Chapter 9

Hardness Test
Subjects of interest

• Introduction/objectives
• Brinell hardness
• Meyer hardness
• Vickers hardness
• Rockwell hardness
• Microhardness tests
• Relationship between hardness and the flow curve
• Hardness-conversion relationships
• Hardness at elevated temperatures

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Objectives

• This chapter provides fundamental knowledge of

hardness of materials along with different methods of
hardness measurements normally used.
• Relationships between hardness and tensile properties
will be made and finally factors affecting hardness of
metals will be discussed.

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Introduction

Definition Hardness is a resistance to deformation.

(for people who are concerned with mechanics of
materials, hardness is more likely to mean the
resistance to indentation)
www.imagemet.com

Deeper or larger impression

Softer materials

Hardness impression
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Introduction
There are three general types of hardness measurements

1) Scratch hardness
• The ability of material to scratch on one another
• Important to mineralogists, using Mohs’scale 1= talc, 10 = diamond
• Not suited for metal
annealed copper = 3, martensite = 7.
2) Indentation hardness
• Major important engineering interest for metals.
• Different types : Brinell, Meyer, Vickers, Rockwell
hardness tests.

3) Rebound or dynamic hardness

• The indentor is dropped onto the metal surface and the
hardness is expressed as the energy of impact.

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 Introductions
• Hardness tests can be used for many engineering applications to achieve
the basic requirement of mechanical property.
• For examples

surface treatments where surface hardness has been much improved.

Powder metallurgy

Fabricated parts: forgings, rolled plates, extrusions, machined parts.

www.nitrexmetaltech.com

Hardness
variation of
Nitrided part nitrided part
www.automation.com

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 Brinell hardness
• J.A. Brinell introduced the first standardised indentation-hardness
test in 1900. The Brinell hardness test consists in indenting the metal
surface with a 10-mm diameter steel ball at a load range of 500-3000
kg, depending of hardness of particular materials.

• The load is applied for a standard time (~30 s), and

the diameter of the indentation is measured.

giving an average value of two readings of the
diameter of the indentation at right angle.
• The Brinell hardness number (BHN or HB ) is
expressed as the load P divided by surface area of
the indentation. P P
BHN = =
(πD / 2)(D − 2
D −d 2
) πDt Eq.1

Where P is applied load, kg

D is diameter of ball, mm
d is diameter of indentation, mm
t is depth of the impression, mm
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 Advantages and disadvantages of
Brinell hardness test
www.instron.com
• Large indentation averages out local
heterogeneities of microstructure.
• Different loads are used to cover a wide rage of
hardness of commercial metals.
• Brinell hardness test is less influenced by
surface scratches and roughness than other
hardness tests.
www.alexdenouden.nl
• The test has limitations on small specimens or
in critically stressed parts where indentation
could be a possible site of failure.

Brinell hardness
impression

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 Brinell hardness test with
nonstandard load or ball diameter
• From fig, d = Dsinφ , giving the
alternative expression of Brinell
hardness number as

P
BHN = Eq.2
(π / 2) D 2 (1 − cos φ )

• In order to obtain the same BHN with a

non-standard load or ball diameter, it is
Basic parameter in Brinell test
necessary to produce a geometrical
similar indentations.
• The included angle 2φ should remain
P1 P2 P3
constant and the load and the ball = = Eq.3
diameter must be varied in the ratio D12 D22 D33

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Meyer hardness

• Meyer suggested that hardness should be expressed in terms of

the mean pressure between the surface of the indenter and the
indentation, which is equal to the load divided by the projected area
of the indentation.
P
pm = Eq.4
πr 2

• Meyer hardness is therefore expressed as follows;

4P
Meyer hardness = Eq.5
πd 2
Note: - Meyer hardness is less sensitive to the applied load
than Brinell hardness.
- Meyer hardness is a more fundamental measure of
indentation hardness but it is rarely used for practical
hardness measurement.
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 Vickers hardness www.twi.co.uk

• Vickers hardness test uses a

square-base diamond pyramid as
the indenter with the included angle
between opposite faces of the pyramid
of 136o.
• The Vickers hardness number
(VHN) is defined as the load divided Note: not widely used for routine
check due to a slower process and
by the surface area of the indentation.
requires careful surface preparation.

2 P sin (θ / 2 ) 1.854 P
VHN = = Eq.6
L2 L2

Where P is the applied load, kg

L is the average length of diagonals, mm
θ is the angle between opposite faces of
diamond = 136o.
Note: the unite can be VHN, DPH, Hv
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 Vickers hardness

• Vickers hardness test uses the

loads ranging from 1-120 kgf,
applied for between 10 and 15
seconds.
• Provide a fairly wide
acceptance for research work
because it provides a continuous
scale of hardness, for a given
load.
• VHN = 5-1,500 can be obtained
at the same load level
easy for
comparison).

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 Impressions made by Vickers hardness

• A perfect square indentation (a) made with a perfect diamond-

pyramid indenter would be a square.
• The pincushion indentation (b) is the result of sinking in of the metal
around the flat faces of the pyramid. This gives an overestimate of the
diagonal length (observed in annealed metals).
• The barrel-shaped indentation (c) is found in cold-worked metals,
resulting from ridging or piling up of the metal around the faces of the
indenter. Produce a low value of contact area
giving too high value.

Types of diamond-pyramid indentation (a) perfect

indentation (b) pincushion indentation due to sinking in
(c) barrelled indentation due to ridging.
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 Vickers hardness values of materials

http://www.brycoat.com/hardness.htm Materials Hv
Tin 5
Aluminium 25
Gold 35
Copper 40
Iron 80
Mild steel 230
Full hard steel 1000
Tungsten carbide 2500
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 Rockwell hardness
• The most widely used hardness test in the US
and generally accepted due to
1) Its speed
2) Freedom from personal error.
3) Ability to distinguish small hardness
difference
4) Small size of indentation.

• The hardness is
measured according to the
depth of indentation,
under a constant load.

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 Rockwell hardness test www.ptli.com

Principal of the Rockwell Test

• Position the surface area to be
measured close to the indenter.
• Applied the minor load and a zero
reference position is established
• The major load is applied for a specified
time period (dwell time) beyond zero
• The major load is released leaving the
minor load applied.
The dial contains 100 divisions,
each division representing a
penetration of 0.002 mm.
Deeper indentation The Rockwell number represents
the difference in depth from the zero
Softer material reference position as a result of the
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 Rockwell hardness scale
• Rockwell hardness number (RHN)
Brale indenter,
represents in different scale, A, B, C,.. 120o diamond cone
depending on types of indenters and major
loads used.
EX: 1.6-3.2 mm
Scale Indenter Load (kg.f) Scale diameter steel
A Brale 60 HRA ball indenter
B 1/16’’ steel ball 100 HRB
C Brale 150 HRC

• The Hardened steel is tested on the C scale

with Rc20-70.
• Softer materials are tested on the B scale
Diamond tip
with Rb30-100.

The scale is usable for materials from annealed brass to cemented

carbides. Other scales are available for special purposes.
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Rockwell hardness instruction

• Cleaned and well seated indenter and anvil.

• Surface which is clean and dry, smooth and free from oxide.
• Flat surface, which is perpendicular to the indenter.
• Cylindrical surface gives low readings, depending on the curvature.
• Thickness should be 10 times higher that the depth of the indenter.
• The spacing between the indentations should be 3 or 5 times the
diameter of the indentation.
• Loading speed should be standardised.

www.qualitymag.com
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 Microhardness
• Determination of hardness over very small areas for example
individual constituents, phases, requires hardness testing
machines in micro or sub-micro scales.
• Vickers hardness can also be measured in a microscale, which
is based on the same fundamental method as in a macroscale.
• The Knoop indenter (diamond-
shape) is used for measuring in a small
area, such as at the cross section of the
heat-treated metal surface.
• The Knoop hardness number (KHN)
is the applied load divided by the
unrecovered projected area of the P P
indentation. KHN = = Eq.7
A p L2 C
Where P = applied load, kg
Ap = unrecovered projected area of indentation, mm2
L = length of long diagonal, mm
C = a constant for each indenter supplied by manufacturer.
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 Plastic zone underneath an indenter

• The plastic zone underneath a harness

indentation is surrounded with elastic material,
which acts to hinder plastic flow.
• The material surrounding the deformed zone
is rigid and upward flow of material
compensates for the material displaced by the
punch.
• The compressive stress required to cause
plastic flow in the hardness test > that in the Plastic zone under
simple compression due to this constraint. a Brinell indenter.

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 Relationship between hardness and
the flow curve
• Tabor suggested a method by which the plastic region of the true
stress-strain curve may be determined from indentation hardness
measurement.
• This is under a condition such that the true strain was proportional
to the d/D ratio (ε = 0.2d/D).

VHN
σo = (0.1) n Eq.8
3

Where σo is the 0.2% offset yield strength,

kgf.mm-2(=9.81 MPa)
VHN is the Vickers hardness number
n is the work hardening exponent.
Comparison of flow curve
determined from hardness
measurements
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Relationship between hardness and
the flow curve
• For Brinell hardness, a very useful correlation has been used for
heat-treated plain-carbon and medium-alloy steels as follows:

UTS ( MPa) = 3.4( BHN ) Eq.9

• Furthermore, Young’s modulus can also be given from the

nano-hardness test.

Load displacement curve

obtained from hardness test
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Hardness conversion relationships

• Hardness conversions are empirical relationships for

Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers hardness values.
• This hardness conversions are applicable to heat-treated
carbon and alloy steels in many heat treatment conditions.
(or alloys with similar elastic moduli).
• For soft metals, indentation of hardness depends on the
strain hardening behaviour of the materials.
• Special hardness-conversion tables for cold-worked
aluminium, copper, and 18-8 stainless steel are given in the
ASM Metals Handbook.

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Hardness at elevated temperatures
• Hot hardness gives a good indication of potential usefulness of an
alloy for high-temperature strength applications.
• Hot hardness testers use a Vickers indenter made of sapphire and
with provisions for testing in either vacuum or an inert atmosphere.
• The temperature dependence of
hardness could be expressed as follows;

H = Ae − BT Eq.10

Where H = hardness, kgf.mm-2

T = test temperature, K
A,B = constants

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 Hardness at elevated temperatures
Log H VS temperature curve provides two slopes, having the
turning point about one-half of the melting point of the material.

• BCC metals are softer in an

allotropic transformation
where FCC and HCP metals
have approximately the same
strength.

Temperature dependence of
the hardness of copper
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References

• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
• Walkerm P.M.B., Materials science and technology
dictionary, 1999, Chambers Harrap Publisher, ISBN 0 550
13249 x.

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 Chapter 8

Tension test
Subjects of interest

• Introduction/Objectives
• Engineering stress-strain curve
• True stress-true strain curve
• Instability in tension
• Stress distribution at the neck
• Ductility measurement in tension tests
• Effect of strain rate on flow properties
• Effect of temperature on flow properties

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 Tension test
Subjects of interest

• Influence of testing machine on flow properties

• Thermally activated deformation
• Notch tensile test
• Tensile properties of steel
• Anisotropy of tensile properties

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Objectives

• This chapter provides fundamental backgrounds of tension

tests where appropriate material parameters can be used for
material selection.
• Differences between engineering stress-strain curve and
true stress – true strain curve will be clearly understood.
• Effects of strain rate, test temperature, testing machine as
well as notch and anisotropy on tensile properties will be
highlighted.

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Engineering stress-strain curve

Ao Af

Stress
Necking
Ultimate tensile strength
Fracture strength Fracture

Yield strength
Lo
Necking
Af
Young’s modulus = slope
Fracture = stress/strain

Non-uniform
Elastic Uniform plastic plastic
deformation deformation deformation

Elastic Plastic strain Strain

strain
Total strain

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 Engineering stress-strain curve
• Basic design information on the strength of materials.
• An acceptance test for the specification of materials.
Stress

Necking Average longitudinal

Ultimate tensile strength
Fracture strength Fracture
tensile stress

Yield strength P
s= Eq.1
Ao
Young’s modulus = slope
= stress/strain

Average
linear strain
Non-uniform
Elastic Uniform plastic plastic
deformation deformation deformation
δ
∆L L − Lo
Elastic
strain
Plastic strain Strain
e= = = Eq.2
Total strain
Lo Lo Lo

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Factors affecting shape and
magnitude of stress-strain curve

• Composition
• Heat treatment Metallurgical factors

• Prior history of plastic deformation

• Strain rate
• Temperature Test conditions

• State of stress

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 Recoverable elastic strain and
plastic strain
• Loading of tensile sample beyond yield
Load point to A and then unloading give the
B
P2 unloading curve AA’ with its slope
P1 A parallel to the elastic Young’s modulus.
• Recoverable elastic strain b on
unloading is given by σ P /A
b= 1
= 1 o

E E
• Permanent plastic strain a Eq.3

O
A’ B’ Elongation • Loading and unloading following
ab d OABB’ gives plastic deformation c
c
whereas elastic deformation under
loading is d.

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 Tensile strength

Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) su is the

maximum load Pmax divided by the original cross-sectional area Ao
of the specimen.

Pmax
su =
Ao Eq.4

• Tensile strength is the most value quoted from tensile test

results.
• Useful for specifications, quality control of a product.
• In engineering design, safety factor should be applied.
Note: yield stress is more practical for ductile materials. But
it has little relation to complex conditions of stress.

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 Yielding
Various criteria for the initiation of yielding are used depending
on the sensitivity of the strain measurements and the intended use
of the data.

1) True elastic limit: based on microstrain

measurement at strains on order of 2 x 10-6. Very
low value and is related to the motion of a few Load
hundred dislocations.
2) Proportional limit: the highest stress at which Offset yield
stress is directly proportional to strain.
3) Elastic limit: is the greatest stress the material
can withstand without any measurable permanent
Extension
strain after unloading. Elastic limit >
proportional limit.
4) Yield strength is the stress required to produce
a small specific amount of deformation.

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Yield strength of materials

The offset yield strength can be determined by the stress

corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and
a line parallel to the elastic line offset by a strain of 0.2 or 0.1%.
(e = 0.002 or 0.001)

Load P( strain offset =0.002 )

so = Eq.5
Ao

In Great Britain, the offset yield

stress is referred to proof
stress either at 0.1 or
0.5%strain.
Used for design and specification
0.2% strain purposes to avoid the practical
0.1% strain Extension difficulties of measuring the elastic
limit or proportional limit.

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Yield strength of materials

• FCC lattice materials (Al, Cu) have no definite yield point.

The yield strength is therefore defined by the offset of yielding.
• Yield strength can be improved by work hardening (cold
working).
up to 300:1 stronger than original.
• Alloying of Al can improve elastic limit 1.5-2 times.

(Slightly change in young

Load

Load
Load

modulus)
50%CW Al alloy
20%CW

Yielding

Work hardening Pure Al

Elastic Plastic
A50%c w

Extension Ao A20%c w Extension Extension

Improvement in elastic
Improvement of yielding by cold working limit by alloying

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 Yield strength of materials
• BCC lattice materials (Fe) show a yield point phenomenon

Upper and lower yield points (depending on testing machine).
• Condition: Polycrystalline & small amounts of interstitial solute
atoms.
Upper yield point L2 Lower yield point L1
Ao Ao

Load
Upper yield
point
L2
Yield point
elongation
Energy

Energy required L1
for initial
movement of Lower yield
atom point

Interstitial
solute Distance Extension
atom
At yield point, localised internal friction requires more energy for
interstitial atom to move dislocation, after that dislocation are free
from interstitial atom (carbon, nitrogen).
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 Ductility
Ductility is a qualitative, subjective property of a material.

In general, ductility is of interest in three different ways

1) For metal working operation :

indicating amount of deformation
can be applied without failure.
2) For stress calculation or the
prediction of severe load :
indicating the ability of the metal to
flow plastically before failure.
3) For indication of any changes in
heat treatments or processing
conditions in metal.

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Measures of ductility

Elongation L f − Lo
ef =
Lo
Eq.6

Reduction of area, q Ao − A f
q=
Ao Eq.7

These parameters are obtained after fracture by putting

specimen back together and taking the measurement.

Zero-gauge length elongation

L − Lo Ao 1 q
eo = = −1 = =
Lo A 1− q 1− q Eq.8

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 Modulus of elasticity
Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus is a measure of
material stiffness (given by the slope of the stress-strain curve).
Load • Modulus of elasticity is determined by the
binding forces between atoms (structure
insensitive property)
• Cannot change E, but can improve by
Slope = Young’s forming composites.
modulus
• Only slightly affected by alloying addition,
heat treatment or cold work.

Extension Temp Young’s modulus

Young’s modulus

Stiffness

Deflection
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Example: A 13 mm diameter tensile specimen has a 50 mm gauge
length. The load corresponding to the 0.2% offset is 6800 kg and the
maximum load is 8400 kg. Fracture occurs at 7300 kg. The diameter
after fracture is 8 mm and the gauge length at fracture is 65 mm.
Calculate the standard properties of the material from the tension test.

π L − Lo 65 − 50
Ao = (13) 2 = 132.7 mm 2 = 132.7 × 10 −6 m 2 ef = = = 30%
4 Lo 50
π Ao − A f 132.7 − 50.3
Af = (8) 2 = 50.3 mm 2 = 50.3 × 10 −6 m 2 q= = = 62%
4 Ao 132.7

Pmax 8400 × 9.8 If E = 207 GPa, the elastic recoverable

su = = = 620 MPa strain at maximum load is
Ao 132.7 × 10 −6
Py6800 × 9.8 Pmax / Ao 620 × 10 6
so = = = 502 MPa eE = = = 0.0030
Ao 132.7 × 10 −6 E 207 × 10 9

Pf 7300 × 9.8 If the elongation at maximum load (the

sf = = = 539 MPa
Ao 132.7 × 10 −6 uniform elongation) is 22%, what is the
plastic strain at maximum load?
e p = etotal − e E = 0.2200 − 0.0030 = 0.2170
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 Resilience
• Resilience is an ability of a material to absorb energy when
elastically deformed and to return it when unloaded.
• Usually measured by modulus of resilience (strain energy per
unit volume required to stress the material from zero to the yield
stress, σo.
1 1 s o2
Stress, s U o = σ x e x = U R = s o eo = Eq.9
2 2 2E

Modulus of
resilience, UR

1
UR = s o eo
2

Strain, e

Note: for mechanical springs
high yield stress and low

modulus of elasticity.
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Toughness
• Toughness is an ability to absorb energy in the plastic range.
• Or the ability to withstand occasional stresses above the yield
stress without fracture.
• Can be simply defined by the area under the stress-strain
curve (amount of work per unit volume that the material can
withstand without failure.)
• The structural steel although has a
lower yield point but more ductile than
high carbon spring steel.
Structural
steel is therefore tougher.
• Toughness = strength + ductility
Ductile materials Brittle materials

U T ≈ su e f 2
UT ≈ su e f
so + su 3
Comparison of stress-strain curves for U T ≈ 2
ef
Eq.10 Eq.11
high and low-toughness materials.
(only approximation)
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 True-stress-true-strain curve
• True stress-strain curve gives a true indication of deformation
characteristics because it is based on the instantaneous
dimension of the specimen.
• The true stress-strain curve is also known as the flow curve.
• In engineering stress-strain curve,
stress drops down after necking since it is
based on the original area.
• In true stress-strain curve, the stress
however increases after necking since the
cross-sectional area of the specimen
decreases rapidly after necking.

True stress True strain

Comparison of engineering and P
σ= (e + 1) = s (e + 1) ε = ln(e + 1)
the true stress-strain curves Ao
Eq.12 Eq.13
Note: these equations are used for data upto the onset of necking. Beyond
necking, use the actual measurements of load, cross-sectional area, diameter.
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True stress at maximum load
• True stress at maximum load corresponds to the
true tensile strength.
P
s u = max
The ultimate tensile strength Ao
Pmax
The true stress at maximum load σu =
Au

And true strain at Ao

ε u = ln
maximum load Au

Ao
Eliminating Pmax gives σ u = su = su e ε u
Au Eq.14

Where σu true stress at maximum load

εu true strain at maximum load
Au cross-sectional area of the specimen at maximum load
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True fracture stress
• The true fracture stress σf is the load at fracture Pfracture
divided by the cross sectional area at fracture Af.

Pfracture Note: Need to be corrected for the triaxial

σf = state of stress existing in the tensile specimen
A fracture at fracture.
Often error.

Eq.15

True fracture strain

• The true fracture strain εf is • After necking, the true fracture
based on the original area Ao strain can be related to the area of
and the area after fracture Af. reduction q.

Ao 1
ε f = ln ε f = ln
Af Eq.16 1− q Eq.17

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 True uniform strain
• The true uniform strain εu is the
true strain based only on the strain
up to the maximum load.
• Can either be measured from Au or
Lu at maximum load. Engineering and true stress-strain
curves
• The uniform strain is often used in
estimating the formability of metals Ao
ε u = ln
from the result of a tension test. Au Eq.18

True local necking strain

• The true local necking strain is the strain Au

required to deform the specimen from the ε n = ln
Af Eq.19
maximum load to fracture.

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Power-law flow curve
• The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic
deformation can be expressed by the simple power law.
Where n is the strain hardening exponent
σ = Kε n
K is the strength coefficient
Eq.20

• Log-log plot of true stress-strain curve from yield point up to the

maximum load will result in a straight line where n is the slope and K
is the true stress at ε = 1.0.

n = 0 perfectly plastic solid

n = 1 elastic solid
For most metals, 0.1< n < 0.5

Log-log plot of true Different forms of power

stress-strain curve curve σ = Kεn
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Variations of the power-law flow curve
Datsko showed that εo is considered as the amount of strain
hardening of the material obtained prior to tension test.

σ = K (ε o+ε ) n Eq.21

Ludwik equation relates the yield stress to the power law

σ = σ o + Kε n Eq.22

True stress-strain curve of austenistic stainless steel at

low strain can be expressed by

σ = Kε n + e K e n ε
1 1 Eq.23

Where eK1 ~ proportional limit

n is the slope of the curve
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Example: In the tension test of a metal fracture occurs at maximum
load. The conditions at fracture were: Af = 100 mm2 and Lf = 60 mm.
The initial values were: Ao = 150 mm2 and Lo = 40 mm. Determine the
true strain to fracture using changes in both length and area.

 Lf 
 = ln  = 0.405
60
ε f = ln At the maximum load, both area
 Lo   40 
and gauge length can be used for a
 Ao 
ε f = ln  = ln 150  = 0.405 strain calculation.
  100 
 Af 

If a more ductile metal is tested such that necking occurs and the
final gauge length is 83 mm and the final diameter is 8 mm, while
Lo = 40 mm and Do = 12.8 mm.

 Lf 
 = ln  = 0.730
83 After necking, gauge length gives
ε f = ln
 Lo   40  error but area of reduction can still
 Do 
2
be used for the calculation of true
ε f = ln  = 2 ln 12.8  = 0.940 strain at fracture.
  8 
 Df 
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Instability in tension
Undergo necking after yielding with
Ideal plastic material no strain hardening

Most metal Necking begins at maximum load

with strain hardening
increasing
load-carrying capacity

Necking or localised deformation

starts at the maximum load, which is
opposed by a decrease in cross-
sectional area of the specimen as it
elongates.
www.seas.upenn.edu

Instability occurs when

An increase in stress due to The increase in load-carrying

reduced cross-sectional area > capability due to strain hardening

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Instability in tension
Therefore the point of necking
can be obtained from the true
The condition of instability, which stress-strain curve by
leads to localised deformation is
defined by
dP = 0, P = σA
dP = σdA + Adσ = 0
Because the dL dA
volume is constant =− = dε
L A (a) Finding the point on the curve
having a subtangent of unity.
From the instability dA dσ
− =
condition A σ

So that at a point of dσ
=σ
tensile instability dε Eq.24

(b) The point where the rate

of strain hardening dσ/dε
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol equals the stress. May-Aug 2007
 Considère’s construction for the
determination of maximum load
The maximum load can be determined from Considère’s
construction when the stress-strain curve is plotted in terms of true
stress σ and conventional strain e.

• Let point A represent a negative

strain of 1.0.
• A line drawn from point A which is
tangent to the stress-strain curve will
give maximum load with the slope of
σ/(1+e).
• The strain at which necking
occurs is the true uniform strain εu

εu = n Eq.25

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Example: If the true stress-strain curve is given by σ = 1400ε0.33,
where stress is in MPa, what is the ultimate tensile strength of the
material?

The uniform elongation

to maximum load is
ε u = n = 0.33

The true stress at

σ u = 1400(0.33) 0.33 = 971 MPa
maximum load is

From Eq.13 eu + 1 = exp(ε u ) = exp(0.33) = 1.391

Therefore the ultimate tensile strength is

From Eq.12 971 971
su = 0.33 = = 698 MPa
e 1.391

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Flow instability (necking) in biaxial tension
Necking in a uniaxial cylindrical tensile specimen is isotropic. However
in a sheet specimen where the width of the specimen is much higher
than the thickness, there are two types of flow instability:

1) Diffuse necking
• Provide a large extent of necking on the
tensile specimen similar to necking from a
cylindrical specimen.
• Diffuse necking might terminate in fracture
Diffuse and localised necking
in a sheet tensile specimen. but normally followed by localised necking.
2) Localised necking

Power law flow curve for • Localised necking is a narrow band with
localised necking its size ~ specimen thickness, and inclined
at an angle φ ~55o.
ε u = 2n Eq.26
• Give no change in width through the
localised neck
plain strain deformation.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Stress distribution in necking
• Necking introduces a complex triaxial state of stress in the
necked region ~ a mild notch.
• The average true stress at necking, which is much higher
than the stress would be required to cause a normal plastic flow
due to stresses in width and thickness directions.

(a) Geometry of necked region, (b) Elastic stresses beneath the notch in
stress acting on element at point O (a) plain stress, (b) plain strain
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Ductility measurement in tension test

• Measured elongation in tension specimen depends on the gauge

length or cross-sectional area.
Uniform extension up to necking
Total extension Depends on
• Metallurgical condition of the material
(through n)
• Specimen size and shape on the
development of necking

Localised extension once necking begins

The shorter the gauge length,

the greater the effect of
Variation of local elongation with localised deformation at necking
position along gauge length of on total elongation.
tensile specimen
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Dimensional relationships of tensile specimens for
sheet and round specimens

• Elongation depends on the original Example: Standard gauge length

gauge length Lo. %elongation as Lo
%Elongation Lo = 5.65 A Eq.27

A
Lo

Gauge length Lo

Dimensional relationships for sheet and round

tensile specimens used in different countries
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Difference between % elongation and %
reduction of area

% Elongation
• % Elongation is chiefly influenced by uniform elongation,
which is dependent on the strain-hardening capacity of the
material.

Reduction of Area
• Reduction of area is more a measure of the deformation
required to produce failure and its chief contribution results
from the necking process.
• Because of the complicated state of stress state in the
neck, values of reduction of area are dependent on
specimen geometry, and deformation behaviour, and
they should not be taken as true material properties.
• RA is the most structure-sensitive ductility parameter
and is useful in detecting quality changes in the materials.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Effect of strain rate on flow properties
• Strain rate is defined as
• dε
ε=
dt Eq.28

• The unit is per second, s-1.

Spectrum of strain rate

Strain rate Flow stress

Temperature Strain rate

dependence

Flow stress dependence of strain rate

Suranaree University of Technology and temperature May-Aug 2007
Strain rate sensitivity, m
• Strain rate sensitivity indicates any changes in deformation
behaviour.
• Measurement of strain rate sensitivity can be linked to
dislocation concept (velocity of mobile dislocations).

• Strain rate sensitivity m can be

obtained from

• m

σ = C  ε  Eq.29
  ε ,T

• High strain rate sensitivity is a

characteristic of superplastic metals
and alloys.
Dependence of tensile
elongation on strain-rate
sensitivity
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Effect of temperature on
flow properties
Temperature strongly affects
the stress-strain curve and the
flow and fracture properties.
Changes in
Temperature Strength engineering
stress-strain
curves of mild
steel with
Ductility temperature

• Thermally activated processes assist deformation

(dislocation motion) and reduce strength at elevated
temperatures.
• Structural changes can occur at certain temperature
ranges (high temp / long term exposure) to alter the general
behaviour.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Effects of temperature Effects of temperature
on yield stress on ductility

• For BCC metals, the yield stress • W is brittle at 100oC, Fe at -225oC

is strongly dependent on while Ni decreases little in ductility
temperature where as in FCC over the entire temperature interval.
metals, the yield stress is only
slightly dependent on temperature.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Comparison of mechanical properties of
different materials at various temperature

• Mechanical properties of different materials at various

temperature can be compared in terms of homogeneous
temperature (the ratio of the test temperature to the melting point,
expressed in degree kelvin).

Testing temperature
Homogenous temperature =
Melting temperature

• And this should be compared in terms of ratios of σ / E rather

than simple ratios of flow stress.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Influence of testing machine on
flow properties

Load controlled machine Displacement

controlled machine
• The operator adjusts the
load precisely and leave with • Displacement is controlled
whatever displacement and the load adjusts itself to that
happens to be associated with position. Ex: Screw driven
the load. machine.

Constant cross head velocity is

the sum of
Currently we can have machines 1) Elastic strain rate in specimen
which can change from load 2) Plastic strain rate in specimen
control to displacement control. 3) Strain rate resulting from
elasticity of the machine.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Effect of the testing machine of the shape of
the stress-strain curve and fracture behavior
Hard machine Soft machine
• A rigid testing machine with a • Hydraulic testing machine.
high spring constant. • The effect of upper and lower yield
• Ex: Screw driven machine. point will be smeared out and only
• Will reproduce faithfully the the extension at constant load will
upper and the lower yield point. be recorded.
www.coronet.eu.com solids.ame.arizona.edu

Screw Hydraulic
driven testing
machine machine

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Thermally activated deformation
Plastic deformation The effective shear stress is τ-τi
depends on Where τ is the applied shear stress
• Stress τi is the internal resisting stresses.
• Temperature The τi can be grouped into;
• Deformation 1) Long-range obstacles : barriers too
• Stain rate, high and long the be surmounted by
• Microstructure thermal fluctuation.
• Composition 2) Short-range obstacles : (~10 atom
diameters) thermal fluctuation can
Thermal activation energy assist dislocations in surmounting these
barriers.
thermal activation barrier.

d* - distance the atom move

during the process.
∆H – Energy required to
overcome the barrier.
Long range and short
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol
range stress fields May-Aug 2007
 Notch tensile test
Notch tensile test is used to evaluate notch sensitivity (the tendency
for reduced tensile ductility in the presence of a triaxial stress field and
steep stress gradient.
express metallurgical or environmental
changes.
• 60o notch with a root radius of 0.025 mm or
less introduced into a round (circumferential notch)
Notch tensile
or a flat (double-edge notch) tensile specimen.
specimen
• The cross-sectional area under the notch root is
one-half of the unnotched area.

midas.npl.co.uk

Notch tensile specimen.

Stress distribution
around tensile notches.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Notch strength

• Notch strength is defined as the maximum load divided by the

original cross-sectional area at the notch.

• Due to the constraint at the notch, the notch strength is higher than
the tensile strength of the unnotched specimen.

• Notch-strength ratio NSR detects notch brittleness

(high notch sensitivity) from;

NSR = Snet (for notched specimen at maximum load)

Su (tensile strength for unnotched specimen)

• If the NSR is < 1, the metal is notch brittle.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Tensile properties of steel
Ferrous materials are of commercial importance.
Great deal
of work is paid to relate microstructure, composition to
properties.

Composition and more importantly microstructure are the

chief variables which control the properties of steel.

The tensile properties of annealed and normalised steels

are controlled by
1) Flow and fracture characteristics of the ferrite (strength ~
alloying elements, grain size)
2) Amount of ferrite
3) Shape of ferrite
4) Distribution and amount of cementite (C content)

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Tensile properties in steels with different
microstructures

• Normalised steel has higher strength than annealed steel

due to more rapid rate of cooling, resulting in pearlite.

Tensile properties of pearlite and spheroidite in eutectoid steel

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Tensile properties in steels with different
microstructures

• Strength of annealed steel can be improved by cold working.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk

Tensile properties in steels with

different microstructures
• Tensile properties of pearlitic steel can be best
controlled by transforming the austenite to
pearlite at a constant temperature on continuous
cooling from above the critical temperature.
• The transformation product is lamellar pearlite. Pearlite microstructure

Transformation temperature

Spacing between
cementite platelets

Strength Relationship of tensile

properties of Ni-Cr-Mo steel
to isothermal transformation
temperature.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Tensile properties in quenched
and tempered steels

• The best combination of

strength and ductility is
obtained in steel which has
been quenched to a fully
martensitic structure and then
tempered.

Tensile properties of quenched and tempered SAE-

4340 steel as a function of tempering temperature
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Tensile properties in quenched
and tempered steels
• Martensitic structure provides hardness and strength.
• Mechanical properties are changed by altering the tempering
temperature.

As-quenched hardness of steel Relationship between tensile strength and

as a function of carbon content hardness for quenched and tempered, annealed
and normalised steel
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Tensile properties in low-carbon steel

• Mechanical properties of low-carbon

steels (0.3-0.5%C) do not depend
basically on alloy content, carbon content
or tempering temperature.
• Steels quenched to essentially 100%
martensite and then tempered can give
Tensile strength of in the range 700 –
1400 MPa.
a wide variety of alloyed
steels are used.
• A range of specific properties can be
obtained as appeared in shaded area.
• in large steel sections, slack-quenched
structure (non-100% martensitic
structure-containing ferrite, pearlite,
bainite interspersed with martensite)
Relationships between tensile properties of
gives poorer properties. quenched and tempered low-alloy steels
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Anisotropy of tensile properties
Crystallographic anisotropy

• Crystallographic anisotropy results from the preferred

orientation of the grains, which is produced by severe
plastic deformation.
• Yield strength and tensile strength to a lesser extent, are
the properties most affected.
• Crystallographic anisotropy can be eliminated by
recrystallisation.
• Example : Ears in deep-drawn cups.

Ears in drawn cups.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Anisotropy of tensile properties
Mechanical fibering
• Mechanical fibering is due to
preferred alignment of inclusions,
voids, seggregation, and second
phase in the working direction.

important in forgings and plates. Alignment of particles or inclusions
along the working direction
• Ductility is the most affected.

Effect of
forging on
longitudinal
and
transverse
Reduction of area and angle between the reduction of
longitudinal direction in forging and the area
Suranaree University of Technology specimen axis May-Aug 2007
References

• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Chapter 12

Brittle fracture and impact tests

Subjects of interest

• Objective
• The brittle-fracture problem
• Notch-bar impact tests
• Ductile to metal transition temperature curve
• Metallurgical factors affecting transition temperature.
• Drop-weight test and other large scale tests
• Embrittlement in metals

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Objectives

•This chapter provides an understanding of

characteristics and causes of brittle fracture and
factors affecting brittle fracture will be indicated.
• The awareness of brittle fracture under service
conditions will be made by the use of ductile to brittle
transition temperature curve.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 The brittle-fracture problems

Three basic factors contribute

to a brittle cleavage fracture.

1) Triaxial state of stress

2) Low temperature
3) High strain rate

Impact test
Failure of Liberty Ships during services in
World War II. To determine the susceptibility
The cause of failure was due to crack of materials to brittle behaviour.
initiated from defects in the welded area
and subjected to subzero temperature.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Notch bar impact test
• Notched bar test specimens are used in different sizes and
designs.
• The Charpy impact specimen is the most widely used.
• The parameter (energy absorption) obtained are not readily
expressed in terms of stress level, so it is difficult for design.
• Can use the test result to indicate how brittle the materials are.

The specimen is
hit by a pendulum
until fracture.

Method of loading in Charpy V notch

and Izod tests.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2006
 The Charpy impact test
The Charpy test measures the total energy absorbed
during specimen fracture.
• The standard Charpy specimen is hit by a
pendulum at the opposite side of the notch
and the energy required to break open is
measured.
• Standard specimen size is 10x10x55 mm3
with a V notch of 2 mm deep, 45o angle and
0.25 mm root radius.

Charpy V Notch Geometry

45 o
2 mm
www.twi.co.uk
Notch root radius of 0.25 mm
Charpy impact test diagram

Absorbed energy Impact toughness

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Ductile to brittle transition
temperature curve
• The absorbed energy (Joule) is plotted against
testing temperature, giving a ductile to brittle transition
temperature curve (DBTT curve). Lower shelf
• The curve represents a change in fracture behaviour
from ductile at high temperature to brittle at lower
temperature.

DBTT curve

Upper shelf Transition – mixed mode

Transition

Lower shelf

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Upper shelf May-Aug 2006

 Fracture surfaces of tested specimens
Transition –
Lower shelf mixed mode Upper shelf
Shear lip

Cleavage facets Cleavage facets

Ductile tearing
Microvoids

Brittle fracture Mixed mode of brittle and ductile Microvoid coalescence in ductile
failures failure
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Transition temperature
Different criteria are used to determine 1) T1 transition temp is the
the transition temperature, depending Temp at which fracture is
on the purpose of the application. 100% ductile (fibrous).
2) T2 transition temp is the
Temp at which fracture is
50% cleavage and 50%
ductile.
3) T3 transition temp is the
Temp at the average energy
absorption of upper and
lower shelves.
4) T4 transition temp is the
Temp defined at Cv = 20J.
5) T5 transition temp is the
Temp at which fracture is
Various criteria of transition temperature 100% cleavage.
obtained from Charpy test Note: FTP is fracture transition plastic
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Metallurgical factors affecting
DBTT curves
• The shape and position of the DBTT curve is important
because it determines the transition temperature, which
indicates where it is safe to use for the required application.
• There are several factors affecting the DBTT curve.

• Crystal structure
• Interstitial atom
• Grain size
• Heat treatment
• Specimen orientation
• Specimen thickness

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Effect of crystal structure
• Only BCC structure materials experience ductile to brittle transition
temperature.
be careful to select the service temperature.
• This is due to limited active slip systems operating at low
temperature.
very low plastic deformation.

• Increasing temperature allows

more slip systems to operate

more plastic deformation.
• FCC and HCP metals do not
experience ductile to brittle
transition, therefore they give the
same energy absorption at any
temperatures.

Relationship between energy absorption

and test temperature
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Effect of interstitial atom
• Carbon and manganese contents have been observed to
change the DBTT curve.

Carbon Smoother curve

content Become ductile at
Higher Transition temp higher temperature

Ex: in steel
• Mn: C ratio should be at least
3:1 to satisfy notch toughness.
• P, Si, Mo, O raise the transition
temperature while Ni is beneficial
to notch toughness.

Effects of carbon content on DBTT

curves for steel
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Effect of grain size
• Grain size has a strong effect on transition temperature.
Grain size Transition temperature

Small grain size

Absorbed energy, J
Large grain size

T3 T3
Temperature

• Reducing grain size shifts the DBTT curve to the left
has a
wider range of service temperatures.
• Heat treatments that provide grain refinement such as air
cooling, recrystallisation during hot working help to lower
transition temperature.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Effect of heat treatment

• Tempered martensitic
structure steel produces the
best combination of strength
and impact toughness.

Tempering temperature

Energy absorption

DBTT curves of different alloy steel, having tempered

martensitic structure
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Effect of specimen orientation
• For impact test, anisotropic properties are also observed in
rolled or forged products, giving different energy absorption
according to specimen orientations.

• Longitudinal (B) shows the

best energy absorption because
the crack propagation is across
the fibre alignment.
• Transverse (C) gives the worst
energy absorption because the
crack propagates parallel to the
rolling direction.

Effect of specimen orientation on DBTT curve

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Effect of specimen thickness
• Larger specimen size (in-service components) provides higher
constraint
more brittle.

If large size specimens are

used, the transition
temperature will increase.

Large scale tests

Effect of section thickness on
transition temperature

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Drop-weight test and other
large scale tests

• Several techniques have been developed to test

specimens with different sizes to suit the applications.
• The specimen thickness is at least 25 mm.

1) Explosion-crack starter test

2) Drop-weight test (DWT)
3) Dynamic-tear test (DT)
4) Robertson crack-arrest test

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Explosion crack starter test
• The plate was placed over a circular die and dynamically
loaded with an explosive charge.
• The brittle weld bead introduces a small natural crack in
the test plate.
• The test is carried out over a temperature range, giving
different fracture appearance.

NDT – nil ductility temperature

FTE – Fracture transition elastic
FTP – Fracture transition plastic

Plate dimensions : 350x350x25 mm3

Fracture appearance vs temperature
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Drop weight test

Robertson crack-
arrest test.

Dynamic tear test

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Embrittlement in metals

• Temper embrittlement
• Hydrogen embrittlement
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Liquid metal embrittlement
• Neutron embrittlement

Delayed fracture curve

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Reference

• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Chapter 13

Creep and stress rupture

Subjects of interest

• Objectives / Introduction
• The high temperature materials problem
• Temperature dependent mechanical behaviour
• Creep test
• Stress rupture test
• Structural change during creep
• Mechanisms of creep deformation
• Fracture at elevated temperature
• High temperature alloys

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Objectives

• This chapter provides the understanding of

deformation and fracture behaviour of material at high
temperature.
• Creep and stress rupture tests will be compared such
that the interpretation of test data will be discussed for
engineering applications. This will lead to the selection
of metal and alloys for desired uses at high
temperature.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Introduction
http://cheweb.tamu.edu/orgs

High temperature applications

www.bv.com
Subjected to high
stress at high
temperature

http://en.wikipedia.org
Oil refinery

Steam power plant www.ideas-eng.com

Steam turbine
used in power
plant

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Process plant May-Aug 2007

 High temperature materials problem

Temp • Atoms move faster
diffusion-controlled process.

This affects mechanical properties of materials.
• Greater mobility of dislocations (climb).
• Increased amount of vacancies.
• Deformation at grain boundaries.
• Metallurgical changes, i.e., phase transformation,
precipitation, oxidation, recrystallisation.

High temperature materials/alloys

• Improved high temperature strength.

• Good oxidation resistance.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 What is creep?
Creep occurs when a metal is subjected to a constant tensile
load at an elevated temperature.
Undergo a time-dependent
increase in length.

At which temperature that material will creep?

• Since materials have its own different melting point, each will creep
when the homologous temperature > 0.5.

Testing temperature
Homologous temp = > 0.5
Melting temperature

• The creep test measure the dimensional changes which occur

when subjected to high temperature.
• The rupture test measures the effect of temperature on the long-
time load bearing characteristics.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Creep test www.axelproducts.com

The creep test is carried out by applying

a constant load to a tensile specimen
maintained at a constant temperature,
(according to ASTM E139-70).

Creep test setting

Typical creep curve

www.twi.co.uk
Schematic creep test
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 The creep curve
A typical creep curve shows
three distinct stages with different
creep rates. After an initial rapid
elongation εo, the creep rate
decrease with time until reaching
the steady state.
The constant creep rate in the 1) Primary creep provides
second step represent the creep
rate of the material.
decreasing creep rate.
2) Secondary creep gives the
representing constant creep rate.
Typical creep curve showing three stages
of creep 3) Tertiary creep yields a rapid
Notes: B curve is obtained when the stress creep rate till failure.
rather than the load is maintained.

εo is instantaneous strain on loading which is partly recoverable

with time (anelastic) and partly nonrecoverable with time
(plastic).
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Three stages of creep

1) Primary creep is a period of

transient creep. The creep
resistance of the material
increases due to material
deformation. Predominate at low
temperature test such as in the
creep of lead at RT.
2) Secondary creep provides a
nearly constant creep rate. The
average value of the creep rate
during this period is called the
minimum creep rate.
3) Tertiary creep shows a rapid
increase in the creep rate due to
effectively reduced cross-sectional
area of the specimen.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Effect of stress on creep curves at
constant temperature

The shape of creep curve will slightly change according to

the applied stress at a constant temperature.

Applied stress Strain

Temp Creep rate

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 The stress rupture test
Creep test Stress rupture test
Load Low load high load
Creep rate minimum creep rate high creep rate
Test period 2000-10000 h 1000 h
Total strain 0.5% 50%
Strain gauge Good strain Simpler strain
measuring devices measuring devices
The rupture test in carried out in a similar manner to the creep test
but at a higher stress level until the specimen fails and the time at
failure is measured.
• Rupture strength and failure time are
plotted, normally showing a straight line.
• Changing of the slope indicates structural
changes in the material, i.e., transgranular

intergranular fracture, oxidation,
recrystallisation, grain growth, spheroidization,
precipitation.
Stress rupture- time
data on log-log scale • Direct application in design.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Structural changes during creep
There are three principal deformation
processes at elevated temperature.
1) Deformation by slip
• More slip systems operate at high temperature
• Slip bands are coarser and widely spaced.

2) Subgrain formation
• Creep deformation produces imhomoginiety
Creep rate and total strain especially around grain boundaries, allowing
relationship dislocations to arrange themselves into a
low-angle grain boundary. Easy for metals
Different creep rates result with high stacking false energy.
from changes in internal
structure of the materials with 3) Grain boundary sliding
creep rate and time. • Produced by shear process and promoted by
increasing temperature/or decreasing strain rate.
• Results in grain boundary folding or grain
boundary migration.
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Mechanisms of creep deformation
The chief creep deformation mechanisms can be grouped into;

1) Dislocation glide
Involves dislocation moving along slip planes and
overcoming barriers by thermal activation.
Occurs at high stress.
2) Dislocation creep
Involves dislocation movement to overcome
barriers by diffusion of vacancies or interstitials.

3) Diffusion creep
Involves the flow of vacancies and interstitials through
a crystal under the influence of applied stress.

4) Grain boundary sliding

Involves the sliding of grains past each other.

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 Deformation mechanism maps

• The various regions of the

map indicate the dominant
deformation mechanism for
the combination of stress and
temperature.
• At the boundary, two
mechanisms occur.

Simplified deformation mechanism map.

Note: G is the shear modulus

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Activated energy for steady-state creep
• Steady-state creep deformation predominates at
temperatures above 0.5Tm.

• Steady state creep can be expressed by

•
ε s = Ae −Q / RT Eq.1

Where Q = the activated energy for the rate-controlling process

A = the material structural constant
T = the absolute temperature
R = the universal gas constant
• The activated energy Q can be calculated by assuming the
temperature interval is small so that the creep mechanisms is not
expected to change. • •
A = ε 1 e Q / RT1 = ε 2 e Q / RT2
• •
R ln(ε 1 / ε 2 ) Eq.2
Q=
(1 / T2 − 1 / T1 )
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Superplasticity
•Superplasticity is the ability to withstand very large deformation in
tension without necking.
•Give elongation > 1000%.
•Materials with high strain rate sensitivity (m) at high temperature
(T>0.5Tm)
superplasticity
• Materials characteristics: fine grain size (<10 µm) with the
presence of second phase of similar strength to the matrix to
inhibit grain growth and to avoid extensive internal cavity formation.
• Grain boundary should be high angle and mobile to promote grain
boundary sliding and to avoid the formation of local stress
concentration respectively.

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Superplastic flow

The superplastic flow is given by

2
•
 σ  bD gb
ε = 10  
8
3
Eq.3 For grain boundary diffusion
E L

2
•
σ  D
ε = 2 × 10   2o
9
Eq.3 For lattice self-diffusion
E L

Where L is the mean linear intercept measure of grain size.

in this case n = 2,
m = 0.5

The predominant mechanism for superplasticity deformation is

grain-boundary sliding accommodated by slip.

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Fracture at elevated temperature
Transgranular fracture Temp Intergranular fracture
Slip planes are weaker Grain boundaries are
than grain boundaries weaker than slip planes.

Transgranular cleavage fracture

Grain boundary fracture

The formation of
intergranular crack by
grain boundary sliding
Transgranular microvoid coalescence
Note: at T just below Trecrys, ductility drops due to grain boundary
sliding
intergranular failure.
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 Equicohesive temperature
Grain

Strength
• Strength of GB = grain at the
equicohesive temperature (ECT).
Grain boundary

Strain rate ECT ECT Temp

Transgranular Intergranular
Increasing the tendency for fracture fracture

intergranular failure

• Below ECT small grain sized material

is stronger due to high density of grain
boundaries to improve strength.
• Above ECT large grain sized material
is stronger due to less tendency for
grain boundary sliding.
Note: Single crystal structure is therefore
appreciable for high temperature
applications, i.e., nickel base alloy single
crystal turbine blade. Fracture mechanism map for nickel
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 High temperature alloys
• High temperature alloys are complex in their microstructures
to obtain the required properties at service temperatures.
• High melting point alloys normally has high creep resistance.
• Metals with high stacking false energy
easy for slip
creep.
• Fine precipitates having high thermal stability are necessary for
high creep resistance (prevent grain growth). Ex: (1) Nickel base
alloy containing fine precipitates of intermetallic compounds Ni3Al,
NI3Ti or Ni3(Al,Ti), (2) Creep resistance steels containing fine
carbides VC, TiC, NbC, Mo2C or Cr23C6.

Drawbacks

• Difficult to fabricate by hot-working,

cold working or welding.
• Highly alloyed metals are difficult to
produced by precision casting.
Microstructure of nickel base alloy
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Composition of some high
temperature alloys

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 Presentation of engineering
creep data
Creep strength is defined as the stress at a given temperature,
which produces a steady-state creep rate (10-11 to 10-8 s-1.)

Stress vs minimum creep rate

• Log-log plot is used so that the extrapolation of one log-cycle

represents a tenfold change.
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 Creep data
Creep data can also be presented as a plot of stress and
time to produce different amounts of total strain.

• The upper most curve

is the stress rupture
curve.
• The percentage
beside each data point
is the percentage
reduction at failure.

Deformation time curve

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Example: Determine the working stress at 600oC and 800oC for type
316 stainless steel if the design criterion is a creep strength based on
1 percent extension in 1000 hr. Use a factor of safety of 3.

−5 −1 10 −5 −1
1% creep in 1000h = 10 h = s = 2.8 × 10 −9 s −1
3600

From stress and minimum

creep rate curve, the
working stress using the
safety factor of 3 can be
obtained in the table below.

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Example: For the stress-minimum creep rate curve, determine the
activation energy for creep at a stress of 100 MPa.

•
at T2 = 700 C = 973K ; ε 2 = 10 −8 s −1
o

•
at T2 = 800 C = 1073K ; ε 1 = 10 −5 s −1
o

From Eq.2

• •
R ln(ε 1 / ε 2 ) (8.3 Jmol −1 K −1 ) ln(10 3 )
Q= = = 599kJmol −1
(1 / T2 − 1 / T1 ) 1 / 973 − 1 / 1073

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Reference

• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.

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 Chapter 12

Fatigue of metals
Subjects of interest
• Objectives / Introduction
• Stress cycles
• The S-N curve
• Cyclic stress-strain curve
• Low cycle fatigue
• Structural features of fatigue
• Fatigue crack propagation
• Factors influencing fatigue properties
• Design for fatigue

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Objectives

• This chapter provides fundamental aspects of fatigue in

metals and the significance of fatigue failure.
• Different approaches for the assessment of fatigue
properties, i.e., fatigue S-N curve and fatigue crack growth
resistance will be introduced.
• Discussion will be made on factors influencing fatigue
properties of metals, for example, mean stress, stress
concentration, temperature
• Finally design against fatigue failure will be highlighted.

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 Introduction

Fatigue failure in a bolt

www.corrosionlab.com
Fatigue initiation

Beach mark

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 Introduction

www.btinternet.com

Fatigue failure occurs at the outer rim

of the wheel
Fatigue fracture area in a shaft
caused by corroded inside area

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 Introduction
Fatigue failures are widely studies
because it accounts for 90% of all service
failures due to mechanical causes.

Characteristics
mmd.sdsmt.edu
• Fatigue failures occur when metal is
subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating Failure of crankshaft journal
stress and will fail at a stress much lower
than its tensile strength.
• Fatigue failures occur without any plastic
deformation (no warning).
• Fatigue surface appears as a smooth
region, showing beach mark or origin of
fatigue crack.
www.capcis.co.uk

Fatigue failure of a bolt

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 Factors causing fatigue failure
Basic factors 1) A maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value.
2) A large amount of variation or fluctuation in the
applied stress.
3) A sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied
stress.

Additional factors
• Stress concentration • Residual stress
• Corrosion • Combined stress
• Temperature
• Overload
• Metallurgical structure

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 Stress cycles
Different types of fluctuating stress

σmax = - σmin
(a) Completely reversed cycle of (b) Repeated stress cycle
stress (sinusoidal)

Tensile stress +
Compressive stress -

(c ) Irregular or random stress cycle

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 Stress cycles
Maximum stress, σmax
Nomenclature of stress parameter
in fatigue loading Minimum stress, σmin
Stress range
+
∆σ or σ r = σ max − σ min Eq.1
σa
∆σ Alternating stress
∆σ σ max − σ min
σa = = Eq.2
σmax 2 2
σm
Mean stress

σmin σ max + σ min

σm = Eq.3
2
_ cycles
Stress ratio Amplitude ratio
σ min σ a 1− R
R= A= =
Fatigue stress cycle σ max σ m 1+ R
Eq.5
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Eq.4 May-Aug 2007
 The S-N curve
• Engineering fatigue data is
normally represented by means of
S-N curve, a plot of stress S
against the number of cycle, N.
• Stress can be
σa, σmax, σmin
• σm , R or A should be mentioned. Typical fatigue curves

• S-N curve is concerned chiefly with fatigue failure at high numbers

of cycles (N > 105 cycles)
high cycle fatigue (HCF).
• N < 104 or 105 cycles
low cycle fatigue (LCF).
• N increases with decreasing stress level.
• Fatigue limit or endurance limit is normally defined at 107
or 108 cycles. Below this limit, the material presumably can
endure an infinite number of cycle before failure.
• Nonferrous metal, i.e., aluminium, do not have fatigue limit

fatigue strength is defined at ~ 108 cycles.
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 Basquin equation

• The S-N curve in the high-cycle region is sometimes described by

the Basquin equation

Nσ ap = C Eq.6

Where σa is the stress amplitude

p and C are empirical constants

LCF
HCF High cycle (low strain) fatigue

Stress level
LCF Low cycle (high strain) fatigue HCF

Log Nf

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 Construction of S-N curve
• The construction of S-N curve normally requires ~ 8-12 specimens
by first testing at a high level of stress ~ 2/3 of the tensile strength of
the material.
• The test is then carried out at lower levels of stress until runout.
www.statisticalengineering.com

• The data obtained is normally

scattered at the same stress level
by using several specimens.
• This requires statistic approach
to define the fatigue limit.

S-N fatigue curve

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 Statistical nature of fatigue
• Because the S-N fatigue data is
normally scattered, it should be
therefore represented on a
probability basis.
• Considerable number of
specimens are used to obtain
statistical parameters.
• At σ1, 1% of specimens would be
expected to fail at N1 cycles.
Fatigue data on a probability basis
• 50% of specimens would be
Note: The S-N fatigue data is more
expected to fail at N2 cycles.
scattered at lower stress levels. Each
specimen has its own fatigue limit.
• For engineering purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to
assume a logarithmic normal distribution of fatigue life in
the region of the probability of failure of P = 0.10 to P = 0.90.
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 Effect of mean stress, stress range and stress
intensity (notch) on S-N fatigue curve
σm1 σloc
σm4 > σm3 > σm2> σm1 Kt =
σm2 σapp
R = 0.3
σm3
σa σmax σa
σm4 R=0
Kt = 1
R = -0.3
R = -1.0 Kt = 1.5

Log Nf Log Nf Log Nf

Mean stress Stress range Stress intensity

Fatigue strength Fatigue strength Fatigue strength

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Goodman diagram

Goodman diagram

• Goodman diagram shows the variation of the limiting range

of stress (σmax - σmin) on mean stress.
• As the mean stress becomes more tensile the allowable
range of stress is reduced.
• At tensile strength, σu , the stress range is zero.
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 Haig-Solderberg diagram

• In Haig-Solderberg diagram is
a plot of alternating stress σa and
mean stress σm.
• The Goodman relationship may
be expressed by

 σ 
x

σ a = σ e 1 −  m   Eq.7
  σ u  
Haig-Solderberg diagram
Where x = 1 for the Goodman line,
x = 2 for the Gerber parabola,
σe = the fatigue limit for completely reversed loading.

• If the design is based on the yield strength σo, (based on

Solderberg line), then the σu is replaced by σo in this equation.

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Master diagram for establishing influence
of mean stress in fatigue

Ex: at σmax = 400 MPa, σmin = 0, a fatigue limit of the notched

specimen is less than 106 cycles.
For the unnotched specimen is below the fatigue limit.
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 Example: A 4340 steel bar is subjected to a fluctuating axial load that
varies from a maximum of 330 kN tension to a minimum of 110 kN
compression. The mechanical properties of the steel are:
σu = 1090 MPa, σo = 1010 MPa, σe = 510 MPa
Determine the bar diameter to give infinite fatigue life based on
a safety factor of 2.5.

Cylindrical cross section of the bar = A, the variation of stress will be

0.330 0.110
σ max = MPa, σ min = − MPa
A A
σ + σ min 0.330 / A + (−0.110 / A) 0.110
σ mean = max = = MPa
2 2 A
σ − σ min 0.330 / A − (−0.110 / A) 0.220  σm 
σ a = max = = MPa σ = σ  1 − , σ =
510
= 204 MPa
2 2 A a e  σ  e
2.5
 u 

0.220 / A 0.110 / A
Using the conservative Goodman line = 1−
204 1090
and Eq.7.
A = 1179 mm 2
4A
D= = 38.7 mm
π
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Cyclic stress-strain curve
• Cyclic strain controlled fatigue occurs when the strain amplitude
is held constant during cycling.
• Found in thermal cycling where a component expands and
contracts in response to fluctuations in the operating temperature
or in reversed bending between fixed displacements.
• During the initial loading, the stress-strain curve
is O-A-B.
• Yielding begins on unloading in compression at a
lower stress C due to the Bauschinger effect.
• A hysteresis loop develops in reloading with its
dimensions of width, ∆ε and height ∆σ.
• The total strain range ∆ε consists of the elastic
strain component plus the plastic strain
component.
Stress strain loop for ∆ε = ∆ε e + ∆ε p Eq.8
constant strain cycling
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Cyclic hardening and cyclic softening

• Cyclic hardening
would lead to a
decreasing peak
strain with increasing
cycles. (n>0.15)
• Cyclic softening
would lead to a
continually increasing
strain range and early
fracture. (n<0.15)

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 Comparison of monotonic and cyclic
stress-strain curves of cyclic hardened
materials
• The cycle stress-strain curve may
be described by a power curve as
follows
∆σ = K (∆ε p )
' n'
Eq.9

Where n’ is the cyclic strain-hardening

exponent
K’ is the cyclic strength
coefficient
Since
strain amplitude ∆ε ∆ε e ∆ε p
= +
2 2 2
1 n'
Monotonic and cyclic stress-strain curves ∆ε ∆σ 1  ∆σ 
= +  
2 2E 2  K ' 

For metals n’ varies between 0.10 -0.20.

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Low cycle fatigue
• Low cycle fatigue (LCF) (high strain) is concerned about fatigue
failure at relatively high stress and low numbers of cycles to failure.
• Ex: in the nuclear pressure vessels, steam turbines and power
machinery. Usually concerned with cyclic strain rather than cyclic
stress.
• LCF data is normally present as a
• On the log scale, this relation
plot of strain range ∆εp against N.
can be best described by
∆ε p
= ε 'f (2 N ) c Eq.10
2
Where
∆εp/2 = plastic strain amplitude
ε’f = fatigue ductility coefficient
2N = number of strain reversals
to failure.
Low-cycle fatigue curve (∆εp vs. N).
c = fatigue ductility exponent
varies between -0.5 to -0.7.
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 Example: For the cyclic stress-strain curve, σB =75 MPa and
εB = 0.000645. If εf = 0.30 and E = 22x104 MPa.
Determine

(a) ∆εe and ∆εp

∆σ 2(75) −4
∆ε e = = = 6. 818 × 10
E 22 × 10 4
∆ε p = ∆ε − ∆ε e = (2 × 0.000645) − 0.0006818 = 6.082 × 10 − 4

(b) The number of cycles to failure.

∆ε p
From the Coffin-Manson relation = ε 'f (2 N ) c
2
If c = -0.6 and ef ~ e’f
6.082 × 10 − 4
= 0.30(2 N ) −0.6
2
N = 49,000 cycles

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 Strain-life equation
• For the high-cycle (low strain) fatigue (HCF) regime, where the
nominal strains are elastic, Basquin’s equation can be
reformulated to give
∆ε e
σa = E = σ 'f (2 N ) b
2 Eq.11

∆ε ∆ε e ∆ε p
= +
2 2 2
∆ε σ f
'

= (2 N ) b + ε 'f (2 N ) c
2 E
Where σa = alternate stress amplitude
∆εe/2 = elastic strain amplitude
E = Young’s modulus
σ ’f = fatigue strength coefficient defined by the stress
intercept at 2N=1.
2N = number of load reversals to failure (N = number of
cycles to failure)
b = fatigue strength exponent, which varies between –
0.05 and -0.12 for most metals.
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 Fatigue strain-life curve
Ductile materials
High cyclic strain condition

Strong materials

Low cyclic strain condition

The fatigue life value at which this

transition occurs is
1 (b −c )
 ε 'f E 
2Nt =  '  Eq.12
σ 
 f 

The fatigue strain-life curve

• tends toward the plastic curve at large total strain amplitudes
• tends toward the elastic curve at small total strain amplitudes.

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Structural features of fatigue
The fatigue process can be divided into the following processes;

1) Crack initiation: the early development of fatigue damage

(can be removed by a suitable thermal anneal).
2) Slip band crack growth: the deepening of the initial crack on
plane of high shear stress (stage I crack growth)
3) Crack growth on planes of high tensile stress: growth of
well-defined crack in direction normal to maximum tensile stress
4) Ultimate ductile failure: occurs when the crack reaches
sufficient length so that the remaining cross section cannot
support the applied load.

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 Initiation of fatigue crack and slip
band crack growth (stage I)

• Fatigue cracks are normally initiated at a free surface. Slip lines

are formed during the first few thousand cycles of stress.
• Back and forth fine slip movements of fatigue could build up notches
or ridges at the surface.
act as stress raiser
initiate crack.

Extrusion
Intrusion
• In stage I, the fatigue crack tends to
propagate initially along slip planes
(extrusion and intrusion of persistent
ix

slip bands) and later take the direction

atr
dm

PSB PSB
de ely
me

normal to the maximum tensile stress

un lativ
for
Re

(stage II).
• The crack propagation rate in stage I
Model for fatigue initiation by is generally very low on the order of
extrusions and intrusions
caused by cyclic slip during
nm/cycles
giving featureless
fatigue loading. surface.
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 Stable crack growth (stage II)
Crack closed

Crack opening

Crack at
maximum
load

Crack closing
Fatigue striations
Crack closed

• The fracture surface of stage II crack Plastic blunting model of fatigue striation
propagation frequently shows a pattern of
• Crack tip blunting occurs
ripples or fatigue striations.
during tensile load at 45o and
• Each striation is produced by a single crack grows longer by plastic
stress cycle and represents the shearing.
successive position of an advancing crack • Compression load reverses the
front normal to the greatest tensile stress. slip direction in the end zones

crushing the crack surface to form
a resharpened crack tip.
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 Fatigue crack propagation
Stage I Non-propagating fatigue crack (~0.25nm/cycle)
Fatigue crack
Stage II Stable fatigue crack propagation- widely study
propagation
Stage III Unstable fatigue crack propagation
failure

• For design against fatigue failure, fracture

mechanics is utilised to monitor the fatigue crack
growth rate in the stage II Paris regime.
da
= A(∆K )
m

Crack length, a
Eq.13 dN Monolithic

• Where the fatigue crack growth rate

da/dN varies with stress intensity
factor range ∆K, which is a function of
stress range ∆σ and crack length a. ao

∆K = K max − K min Number of cycles to failure

Eq.14
∆K = σ max πa − σ min πa
FCG curve
A log scale plot gives Paris exponent m as the slope
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 Fatigue crack propagation
Stage I Non-propagating fatigue crack (~0.25nm/cycle)
Fatigue crack
propagation Stage II Stable fatigue crack propagation- widely study
Stage III Unstable fatigue crack propagation
failure

Non continuum Continuum behaviour Static mode of

behaviour (striations) or transition behaviour

Fatigue crack growth rate da/dN (log scale)

from non continuum (cleavage,
Large influence of behaviour with intergranular and
• microstructure Small to large influence of dimples)
• mean stress • microstructure, Large influence of
• environment depending on the • microstructure
material • mean stress
• thickness
Large influence of
• certain combination of Little influence of
environment, mean stress • environment
and frequency
Non propagating

Unstable crack growth

fatigue cracks

1 da
= a(∆K )
m

dN
for linear portion

∆Kth

Stage I Stage II Stage III

Fatigue crack
Stress intensity factor range, ∆K (log scale) growth behaviour
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 Fatigue crack growth propagation in
stage II regime
Stage II fatigue crack growth propagation has been widely investigated
in order to determine the fatigue crack growth life from the
representing stable fatigue crack growth rate.

da m
= A(∆K )
m 1e-1

dN da/dN R = Pmin/Pmax = 0.1

Frequency = 0.25 Hz
1e-2
The fatigue crack growth TIMET bar III
m = 2.02

life Nf (stage II) can be

da/dN, mm/cycle
BuRTi EBW01
m = 9.05
1e-3
determined by BuRTi EBW02
m = 2.35
Nf Ti679-BuRTi-TI679 TIG01
m = 6.84
1e-4
Nf = ∫ dN
0
Ti679-BuRTi-Ti679 TIG02
m = 10.18

1e-5
a −f ( m / 2 ) +1 − ai−( m / 2 ) +1
Nf = Eq.15
(−(m / 2) + 1) Aσ π m
r
m/2
α m
1e-6
1 10 100
where m≠2 ∆K, MPa.m
1/2

α is the crack geometry factor

Fatigue crack growth in base metal and welded materials
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Example: A mild steel plate is subjected to constant amplitude uniaxial
fatigue loads to produce stresses varying from σmax = 180 MPa to
σmin = -40 MPa. The static properties of the steel are σo = 500 MPa,
σu = 600 MPa, E = 207 MPa, and Kc = 100 MPa.m1/2. If the plate contains
an initial through thickness edge crack of 0.5 mm, how many fatigue
cycles will be required to break the plate?

For through thickness edge crack, α = 1.12, and for ferritic-pearlitic

steels, A = 6.9 x 10-12 MPam1/2 and m = 3.0.
σr = (180-0), since compressive stress are ignored, and neglect the
influence of mean stress on the crack growth.
2 2
1  Kc  1  100 
ai = 0.0005 m, a f =   =   = 0.078 m
π  σ maxα  π  180 × 1.12 
From Eq.15
a −f ( m / 2 ) +1 − ai− ( m / 2 ) +1
Nf =
(−(m / 2) + 1) Aσ rmπ m / 2α m
(0.078) −(3 / 2 ) +1 − (0.0005) −( 3 / 2 ) +1
Nf = −12
= 261,000 cycles
(−(3 / 2) + 1)(6.9 × 10 )(180) (π ) (1.12)
3 3/ 2 3

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 P/2 P/2

S-N curve fracture surfaces

• S-N curve test involves crack initiation and crack 20 mm

propagation to failure.
overall fatigue life. 40 mm

• Fatigue testing normally uses plain specimens of

Crack
different specimen surface conditions, i.e., polished, length a
ground, machined, etc. under tension or bending.
• Crack initiation might be due to inclusions, second Corner
phases, porosity, defects. crack

Porosity
Fractured
carbides

Fatigue crack initiation Fatigue crack

from porosity initiation from
inclusion/particle.
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 Chapter 11

Fracture mechanics
Subjects of interest

• Introduction/ objectives
• Stress intensity factor
• Determination of fracture toughness
• Fracture toughness and design
• Plasticity correction
• Crack opening displacement
• R curve
• Probabilistic aspects of fracture mechanics

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Objectives

• This chapter provides fundamental backgrounds of

fracture mechanics and its use for the understanding of
brittle fracture.
• Different approaches used for determining fracture
toughness of materials will be discussed.
• The application of fracture mechanics are emphasised
for the selection of materials for the required applications.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Introduction
σ
Griffith proposed that an existing 12
 2 Eγ s 
crack will propagate when the σf = 
released elastic strain energy is at  π a 
2a
least equal to the energy required Eq.1
to create the new crack surface.
Griffith
σ crack model

• Irwin later modified the Griffith theory by replacing 1

 EG  2
the term 2γp with the potential strain energy σf = 
release rate G , giving the expression as follows;  πa  Eq.2

• Irwin showed that G is measurable and can be

related to the stress intensity factor, K, obtained
from the sharp crack fracture toughness test. Fracture
• The critical condition to which the crack mechanics
propagates to cause global failure is when this G
value exceeds the critical value, G.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Stress intensity factor
In mode I failure and plane-strain condition, the relationship
between GIC and KIC can be shown by an expression as follows;
2
K IC (1 − υ 2 )
G IC = Eq.3
E
Where KIC is the critical stress intensity
factor for mode I failure.

Crack deformation mode. Mode I: tension, Mode II: In plane shear, Mode III: Out of plane
opening sliding shear, tearing
Fracture modes

Note: K value can be evaluated using standard experimental

approaches, which is much more readily than values of G.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Stress intensity factor
Stress intensity factor KIC can be
described as fracture toughness 1) brittle fracture
of materials (material resistance 2) in the presence of a sharp crack
to crack propagation) under 3) under critical tensile loading
conditions of
K IC = ασ app πa c Eq.4

Where
KIC is the critical stress intensity factor for
plane strain condition in mode I failure.
ac is the critical crack length in an infinite plate
σapp is the applied stress
α is a parameter dependent on specimen and
crack geometry
Crack deformation mode
LEFM – Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
K values of various crack geometries

σ σ
Through thickness crack Edge crack
a
(a) 2a K = σ app πa (d)
K = 1.12σ app πa
σ σ

σ σ
Semi circular crack Corner crack
(b) 2a K = 0.6σ app πa (e)
a K = 0.8σ app πa
σ
σ

σ
Semi elliptical crack
(c) 2a
K = 0.8σ app πa
σ

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Determination of fracture toughness
Fracture toughness of material can be determined
according to LEFM analysis
1) KIC fracture toughness
works well for very high strength materials.

exhibiting brittle fracture
2) Crack tip opening displacement CTOD
Used for lower strength materials (σo < 1400 MPa),
exhibiting small amount of plastic deformation
before failure.
3) J-integral (JIC)
Used for lower strength materials, exhibiting small
amount of plastic deformation before failure.

4) R-curve
The resistance to fracture of a material during slow
and stable crack propagation.
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KIC fracture toughness
KIC fracture toughness of material is obtained by determining
the ability of material to withstand the load in the presence of
a sharp crack before failure.
• Fracture toughness is required in
the system of high strength and
σ light weight, i.e., high strength
steels, titanium and aluminium
alloys.

EX:

Crack propagation direction

σ
Fracture toughness
How long the
existing crack will grow until the
specimen fails
Flaw geometry and design of
cylindrical pressure vessel
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 Stress distribution in the presence
of a crack
The stress distribution in a thin plate for an elastic solid in terms of
the coordinates (fig) is given by 12
 a   θ θ 3θ 
σx =σ  cos 1 − sin sin 
 2r   2 2 2 
12
 a   θ θ 3θ 
σ y = σ   cos 1 + sin sin 
 2r   2 2 2 
12
 2  θ θ 3θ 
σ z = σ   sin cos cos 
 2r   2 2 2 Eq.5

Where σ is gross nominal stress = P/wt

for a > r > ρ.
For an orientation directly ahead of the
Model for equations for stresses crack tip (θ = 0)
at a point near a crack
12
 a 
σ x = σ y = σ   ,τ xy = 0
 2r  Eq.6

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Stress distribution in the presence
of a crack

• High local stress

intensity is present in front
of the sharp crack.

stress concentration
leading to brittle failure.
• σz is strongly dependent
on specimen thickness and
is negligible in thin
specimen (plane stress).

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Determination of KIC fracture toughness

• KIC – the critical stress intensity in mode I fracture

• Need to make sure that the specimen is tested under mode I
fracture and in a plane strain condition
brittle condition.

1) Validation of KIC fracture toughness values

2) Specimen preparation
3) Testing procedure
4) Calculation of KIC value

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Validation of KIC value
• Due to the criterion for brittle fracture
• Since the stress distribution in the presence of the notch, the plane
under the notch varies due to strain condition, is required for the
specimen thickness, which also validation of fracture toughness KIC
affect toughness of materials values.
2
of different test specimen  K IC 
B, W − a o , a o ≥ 2.5  Eq.7
dimensions.  σo 
Where B is specimen thickness
W is specimen width
ao is the original crack length
W-ao is the ligament
σo is the yield strength
Compact tension
specimen

Effect of specimen thickness on Bend

stress and mode of fracture specimen
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 Different specimen
Specimen preparation dimensions

• Select the specimen dimensions.

• Select the crack propagation direction.
• Fatigue pre-cracking by applying
fatigue load at a controlled condition of
small load and amplitude to obtain a sharp
fatigue pre-crack to ensure high stress
distribution ahead of the crack tip. Notch
Fatigue
precrack
Example of fracture
toughness specimen

Crack tip
Stress distribution
Directions of crack propagation ahead of fatigue pre-
crack Distance
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 Test procedure for KIC
fracture toughness
• A pre-cracked specimen is arranged and
monotonically loaded until failure.
• Load and clip gauge displacement are
recorded during loading to give a graph,
which will be used for calculation.

Three-point
bend
arrangement for
fracture
toughness test

Load-clip gauge displacement curves

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Calculation of KIC fracture toughness
Fracture toughness KQ is calculated using the following expression (for a
bend specimen). Where P is the load
PS a S is the span length
KQ = × f  
BW 1.5 W  B is the specimen thickness
Eq.8 W is the specimen width
For bend specimen
f(a/W) is the compliance function
12 
 a o    fa oao = 2.9 aoa o−4.6 ao  + 21
 a.8o ao  − 37.6 aoa o + 38.7 ao   a o  
12 32 32 52
52 72 72 92 92

f   = 2.9  W − 4.W 6   W + 21.8  W  − 37.6 W    + 38 W .7  

    
W W  W  
W  
W   
W Eq.9

1  a1 + a9 i =8 
a0 =  + ∑ ai 
8 2 i =2 
ao
Eq.10
W
If the KQ value
obtained from Eq.8 is
verified according to
Compliance function depending Eq 7,
KIC.
on the crack length
B
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Typical values of KIC

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Fracture toughness and design
• If the KIC value of material is known and the presence of
a crack is allowed, we can then monitor the crack propagation
during service prior to failure.
How long we can use the
component before it fails.
• Crack in the component (in service) can be detected by
using Non Destructive Testing (NDT), i.e., ultrasonic, dye-
penetrant, X-ray, Eddy current, ferromagnetic inspection.

K IC = ασ app πa c Eq.11

• From equation and figure, we can design

the allowable stress σ at the presence of
a given crack length a without failure.

Relation between fracture

toughness and allowable stress EX: Crack observed
and crack size in pressure vessel
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Example: The stress intensity for a partial-through thickness flaw
is given by K = σ πa sec πa / 2t where a is the depth of flaw
penetration through a wall thickness t. If the flaw is 5 mm deep in
a wall 12 mm thick, determine whether the wall will support a
stress of 172 MPa if it is made from 7075-T6 aluminium alloy.

KIC of 7075-T6 Al alloy = 24 MPa.m1/2,

a = 5 x 10-3 m
t = 12 x 10-3 m
πa π (5 × 10 −3 ) 1
sec = sec = sec 0.6545 = = 1.260
2t (
2 12 × 10 −3 ) cos 0.6545

K IC 24 24
σ= = = = 171 MPa
πa sec πa / 2t π (5 × 10 −3
) 1.260 0.01979

But the applied stress is 172 MPa.m1/2. The flaw will therefore
propagate as a brittle fracture.

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Example: A thin-wall pressure vessel is made from Ti-6Al-4V with KIC = 57
MPa.m1/2 and σo = 900 MPa. The internal pressure produces a circumferential
hoop stress of 360 MPa. The crack is a semi-elliptical surface crack orientated with
the major plane of the crack perpendicular to the uniform tensile hoop stress, see
fig. For this type of loading and geometry the stress intensity factor is given by
1.21aπσ 2 a = surface crack,
KI =
2
σ = the applied nominal stress
Q
Q = φ2-0.212(σ/σo)2

σ 360
= = 0.4
σ 0 900

For a 12 mm wall-
thickness, we will find
out the critical crack
ac that causes
rupture. If 2a=2c,
then Q = 2.35.

Note: K I2 Q (57) 2 (2.35)

ac = = = 15.5mm
ac (15.5 mm) > wall thickness (12 mm), 1.21πσ 2
1.21π (360) 2

leak before failure

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 If the crack is very elongate, e.g., a/2c = 0.05, then Q = 1.0,
and the critical crack length ac is now 6.6 mm.

K I2 Q (57) 2 (1.0)
ac = = = 6.6 mm
1.21πσ 2 1.21π (360) 2

In this case the vessel would fracture

when the crack had propagated about
half-way through the wall thickness

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 Variables affecting fracture toughness K
80 2000

• Metallurgical factors

Fracture toughness, MPa.m1/2

0.2% Yield stress, MPa

60 1500

- Microstructure, inclusions, impurities

40 1000
- Composition
- Heat treatment 20 500
- Thermo-mechanical processing Fracture toughness, KQ
0.2% Yield stress
0 0
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500

• Test conditions o
Temperature, C

-Temperature
- Strain rate Temp
- Specimen thickness Strain rate KIC
Specimen
thickness

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 Plasticity correction
From r
rp, σy > σo In the presence of a sharp crack, the
• In reality, yielding occurs and is plastic zone size ahead of the crack
not allowed in the shaded area. tip varies dependent on the sharpness
of the crack tip and the state of
• This is compensated by stresses.
extending the plastic zone to be
larger than rp. Plane stress
1 K2
rp =
2π σ o2
Eq.12
Plane strain
1 K2
rp =
6π σ o2
Von Mise Tresca Eq.13
Plastic zone ahead of the crack tip

Dugdale’s model of
Estimation of plastic zone size
plastic zone
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 Crack tip opening displacement
(CTOD)
For materials that exhibit certain
extent of plasticity before failure.
The crack-tip displacement concept
considers that the material ahead of the
crack contains a series of miniature
tensile specimen having a gauge
length l and a width w. Model of crack-tip displacement

Under stable crack growth Under unstable crack growth

Failure of specimen near the crack Specimen near the crack tip
tip does not immediately causes fails first and immediately
failure in the adjacent one.
need causes the adjacent one crack
to increase the load to further further.
occur under
propagate the crack.
controllable decreasing stress.

stable.

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 Determination of CTOD

CTOD, δ , can be determined using

the clip gauge which give an
indirect measurement of
displacement at the crack tip δ .

• If the origin of the

Specimen test arrangement
measurement at the centre of
a crack of length 2a then,
4σ
CTOD = δ = (2arp )1 2
E Eq.14

Where σ is the applied stress

rp is the plastic zone size
E is the Young’s modulus

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 J-integral
• J-integral is a more comprehensive approach to
fracture mechanics of lower-strength ductile
materials.
• J-integral can be interpreted as the potential
energy difference between two identically loaded Physical interpretation of
specimens having slightly different crack lengths. the J integral

• Testing is carried out in a similar manner to fracture toughness KIC

but using a series of identical specimens (the multi-specimen
approach) or a single specimen.
12
Three point Compact tension  2a  2  2a    2a 
α =   + 2  + 2 − + 1
bend specimen specimen  b   b    b 
2A 2 A  (1 + α ) 
J= J=  
Eq.17
Bb Eq.15 Bb  (1 + α 2  Eq.16

Where A = area under load-displacement curve

B = specimen thickness Specimen
b = unbroken ligament (W-a) dimensions
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J-integral
J-integral data is represented as a crack-resistance curve,
J vs ∆a, fig (a).

The blunting line is drawn from the origin through the curve where
J = 2σ flow (∆a) Eq.18

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 R-curve
• The R curve characterises the resistance to fracture of a material
during slow and stable crack propagation as the plastic zone grows as
the crack extends from a sharp notch.
• An R curve is a graphical representation of the resistance to
crack propagation R versus crack length a.

• Irwin suggested that failure ∂G / ∂a

(unstable crack growth) will occur ∂R / ∂a
∂G ∂R
=
when the rate of change of strain- ∂a ∂a

energy release rate ∂G / ∂a equals

the rate of change in resistance to
crack growth ∂R / ∂a .
∂G ∂R
= Eq.19
∂a ∂a
(a) R-curve for a ductile material,
(b) R-curve for a brittle material.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Probabilistic aspects of fracture
mechanics
• Failures of brittle materials normally give a high variability of
results which requires statistic analysis.
Ex: The fracture stress values can be achieved at different values.
• If specimen is divided into small elements
each having a crack of different sizes, the
strength of the material is determined by
the element with the longest crack
(weakest-link concept) not by the
average values of the distribution of flaws.

The initial crack size must be assumed to be

the largest crack size that can be expected
to be undetected by non destructive
inspection and the fracture toughness might Calculated frequency distribution of
fracture stress as a function of number
be assumed to be the lowest possible value of cracks N
to be expected in the material.

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Toughness of materials
The role of metallurgical variables on toughness of materials.

Strength Toughness
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Toughness of materials

To obtain material with high toughness

• Small and rounded particles
reduce pileup stress.

• Should be widely spaced
proper volume fraction.
• Inclusions should be avoid, or large widely spaced
inclusions are less damaging.
• Fine grain size
minimise dislocation pileup stress.
• High crack deflection
more energy absorb during
fracture.

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References

• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
• Sanford, R.J., Principles of fracture mechanics, 2003,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey, ISBN 0-13-092992-1.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007