have many applications, examples including welding and rectifier
supplies, domestic bell circuits, imported washing machines, and
so on.
 Types
For audio frequency (a.f.) transformers,
rated from a few mVA to no more than 20
VA, and operating at frequencies up to
about 15 kHz, the small core is also made
of laminated silicon steel.

A typical application of a.f. transformers is in

an audio amplifier system.
 Types
Radio frequency (r.f.) transformers, operating in the MHz
frequency region have either an air core, a ferrite core or a dust
core.

Ferrite is a ceramic material having magnetic properties

similar to silicon steel, but having a high resistivity.

Dust cores consist of fine particles of carbonyl iron or permalloy (i.e.

nickel and iron), each particle of which is insulated from its
neighbour.

Applications of r.f. transformers are found in radio and television

receivers.
• Stepper Motors
 Full Stepper Motor

• This animation demonstrates the principle for a stepper motor using full step
commutation. The rotor of a permanent magnet stepper motor consists of
permanent magnets and the stator has two pairs of windings. Just as the rotor
aligns with one of the stator poles, the second phase is energized. The two
phases alternate on and off and also reverse polarity. There are four steps. One
phase lags the other phase by one step. This is equivalent to one forth of an
electrical cycle or 90°.
 Half Stepper Motor

• This animation shows the stepping pattern for a half-step stepper motor. The
commutation sequence for a half-step stepper motor has eight steps instead of
four. The main difference is that the second phase is turned on before the first
phase is turned off. Thus, sometimes both phases are energized at the same time.
During the half-steps the rotor is held in between the two full-step positions. A
half-step motor has twice the resolution of a full step motor. It is very popular
for this reason.
 Stepper Motors

• Some stepper motor uses permanent magnets.

Some stepper motors do not have magnets
and instead use the basic principles of a
switched reluctance motor. The stator is
similar but the rotor is composed of a iron
laminates.
 Half Stepping

• Note how the phases are driven so that the

rotor takes half steps
 Full Stepping

• Animation shows how coils are energized

for full steps
 Stepping Sequence

• Full step sequence • Half step

showing how binary sequence of
numbers can control binary control
the motor numbers
 Cross Section of a Stepper Motor

1 Stators
S
N

2 2

S
N
1
Rotor
Full Step Operation

Four Steps per revolution i.e. 90 deg. steps.

Half Step Operation

Eight steps per. revolution i.e. 45 deg. steps.

 Winding number 1
1

a b
1
N
One
6 pole rotor S step
N N
2 2
S S
N
Winding number 2 S
1
a b

2
Six pole rotor, two electro magnets.

How many steps are required for one complete revolution?

 Practical Stepper motor operation

The top electromagnet (1) is turned on, The top electromagnet (1) is turned off,
attracting the nearest teeth of a gear- and the right electromagnet (2) is
shaped iron rotor. With the teeth aligned energized, pulling the nearest teeth
to electromagnet 1, they will be slightly slightly to the right. This results in a
offset from electromagnet 2 rotation of 3.6° in this example.
The bottom electromagnet (3) is The left electromagnet (4) is enabled,
energized; another 3.6° rotation rotating again by 3.6°. When the top
occurs. electromagnet (1) is again enabled, the teeth
in the sprocket will have rotated by one
tooth position; since there are 25 teeth, it
will take 100 steps to make a full rotation in
this example.
 Stepper motor applications

Stepping Motor to move read-write head

 Stepper motor applications

Paper feeder on printers

Stepper motors

CNC lathes
 Stator coils

Rotor
CNC Stepping Motor
Advantages / Disadvantages
Advantages:-
Low cost for control achieved
Ruggedness
Simplicity of construction
Can operate in an open loop control system
Low maintenance
Less likely to stall or slip
Will work in any environment

Disadvantages:-
Require a dedicated control circuit
Use more current than D.C. motors
High torque output achieved at low speeds
 Brushless DC Motors

• A brushless dc motor has a rotor with permanent

magnets and a stator with windings. It is
essentially a dc motor turned inside out. The
control electronics replace the function of the
commutator and energize the proper winding.
Servo Motor Detail

Actuator

Reduction gear

Position feedback
Potentiometer
+ 5V (closed loop system)

Small electric DC motor

 Servo Motor working and principle

 This is nothing but a simple electrical motor,

controlled with the help of
servomechanism. If the motor as controlled
device, associated with servomechanism is DC
motor, then it is commonly known DC Servo
Motor.
 Servo motor is a special type of motor which is
automatically operated up to certain limit for a
given command with help of error-sensing
feedback to correct the performance.
• A servo motor is basically a DC motor(in some special cases
it is AC motor) along with some other special purpose
components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, we
will find a small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear arrangement
and an intelligent circuitry.

• The intelligent circuitry along with the potentiometer makes

the servo to rotate according to our wishes. As we know, a
small DC motor will rotate with high speed but the torque
generated by its rotation will not be enough to move even a
light load. This is where the gear system inside a
servomechanism comes into picture.
• This amplified error signal acts as the input power of
the dc motor and the motor starts rotating in desired
direction. As the motor shaft progresses the
potentiometer knob also rotates as it is coupled with
motor shaft with help of gear arrangement

• As the position of the potentiometer knob changes

there will be an electrical signal produced at the
potentiometer port. As the angular position of the
potentiometer knob progresses the output or
feedback signal increases. After desired angular
position of motor shaft the potentiometer knob is
reaches at such position the electrical signal
generated in the potentiometer becomes same as of
external electrical signal given to amplifier.
• At this condition, there will be no output
signal from the amplifier to the motor input
as there is no difference between external
applied signal and the signal generated at
potentiometer . As the input signal to the
motor is nil at that position, the motor stops
rotating. This is how a simple conceptual
servo motor works.
 What is a servo motor ?

A Servo is a small device that incorporates a three

wire DC motor, a gear train, a potentiometer,an
integrated circuit, and an output shaft bearing. Of the
three wires that stick out from the motor casing, one
is for power, one is for ground, and one is a control
input line. The shaft of the servo can be positioned to
specific angular positions by sending a coded signal.
As long as the coded signal exists on the input line,
the servo will maintain the angular position of the
shaft. If the coded signal changes, then the angular
position of the shaft changes.
Servos come in different sizes but use similar control
schemes and are extremely useful in robotics. The
motors are small and are extremely powerful for their
size. It also draws power proportional to the mechanical
load. A lightly loaded servo, therefore, doesn’t consume
much energy.

A very common use of servos is in Radio Controlled

models like cars, airplanes, robots, and puppets. They
are also used in powerful heavy-duty sail boats. Servos
are rated for Speed and Torque. Normally there are two
servos of the same kind, one geared towards speed
(sacrificing torque), and the other towards torque
(sacrificing speed).
Servos are constructed from three basic The amount of power applied to the motor
pieces; a motor, a potentiometer is proportional to the distance it needs to
(variable resister) that is connected to travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large
the output shaft, and a control board. distance, the motor will run at full speed. If
The potentiometer allows the control
circuitry to monitor the current angle of it needs to turn only a small amount, the
the servo motor. The motor, through a motor will run at a slower speed. This is
series of gears, turns the output shaft called proportional control.
and the potentiometer simultaneously.
The potentiometer is fed into the servo
control circuit and when the control
circuit detects that the position is
correct, it stops the motor. If the control
circuit detects that the angle is not
correct, it will turn the motor the correct
direction until the angle is correct.
Normally a servo is used to control an
angular motion of between 0 and 180
degrees. It is not mechanically capable
(unless modified) of turning any farther
due to the mechanical stop build on to
the main output gear.
 How do servo motors work ?
Servos are controlled by sending them a pulse of
variable width. The control wire is used to send this
pulse. The parameters for this pulse are that it has a
minimum pulse, a maximum pulse, and a repetition rate.
Given the rotation constraints of the servo, neutral is
defined to be the position where the servo has exactly
the same amount of potential rotation in the clockwise
direction as it does in the counter clockwise direction. It
is important to note that different servos will have
different constraints on their rotation but they all have a
neutral position, and that position is always around 1.5
milliseconds (ms).
The angle is determined by the duration of a
pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is
called Pulse width Modulation. The servo
expects to see a pulse every 20 ms. The length
of the pulse will determine how far the motor
turns. For example, a 1.5 ms pulse will make the
motor turn to the 90 degree position (neutral
position).
• When these servos are commanded to
move they will move to the position and
hold that position. If an external force
pushes against the servo while the servo
is holding a position, the servo will resist
from moving out of that position. The
maximum amount of force the servo can
exert is the torque rating of the servo.
Servos will not hold their position forever
though; the position pulse must be
repeated to instruct the servo to stay in
position.
 Types of servo motor

• Servos come in many sizes and in three basic types:

positional rotation, continuous rotation, and linear.

 Positional rotation servo:

This is the most common type of servo motor.
The output shaft rotates in about half of a circle, or
180 degrees. It has physical stops placed in the gear
mechanism to prevent turning beyond these limits to
protect the rotational sensor. These common servos
are found in radio-controlled cars and water- and
aircraft, toys, robots, and many other applications.
 Continuous rotation servo:
This is quite similar to the common
positional rotation servo motor, except it can turn
in either direction indefinitely. The control
signal, rather than setting the static position of
the servo, is interpreted as the direction and
speed of rotation. The range of possible
commands causes the servo to rotate clockwise
or counterclockwise as desired, at varying speed,
depending on the command signal. You might
use a servo of this type on a radar dish if you
mounted one on a robot. Or you could use one as
a drive motor on a mobile robot.
 Linear servo:
This is also like the positional rotation servo
motor described above, but with additional gears
(usually a rack and pinion mechanism) to change
the output from circular to back-and-forth. These
servos are not easy to find, but you can sometimes
find them at hobby stores where they are used as
actuators in larger model airplanes.
 Controlling of servomotor
• The design of the power supply unit servo
motor controller depends on the number of
servo motor that are interfaced to the board.
Servo motors operate from 4.8V to a 6V
supply voltage. The typical value is 5v. The
servo motor has three terminals.
1) Position signal (PWM Pulses)
2) Vcc (From Power Supply)
3) Ground