ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – I
MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Marks Allotted (10 %) ( 05 Periods)

1) Need for Multistage Amplifier

2) Gain of Multistage Amplifier

3) Different Types of Multistage Amplifiers

i. RC Coupled Multistage Amplifier with Frequency Response

& Bandwidth

ii. Transformer Coupled Multistage Amplifier with Frequency

Response & Bandwidth

iii. Direct Coupled Multistage Amplifier with Frequency

Response & Bandwidth

Practical
1) Plot the Frequency Response of Two Stage RC Coupled

Amplifier and Calculate the Bandwidth and Compare it with

Single Stage Amplifier.

 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – II

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

Marks Allotted (12%) (06 Periods)

1) Difference between Voltage and Power Amplifiers

2) Importance of Impedance Matching in Amplifiers

3) Class A, Class B, Class AB, and Class C Amplifiers, Collector

Efficiency and Distortion in Class A,B,C

4) Single Ended Power Amplifiers, Graphical Method of

Calculation (without derivation) of Output Power

5) Heat Dissipation Curve and Importance of Heat Sinks.

6) Push-Pull Amplifier, and Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull

Amplifier

Practical
2) To measure the Gain of Push-Pull Amplifier at 1KHz.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – III

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIERS
Marks Allotted (16%) ( 08 Periods)
1) Basic Principles and Types of Feedback

2) Derivation of expression for Gain of an Amplifier employing

Feedback

3) Effect of Feedback (Negative) on Gain, Stability, Distortion and

Bandwidth of an Amplifier

4) RC Coupled Amplifier with emitter bypass Capacitor

5) Emitter Follower Amplifier and its Application

Practical
3) To measure the Voltage Gain of Emitter Follower Circuit and Plot

its Frequency Response.

 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – IV

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
Marks Allotted (12%) (06 Periods)
1) Use of Positive Feedback

2) Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillations

3) Different Oscillator Circuits with Their Working Principle (No

Mathematical derivation but only Simple Numerical Problems)

I. Tuned Collector Oscillator

II. Hartley Oscillator

III. Colpitts Oscillator

IV. Phase Shift Oscillator

V. Wien’s Bridge Oscillator

VI. Crystal Oscillator

Practical
4) Plot the Frequency Response Curve of Hartley and Colpitt’s
Oscillator.
5) Plot the Frequency Response Curve of Phase Shift and Wein
Bridge Oscillator.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – V

TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Marks Allotted (08 %) (04 Periods)

1) Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits and Bandwidth of

Resonant Circuits.

2) Single and Double Tuned Voltage Amplifiers and Their

Frequency Response Characteristics

 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – VI

MULTI - VIBRATOR CIRCUITS

Marks Allotted (16 %) (07 Periods)

1) Working Principle of Transistor as Switch

2) Concept of Multi-Vibrator:

I. Astable Multi-Vibrator and Applications

II. Monostable Multi-Vibrator and Applications

III. Bistable Multi-Vibrator and Applications

3) Block Diagram of IC555 and its Working and Applications

I. IC555 as Monostable Multi-Vibrator

II. IC555 as Astable Multi-Vibrator

III. IC555 as Bistable Multi-Vibrator

Practical
6) Use of IC 555 as Monostable Multivibrator and Observe the
Output for different values of RC.
7) Use of IC 555 as Astable Multivibrator and Observe the Output at
different duty cycles.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – VII
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Marks Allotted (16 %) (07 Periods)
1) Characteristics of an Ideal Operational Amplifier and its Block
Diagram
2) IC-741 and its Pin Configuration

3) Definitions :
I. Differential Voltage Gain
II. CMRR

III. PSRR

IV. Slew Rate

V. Input Offset Current

4) Applications of Operational Amplifier

I. Operational Amplifier as an Inverter,

II. Operational Amplifier as Scale Changer,

III. Operational Amplifier as Adder

IV. Operational Amplifier as Subtractor

V. Operational Amplifier as Differentiator

VI. Operational Amplifier as Integrator

 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

Practical
8) To use IC 741 (Op-Amplifier) as

a. Inverter,

b. Adder,

c. Subtractor

d. Integrator

Class Project: Fabricate any Simple Operational Amplifier

Circuit (Inverter, Adder, Subtractor etc.) and test it.

 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

UNIT – VIII

REGULATED DC POWER
SUPPLIES
Marks Allotted (10 %) (05 Periods)

1) Concept of DC Power Supply

2) Line and Load Regulation

3) Concept of Fixed Voltage Regulator using IC 7805 & 7905

4) Variable Voltage Regulator using IC 723

Practical
9) To Realize Positive and Negative Fixed Voltage DC Power Supply

using three terminal Voltage Regulator IC ( 7805, 7812, 7905)

 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

PRACTICALS
1) Plot the Frequency Response of Two Stage RC Coupled

Amplifier and Calculate the Bandwidth and Compare it with

Single Stage Amplifier.

2) To measure the Gain of Push-Pull Amplifier at 1KHz.

3) To measure the Voltage Gain of Emitter Follower Circuit and Plot

its Frequency Response.

4) Plot the Frequency Response Curve of Hartley and Colpitt’s

Oscillator.

5) Plot the Frequency Response Curve of Phase Shift and Wein

Bridge Oscillator.

6) Use of IC 555 as Monostable Multivibrator and Observe the

Output for different values of RC.

7) Use of IC 555 as Astable Multivibrator and Observe the Output at

different duty cycles.

8) To use IC 741 (Op-Amplifier) as

I. Inverter,

II. Adder,

III. Subtractor

IV. Integrator
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS

9) To Realize Positive and Negative Fixed Voltage DC Power

Supply using three terminal Voltage Regulator IC ( 7805, 7812,

7905)

Class Project: Fabricate any Simple Operational Amplifier

Circuit (Inverter, Adder, Subtractor etc.) and test it.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 1 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
1. Gain: Gain is a measure of the ability of a two-port circuit (Like an amplifier) to
increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the output port by
adding energy converted from some power supply to the signal.
It is defined as the ratio of the output signal ( amplitude or power) to input Signal
(amplitude or power ) . The gain is always greater than one.
Voltage Gain: It is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage of the Amplifier.
Av = Vo / VIN
Current Gain: It is the ratio of output current to input current. of the
Amplifier.
AI = IO / IIN
Power Gain : It is the ratio of out Power to input Power of the Amplifier .
AP = Po / PIN
2. Frequency Response of Amplifier : The graph / Plot between
Frequency and gain of the Amplifier is known as Frequency Response of the
Amplifier.

3. Bandwidth of Amplifier: Bandwidth of an amplifier is defined as the range

(band) of frequency over which the gain is greater than 70.7% of the maximum
gain.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 2 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER
 Multistage Amplifier: An amplifier formed by connecting several amplifiers in
cascaded arrangement such that output of one amplifier connected to the input of
second stage amplifier and output of the second stage connected to input of the
third stage through a suitable coupling and so on… This of configuration is known
as multistage amplifier.

 Need of multistage amplifier : For faithful amplification amplifier should have

desired voltage gain, current gain and it should match its input impedance with the
source and output impedance with the load. Many times these primary requirements
of the amplifier cannot be achieved with single stage amplifier, because of the
limitation of the transistor/FET parameters. In such situations more than one
amplifier stages are cascaded such that input and output stages provide impedance
matching requirements with some amplification and remaining middle stages
provide most of the amplification.
We can say that:
1. When the amplification of a single stage amplifier is not sufficient, or,
2. When the input or output impedance is not of the correct magnitude, for a
particular application
Two or more amplifier stages are connected in cascade. Such amplifier, with two or
more stages is also known as multistage amplifier.
 GAIN of Two Stage Cascaded Amplifier
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 3 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Vi1 is the input of the first stage and Vo2 is the output of second stage. So,Vo2 / Vi1 is
the overall voltage gain of two stage amplifier.

 GAIN of n-Stage Cascaded Amplifier

Voltage gain :
The resultant voltage gain of the multistage amplifier is the product of voltage gains
of the individual stages.
Av = Av1. Av2 Av3 ..... Avn
 Gain of Multistage Amplifier in dB : In many situations, It is found very
convenient to compare two powers on logarithmic scale rather than on a linear
scale. The unit of this logarithmic scale is called decibel (abbreviated dB). The
number N decibels by which a power P2 exceeds the power P1 is defined by

Decibel, dB denotes power ratio. Negative values of number of dB means that the
power P2 is less than the reference power P1 and positive value of number of dB
means the power P2 is greater than the reference power P1.
For an amplifier, P1 may represent input power, and P2 may represent output
power. Both can be given as
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 4 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Where Ri and RO are the input and output impedances of the amplifier respectively.
Then,

If the input and output impedances of the amplifier are equal i.e. Ri = Ro= R, then

The gain of a multistage amplifier can be easily calculated if the gain of the
individual stages are known in dB, as shown below
20 log10 Av = 20 log10 Avl + 20 log10 Av2 + …… + 20 log10Avn
Thus, the overall voltage gain in dB of a multistage amplifier is the sum of
decibel voltage gains of the individual stages. It can be given as
Av dB = Avl dB + Av2 dB + …... +. Avn.Db

 Advantages of Representation of Gain in Decibels: Logarithmic scale is

preferred over linear scale to represent voltage and power gains because of the
following reasons :
1. In multistage amplifiers, it permits to add individual gains of the stages to
calculate overall gain.
2. It allows us to denote, both very small as well as very large quantities of linear,
scale by considerably small figures.
For example, voltage gain of 0.0000001 can be represented as -140 dB and
voltage gain of 1,00,000 can be represented as 100 dB.
3. Many times output of the amplifier is fed to loudspeakers to produce sound
which is received by the human ear. It is important to note that the ear
responds to the sound intensities on a proportional or logarithmic scale rather
than linear scale. Thus use of dB unit is more appropriate for representation of
amplifier gains.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 5 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Type of Multistage Amplifiers

 According to the components used for coupling, there are following types of
multistage amplifiers.
1) Resistance- Capacitance Coupled (RC) Amplifier
2) Transformer coupled Amplifier
3) Directly coupled (DC) Amplifier
1. Resistance- Capacitance Coupled (RC) Amplifier : R-C Coupled
Amplifier is amplifier in which Resistance Capacitance components are used as
coupling to connect several stages of Amplifier is known as Resistance-
Capacitance Coupled (RC) Amplifier.
Circuit Diagram: The figure shows Two Stage RC coupled transistor
amplifiers.

Circuit Detail:
i. The circuit consists of two single stage common emitter (CE) transistor
amplifiers.
ii. The capacitor Cin is used to couple the input signal Vin to base of
transistor Q1, while capacitor Cout is used to couple the output signal from
the collector of Q2 to load RL.
iii. Resistor R1 & R1', R2 & R2' and are used for biasing of transistors.
iv. Resisters Re & Re' are used to stabilize the operating point.
v. Resistor RC is used for amplification and capacitor Cc acts as coupling
components between output of first stage and the input of second stage.
vi. The capacitor Ce connected at the emitter of Q1 and Q2 are needed
because they bypass the emitter to ground.
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MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Working:
i. When an A.C signal is applied to the input of the first stage, it is amplified
by a transistor and appears across the collector resistor(R C). This signal is
given to the input of second stage, through coupling capacitor C C.
ii. The second stage does further amplification of the signal.
iii. In this way, the cascaded stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is
equal to product of the individual stage gains.
i.e. A = A1 × A2
Where,
A = Overall gain of two stage RC coupled amplifier
A1 = Gain of first stage
A2 = Gain of second stage
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier: Frequency
response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain
and function of frequency.
The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the following
graph.

From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases
for the frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz.
whereas the voltage gain for the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20
KHz is constant.
We know that,
XC = 1 / 2π f C
It means that Capacitive Reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 7 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz):

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low
frequencies, the reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor
Cin and the coupling capacitor CC are so high that only small part of the input
signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass capacitor C E is also very
high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistance
effectively. With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz) :
Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low
at high frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high
frequencies. As a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage increases,
which reduces the voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter
diode decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor due to which the
current gain (β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.
At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz):
The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of
frequencies, as shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the
capacitor CC decreases which tends to increase the gain. But this lower
capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of the next stage by which
there is a reduction in gain.
Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant at Mid-
Frequencies.
Advantages of R-C Coupled Amplifier:
i. R-C Coupled Amplifier have Wide ( Good ) frequency response.
ii. The circuit is very compact.
iii. It use most convenient way of coupling.
iv. It is less expensive .
v. It provides less frequency distortion.
Disadvantages:
i. Overall voltage and power gain of R-C Coupled Amplifier is low.
ii. It has a tendency to become noisy with age.
iii. It has poor impedance matching.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 8 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Applications:
i. It is used in P. A. System.
ii. It is used in T.V.
iii. It is used in VCR .
iv. It is used in CD players.
2. Transformer Coupled Amplifier: Transformer Coupled Amplifier is
amplifier in which Transformers are used as coupling to connect several stages
of Amplifier is known as Transformer Coupled Amplifier.
Circuit Diagram: Figure shows two-stage transformer coupled transistor
amplifier.

Circuit Details:
i. The Circuit Diagram consists of two transistors Q1 and Q2 used in CE
configuration.
ii. Resistor R1 & R1', R2 & R2' and are used for biasing of transistors.
iii. Resisters Re & Re’ are used to stabilize the operating point .
iv. The capacitor Ce & Ce' are connected at the emitter of Q1 and Q2 are
needed because they bypass the emitter to ground.
v. In place of Collector resistors Transformers ( Primary Winding ) are used
for amplification at the collector of the transistor and also provide the
impedance matching.
vi. The Transformer T1 is used to couple AC output signal from the output of
first stage to input of second stage, while transformer T2 is used to couple
the output signal to the load.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 9 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Working:
i. When an AC Input is applied to base of transistor Q1, through input
transformer, it appears in the amplified form across the primary winding of
transformer T1.
ii. The voltage developed across the primary winding is then transferred to
input of second stage by secondary winding of transformer T1.
iii. The second stage of Amplifier does amplification in exactly same manner
as in the First stage.
iv. After amplification from second stage, the AC Signal coupled through
Transformer T2 and appears to the Load RL.
Frequency response:
The figure below shows the frequency response of a transformer coupled
amplifier. The gain of the amplifier is constant only for a small range of
frequencies. The output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by
the reactance of primary.

i. From above fig, the voltage gain drops off at low as well as at high
frequency. At low frequency it reduces because low value of reactance
(XL = 2ΩfL) and at high frequency it reduces because of leakage
inductances and distributed capacitance.
ii. At mid frequency ranges, response remains constant.
iii. Note that, at one particular frequency (F0) the voltage gain increases and
then rolls off continuously. This results due to resonance effect of
inductance and distributed capacitances. The frequency at which peak
occurs is called resonant frequency (F0).
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 10 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Advantages:
i. Less power loss in the Transformer Coupled Amplifier.
ii. It provides higher voltage gain than RC coupled amplifier.
iii. It provides excellent impedance matching between the stages.
Disadvantages:
i. Transformer coupling is expensive and bulky.
ii. At radio frequencies, winding inductances and distributed capacitors
produces reverse frequency distortion. So, It provides more frequency
distortion
iii. It tends to produce 'hum' in the circuit.
Applications:
i. It is used in Impedance matching circuit.
ii. It is used in power amplifiers.
iii. It is used in applications where maximum power transfer is needed.
3. Direct Coupled amplifier : Direct-Coupled Amplifier is amplifier in which
No Coupling Component is used as coupling to connect several stages of
Amplifier is known as Direct- Coupled Amplifier.
Circuit Diagram: Figure Shows Two Stage Direct Coupled Transistor
Amplifier :
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 11 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Circuit Detail:

i. The circuit diagram consists of two transistors Amplifiers Q 1 and

Q2 used in CE configuration.
ii. Resistor R1 & R2 and are used for biasing of transistor Amplifier of the
first stage.
iii. Resisters Re & Re' are used to stabilize the operating point.
iv. In Direct Coupled Amplifier, the output of first stage is directly
connected to base of next stage.
v. It is also called as 'DC amplifier' and is used to amplify very low
frequency.
Working:
i. The signal to be amplified is applied directly to input of first stage.
ii. Due to transistor action, amplified signal will appear across the R C of
Q1.
iii. This voltage then drives base of Q2 and amplified output is obtained
across RC' of Q2.
Frequency response: The frequency response of the direct coupled
amplifier is similar to low pass filter and hence it is also known as "Low-Pass
Amplifier". The amplification of DC (zero frequency) is possible only by this
amplifier,
Figure shows frequency response of direct coupled amplifier.

i. In above figure, gain is uniform up to certain frequency denoted by F2.

ii. Beyond F2, the gain rolls off slowly. The gain decreases at higher
frequencies due to stray capacitance.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 12 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Advantages:
i. Direct Coupled Amplifier is simple circuit.
ii. The cost of Direct Coupled Amplifier is very low.
iii. It can be used to amplify low frequency signals.
Disadvantages:
i. Direct Coupled Amplifier cannot amplify high frequency signal.
ii. It has poor temperature stability.
Applications:
i. Direct Coupled Amplifier are used in power supply.
ii. These are used in bioelectric measurement.
iii. These are used in Linear IC's.
Comparison of different coupling techniques Amplifiers:

Sr. Parameter RC Coupled Transformer Coupled Direct Coupled

No Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier

Coupling R and C Transformer -

1
Component

Types of coupled Only A. C. Signal Only A. C. Signal D. C. and A. C. Signal

2 signal

Ability to block dc D. C. is blocked D. C. is blocked D. C. cannot be

3
blocked

Impedance Not provided Provided Not provided

4
matching

Frequency Uniform / Good Not uniform. Increases at Improved on the lower

5 response Frequency the resonant frequencies. frequency side due to
Response absence of capacitors

Application area AF Amplifiers, PA Power Amplifiers, RF It is used to amplify

6 Systems, Tape, TV Amplifier stage of radio the signals of low
recorders, radios and TV frequencies.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 13 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. The Transistor Configuration, which is most frequently used in Multi-Stage

Amplifier is …………………
2. The coupling Capacitor mainly affects …………….. cut-off frequency of the
Amplifier.
3. Three RC Coupled Amplifier are Cascaded. If voltage gain of each stage is 10
dB, the overall gain of the cascaded Amplifier is ………………
4. The main component responsible for the fall of Gain of a RC Coupled Amplifier
is low frequency range is ……………..
5. A Two Stage Cascaded Amplifier has an overall Gain is 40 dB. If the Voltage
Gain of First Stage is 10 dB, then Voltage Gain of the Second Stage is ……
6. Let Gain of 1st Stage be A1 dB, and 2nd Stage be A2 dB, then overall Gain of
Multistage ( Two ) will be ……….
7. The …………….. Coupling is used for Audio Signal Amplification in Multistage
Amplifier.
8. ……………. Type of Coupling is preferred for Impedance matching.
9. …………….. type of Coupling is widely used for RF Signal Amplification.
10. The RF receiver intermediate frequency stage uses ……………. types of
Multistage Amplifier.
11. An Amplifier gives an Output Power 2 W and Input Power Supplied is 10 mW.
The Gain of Amplifier is …………….
12. Three RC Coupled Amplifiers are cascaded. If voltage Gain of each Stage is 5,
then Overall Gain is …………….

Answers:

1) Common Emitter 2) Lower 3) 60 dB

4) Coupling Capacitor 5) 10 6) A1 + A2

7) RC 8) Transformer 9) Transformer

10) Three 11) 200 12) 125

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 14 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

13. Multistage Amplifier amplify the ………….level of the signal.

14. For RC Coupled Amplifier, Gain reduced at both low and high frequencies due
to …………… of the circuit.
15. The Total Gain of the Multistage Amplifier is ……….than the product of Gain of
individual Stages.
16. The …………….. of Amplifier is range of frequencies over witch gain is equal
to or greater than 70.7% of the maximum Gain.
17. The coupling components provide isolation for ……….. signal.
18. For Audio Frequencies ……………….. Coupling is used.
19. For ………………….. frequencies Transformer Coupling is used.
20. Gain of Amplifier is always ………… than 1.
21. 1 Bel = ……….. dB
22. The graph between Signal Frequency and Voltage Gain of the Signal is known
as ……………
23. In ………………Amplifier, the Frequency Response is Uniform for a long range
of frequencies.
24. The bandwidth is the range of frequency over which the gain is ………..% of
the maximum Gain

Answers:

13. Voltage 14. Reactance 15. Less

16. Bandwidth 17. DC 18. RC

19. Radio 20. Greater 21. 10

22. Frequency Response 23. RC Coupled 24. 70.7

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – I Page 15 of 15

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

1. A Direct Coupled Amplifier does not use any frequency sensitive components like
Inductor and Capacitor.
2. Decibel is measure of Power Change and not Power.
3. In Multi-Stage Amplifier, there are Two or more Stages.
4. In Multi-Stage Amplifier, Transformer coupling is usually used to Amplify audio
Signals.
5. The Lower Cut-Off Frequency of a Two Stage RC –Coupled Amplifier is Higher
than its value for the Single Stage Amplifier.
6. Transformer Coupling is preferred for Impedance matching.
7. RC Coupled Amplifiers are used in RF range for Amplification.
8. Direct Coupled Amplifiers are used for Amplifications of DC or frequency below 10
Hz Signals.
9. The bandwidth is the range of frequency over which the gain is 50% of the
maximum Gain.
10. The coupling components isolate DC Signals from one stage to other stage.
11. The overall Voltage Gain of a Multistage Amplifier is obtained by adding the Voltage
Gain of each Stage when expressed as a Voltage Ratio.
12. The bypass Capacitors are responsible for the decrease of Voltage Gain at high
frequencies in multi-stage Amplifier.
13. RC Coupling is the best coupling scheme when frequency of the range of the signal
is in the range of 60 Hz to 20 KHz.

Answers:
1) TRUE 2) FALSE 3) TRUE 4) FALSE

5) TRUE 6) TRUE 7) FALSE 8) TRUE

9) FALSE 10) TRUE 11) FALSE 12) FALSE

13) TRUE
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – II Page 1 of 31

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS OR POWER AMPLIFIERS :
 Power Amplifiers are those Amplifiers which amplifies the Power Level of the Input
Signal.
Power amplifiers usually handle large currents and are used for applications
where high current switching is needed, such as Electromechanical transducers like
loudspeakers, Motors of rotating machines etc.
In Power Amplifier, the voltage at the output is almost same as that of input
and the current level of the signal is amplified up-to large extent as desired. The
Power Amplifier generally used in class B or AB mode. In these configurations, the
two push pull transistors are set in a common collector configuration, which gives
unity voltage gain and high current gain.

The Voltage Amplification Stages are build before Power Amplifier stage and the
Power Amplifier (class B or AB stage) is the final stage of the Multistage Amplifier
which increase the current level of the signal. Hence the overall power of the signal
is increased in this stage and can be used in audio Amplifier at the output stage to
drive a loudspeaker.
The power amplifier converting the DC power drawn from the power supply
into an AC voltage signal delivered to the load.
Terms Considering Performance of Power Amplifier
 The Primary objective of a Power Amplifier is to obtain maximum output Power. In
order to achieve this, the important factors to be considered are Collector
Efficiency, Power Dissipation Capability and Distortion.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – II Page 2 of 31

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

1. Collector Efficiency : The ratio of AC Output Power to DC Input Power ( Zero

Signal Power ) of the Power Amplifier is known as Collector Efficiency.
This explains how well an amplifier converts DC power to AC power.
When the DC supply is given by the battery, the collector output at such a
condition is observed as collector efficiency.
The collector efficiency is defined as
η = A. C. Output Power / D. C. Input Power
For example, if the battery supplies 12W and AC output power is 3W.
Then the transistor efficiency will be 25%.
The main aim of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum collector
efficiency. Hence the higher the value of collector efficiency, The Amplifier will
be more efficient.
2. Power Dissipation Capacity: It is ability of the Power Amplifier to
dissipate heat developed in it during operation is known as Power dissipation
Capability.
Every transistor gets heated up during its operation. As a power
transistor handles large currents, it gets more heated up. This heat increases
the temperature of the transistor, which alters the operating point of the
transistor.
So, in order to maintain the operating point stability, the temperature of
the transistor has to be kept in permissible limits. For this, the heat produced
has to be dissipated. Such a capacity is called as Power dissipation capability.
Power dissipation capability can be defined as the ability of a power
transistor to dissipate the heat developed in it. Heat sinks are used in order to
dissipate the heat produced in power transistors.
3. Distortion: The change of output wave shape from the Input wave shape of
an Amplifier is known as Distortion.
A transistor is a non-linear device. When compared with the input, there
occur few variations in the output. In voltage amplifiers, this problem is not pre-
dominant as small currents are used. But in power amplifiers, as large currents
are in use, the problem of distortion certainly arises.
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Distortion is defined as the change of output wave shape from the input
wave shape of the amplifier. An amplifier that has lesser distortion, produces a
better output and hence considered efficient.
4. Cross Over Distortion : A Distortion occurs when the signal changes or
“crosses-over” from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage point it
produces an amount of “distortion” to the output wave shape. This results in a
condition that is commonly called Crossover Distortion.
Since the active elements start conduction only after the input signal amplitude
has risen above 0.7V, the regions of the input signal where the amplitude is less than
0.7V will be missing in the output signal and it is called cross over distortion. The
schematic representation of cross-over distortion is shown in the figure below. In the
figure, you can see that the regions of the input waveform which are under 0.7V are
missing in the output waveform.

5. Harmonics Distortion: The distortion in which harmonics of an input

signal are produced in an amplifier and appear in the output along with the
amplified input signal.
Harmonic distortion in amplifiers is usually caused by
the amplifier needing more voltage than its power supply can provide. It can
also be caused by some part of the internal circuit (usually the output
transistors) exceeding its output capacity..
6. Faithfull Amplification : The process of raising the strength of a weak
signal without any change in its general shape is known as a faithful
amplification.
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CLASSIFICATION POWER AMPLIFIERS

 The classification of Power Amplifier is done based on their frequencies and also
based on their mode of operation.
 Classification Power Amplifier Based on Frequencies: The Power
amplifiers are divided into two categories, based on the working frequency range of
the Amplifier.
i) Audio Power Amplifiers : − The Audio Power Amplifiers are those
Amplifier which raise the power level of Input signals having audio frequency
range (20 Hz to 20 KHz). They are also known as Small Signal Power
Amplifiers.
ii) Radio Power Amplifiers − Radio Power Amplifiers are those Power
Amplifier which raises the power level of signals having radio frequency
range (3 KHz to 300 GHz). They are also known as Large Signal Power
Amplifiers.
 Classification of Power Amplifier Based on Mode of Operation : On
the basis of the mode of operation, the Power are classified in Four Categories
depending upon the portion of the input cycle during which collector current flows
through the Load.
i) CLASS – A POWER AMPLIFIER: – Class A Power Amplifiers are
those Amplifiers in which operating point is so adjusting that the collector
currents flows during the Whole Cycle of the Input Signal.
Class A power amplifier is a type of power amplifier where the output
transistor is ON full time and the output current flows for the entire cycle of
the input wave form. Class A power amplifier is the simplest of all power
amplifier configurations. They have high fidelity and are totally immune to
crossover distortion. Even though the class A power amplifier have a handful
of good feature, they are not the prime choice because of their poor
efficiency. Since the active elements (transistors) are forward biased full time,
some current will flow through them even though there is no input signal and
this is the main reason for the inefficiency.
The Characteristics of a Class A power amplifier is shown in the
figure below.
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From the above figure it is clear that the Q-point is placed

exactly at the center of the DC load line and the transistor conducts for every
point in the input waveform. The theoretical maximum efficiency of a Class A
power amplifier is 50%. In practical with capacitive coupling and inductive
loads (loud speakers), the efficiency can come down as low as 25%. This
means 75% of power drawn by the amplifier from the supply line is wasted.
Majority of the power wasted is lost as heat on the active elements
(transistor). As a result, Class A Power Amplifier require a large power supply
and a large heat sink.
Class A Single Ended Power Amplifier Circuit: Single ended
configuration can be practically realized in Class A amplifier. Single ended
means only one active device (transistor) in the output stage.
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Circuit Details:
The circuit diagram of a two stage single ended Class A power amplifier is
shown above.
i. R1 and R2 form a voltage divider network and provide biasing to the
Transistor.
ii. RC is the collector resistor and Re is the emitter resistance. Their
value is so selected that the collector current is in the desired level
and the operating point is placed at the center of the load line under
zero signal condition. Placing operating point as close as possible to
the center of load line is very essential for the distortion free operation
of the amplifier.
iii. Capacitor Cin is the input coupling capacitor which removes the DC
components present in the input signal. If C in is not there, and there
are DC components in the input signal, these DC components will be
directly coupled to the base of the transistor and will surely alter the
biasing conditions of the Transistor.
iv. CC is the coupling capacitor which connects the two stages together.
Its function is to block passage of DC components from first stage to
the second stage.
v. Ce is the emitter by-pass capacitor, which by-pass the AC
components in the emitter current while amplifier is operating. If C e is
not there, the AC components will drop across the emitter resistor
resulting in reduced gain. The most simple explanation is that, the
additional voltage drop across Re will get added to the base-emitter
voltage and this means additional forward voltage is required to
forward bias the transistor.
vi. COut is the output coupling capacitor which couples the output to the
load (loud speaker) and blocks the DC components of the second
stage to enter in the load (loud speaker).
Input and output waveforms of a two stage RC couple amplifier (Class – A)
is shown in the figure below.
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Advantages of Class A Power Amplifier:

i. Design of Class A Amplifier is the simplest.
ii. Class – A has High fidelity because input signal will be exactly
reproduced at the output.
iii. Since the active device (Transistor) in Class – A conduct for full time, no
time is required for the turn on and this improves high frequency
response.
iv. Since the active device (Transistor) in Class – A conducts for the entire
cycle of the input signal, there will be no cross over distortion.
Disadvantages of Class A Power Amplifier:
i. Class - A Power Amplifier has poor efficiency.
ii. Powerful Class A power amplifiers are costly and bulky due to the large
power supply and heat sink.

 Steps for improving efficiency like Transformer Coupling is used which

affects the frequency response.
Transformer Coupled Class A Power Amplifier :
An amplifier where the load is coupled to the output of Amplifier by using a
transformer is called a transformer coupled amplifier.
By Using transformer coupling the efficiency of the amplifier can be
improved to a great extend. The coupling transformer provides good
impedance matching between the output and load and it is the main reason
behind the improved efficiency.
Impedance matching means making the output impedance of the
amplifier equal to the input impedance of the load and this is an important
criteria for the Transfer of maximum Power.
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Circuit Diagram: Circuit diagram of Transformer Coupled Single Stage

Class - A Amplifier is shown in the circuit diagram below:

Circuit Details: The circuit diagram of a Single Stage Single Ended Class
A Power Amplifier is shown above.
i. R1 and R2 form a voltage divider network and provide biasing to the
Transistor.
ii. Transformer Primary winding in the collector and Re is the emitter
resistance value is so selected that the collector current is in the
desired level and the operating point is placed at the center of the load
line under zero signal condition. Placing operating point as close as
possible to the center of load line is very essential for the distortion
free operation of the amplifier.
iii. Capacitor Cin is the input coupling capacitor which removes the DC
components present in the input signal. If C in is not there, and there
are DC components in the input signal, these DC components will be
directly coupled to the base of the transistor and will surely alter the
biasing conditions of the Transistor.
iv. Ce is the emitter by-pass capacitor, which by-pass the AC components
in the emitter, while amplifier is operating. If C e is not there, the AC
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components will drop across the emitter resistor resulting in reduced

gain. The most simple explanation is that, the additional voltage drop
across Re will get added to the base-emitter voltage and this means
additional forward voltage is required to forward bias the transistor.
v. The Transformer couples the output to the load (loud speaker) and
blocks the DC components of the second stage to enter in the load
(loud speaker) and provide the Impedance matching with the load.
Impedance matching can be attained by selecting the number of turns of the
primary so that its net impedance is equal to the transistors output
impedance and selecting the number of turns of the secondary so that its
net impedance is equal to the loudspeakers input impedance.
Advantages of Transformer Coupled Class – A Power
Amplifier:
i. Transformer Coupled Amplifier improve the efficiency of the Class – A
Power Amplifier.
ii. It Provides good DC isolation as there is no physical connection
between amplifier output and load and Audio Signals pass from one
side to other by virtue of mutual induction.
Disadvantages of Transformer Coupled Class – A Power
Amplifier:
i. Transformers are bulky and so it increases the cost and size of the
amplifier.
ii. Transformer winding does not provide any resistance to DC current. If
any DC components if present in the amplifier output, it will flow
through the primary winding and saturate the core. This will result in
reduced transformer action.
iii. Transformer coupling reduces the low frequency response of the
amplifier.
iv. Transformer coupling induces hum in the output.
v. Transformer coupling can be employed only for small loads.
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 To Improve the Power efficiency of the previous Class A Amplifier by

reducing the wasted power in the form of heat, it is possible to design
as Class B Amplifier.

ii) CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER: – Class B Amplifier are those

Amplifiers in which the operating point is so adjusting that the collector
current flows only during the Positive Half cycle of the Input Signal.

Class B Amplifier is a type of Power Amplifier where the active device

(transistor) conducts only for one half cycle of the input signal. That means
the conduction angle is 180° for a Class B Amplifier. Since the active device
is switched off for half the input cycle, the active device dissipates less
power and hence the efficiency is improved in Class B Power Amplifier. The
maximum efficiency of Class B power amplifier is 78.5%.

The schematic of a single ended Class B amplifier and input , output

waveforms are shown in the figure below.

From the above circuit it is clear that the base of the transistor Q 1 is not
biased and the Negative Half Cycle of the input waveform is missing in the
output. Even though it improves the Power Efficiency and creates a lot of
distortion. Only half the information present in the input will be available in
the output. Hence Single Ended Class B amplifiers are not useful.
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Characteristics of a Single Ended Class B Power Amplifier is shown in

the figure below:

One way to realize a Practical Class B amplifier is to use a pair of active

devices (transistors) arranged in Push-Pull Mode where one transistor
conducts one half cycle and the other transistor conducts the other half cycle.
The output from both transistors are then combined together with the help of
Transformer Coupling and get a scaled replica of the input and such
Amplifiers are called Transformer Coupled Push-Pull Class B amplifiers.

Transformer Coupled Push Pull Class B Amplifier:

The circuit diagram of a simple Transformer Coupled class B Power
Amplifier is shown in the figure below. Transistor Q1 and Q2 are the active
elements. The transformer T 1 reproduces the input signal into two copies
which are 180° out of phase. The transistor Q1 amplifies the Positive Half of
the input signal and transistor Q2 amplifies the Negative Half of the input
signal. Current flow path of the two transistors are also shown in the above
figure. The amplified two halves are joined together by the Primary of
transformer T2 and due to mutual induction appeared at Secondary of the
Transformer in Amplified form.
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Operation:
i. During the Positive Half Cycle of the Input, upper terminal of the input
Transformer is Positive and Lower terminal is Negative. Due this,
Transistor Q1 is ON and Q2 will be OFF. The Current will flow from
Battery B1 (+) , Primary (Upper Section) of the Transformer,
Transistor Q1, Battery B1 (-).
ii. During the Negative Half Cycle of the Input, upper terminal of the Input
Transformer is Negative and Lower terminal is Positive. Due this,
Transistor Q1 is OFF and Q2 will be ON. The Current will flow from
Battery B1 (+) , Primary (Lower Section) of the Output Transformer,
Transistor Q2, Battery B1 (-)
For both Cycles, the Current flow in the both directions in the Primary of the
Output Transformer and due mutual Induction, appeared at Secondary in
Amplified form.
Advantages of Class B Push Pull amplifier:
i. Efficiency of Class – B Push Pull Power Amplifier is High as
compared to Class A Power Amplifier.
ii. As current in both Transistors are of opposite polarity, therefore
distortion is minimum.
iii. As distortion is minimum, the output power per Transistor is high.
iv. Push-pull mechanism avoids even harmonics distortion.
v. In Class – B Power Amplifier, there is No DC components in the
output.
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Disadvantages of Class B Push Pull amplifier:

i. Class – B Push-Pull Power Amplifier has cross-over distortion.
ii. In Class – B Push-Pull Power Amplifier, Coupling transformers
increases the cost and size of the Amplifier.
iii. In Class – B Push-Pull Power Amplifier, It is difficult to find ideal
transformers.
iv. Transformer coupling causes hum in the output.
v. Transformer coupling is not practical in case of huge loads.
One of the main disadvantages of the Class - B Push-Pull Amplifier Circuit is
to use Balanced Center-Tapped Transformers in its design, making it
expensive to construct. However, there is another type of Class B Amplifier
called a Complementary-Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier that
does not use transformers in its design. therefore, it is using complementary
or matching pairs of power transistors.
Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Amplifier: This Amplifier
use two “complementary” or matching transistors, one being an NPN-type
and the other being a PNP-type with both power transistors receiving the
same input signal together that is equal in magnitude, but in opposite phase
to each other.
Circuit Diagram :
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Circuit Details:
The circuit diagram of a simple Complementary Symmetry Push Pull
Class B Power Amplifier is shown in the figure above. Transistor Q 1 ( NPN )
and Q2 ( PNP ) are the active elements. The complementary Push-Pull
Amplifier Two batteries VCC are used for both sections separately. Transistor
Q1 amplifies the Positive Half of the input signal and transistor Q 2 amplifies
the Negative Half of the input signal. The combined output of both cycles will
appear at the Load as shown in the above Figure.
Operation:
i. During the Positive Half Cycle of the Input, base input terminals of the
both transistors are Positive. Due this, Transistor Q1 is ON and Q2 will
be OFF. The Current will flow from Upper Battery V CC-1 (+), Transistor
Q1, Load RL ( Left to Right ), Upper Battery VCC-1 (-).
ii. During the Negative Half Cycle of the Input, base input terminals of the
both transistors are Negative. Due this, Transistor Q1 is OFF and Q2
will be ON. The Current will flow from Lower Battery VCC-2 (+) ,
Load ( Right to Left direction), Transistor Q2, Lower Battery VCC-2 (-).
For both Cycles, the Current flow in the both directions through the Load R L
in Amplified form.
Advantages of Class B Complementary Symmetry Push Pull
amplifier:
i. Efficiency of Class – B Complementary Symmetry Push Pull Power
Amplifier is High as compared to Class A Power Amplifier.
ii. As current in both Transistors are of opposite polarity, therefore
distortion is minimum.
iii. As distortion is minimum, the output power per Transistor is high.
iv. Push-pull mechanism avoids even harmonics.
v. In Class – B Power Amplifier, there is No DC components in the
output.
vi. As this Amplifier does not require any transformer, hence the cost of
the circuit is low as compared to Push Pull Amplifier.
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Disadvantages of Class B Complementary Symmetry Push

Pull amplifier:
i. Class – B Complementary Symmetry Push Pull Power Amplifier has
cross-over distortion.
ii. In this Amplifier, Two Complementary Transistors should match in all
respect. Any variation may cause distortion.
iii. Class – B Complementary Symmetry Push Pull Power Amplifier
require two batteries., which increase the cost of the amplifier.
In Class – B Amplifiers, Since the transistors are not biased they remains
OFF when there is no input signal and no current flows through the load.
Each transistor starts conduction only when the amplitude of the input signal
goes above the base-emitter voltage (VBE) of the transistor which is about 0.7
V. which creates a problem called cross-over distortion.
The Class B (Push Pull Amplifiers and Complementary Symmetry Push Pull
amplifiers) circuit have much high efficiency than the Class A types. The
main disadvantages of class B type push-pull amplifiers is that they suffer
from an effect known commonly as Crossover Distortion
The 0.6 to 0.7V (one forward diode volt drop) dead band that produces the
crossover distortion effect in Class B amplifiers. The simple way to reduce /
eliminate this crossover Distortion by the use of suitable biasing like preset
voltage bias, a voltage divider network, or by using a series connected diode
arrangement. This configuration is called Class AB Power Amplifier.
iii) CLASS AB POWER AMPLIFIER: Class AB Amplifier are those
Amplifiers in which the operating point is so adjusting that the collector
current flows more than Half cycle and less than full Cycle of the Input
Signal.
In Class AB configuration, the active elements (transistors) are
slightly biased so that the conduction angle is slightly more than 180° but
much less than 360°. The transistors conduct for more than a half cycle but
much less than the full cycle. That means there will be no instant where both
transistors are OFF simultaneously and thus cross-over distortion is
eliminated.
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Class AB configuration is actually a trade-off between Class A

and Class B configurations where efficiency is slightly compromised for
fidelity. Class AB power amplifiers are slightly inefficient than the Class B
configurations but far better in terms of distortion when compared to Class A
configurations. Since the active devices are slightly pre-biased there will be a
small amount of collector current flowing and this is the reason behind the
slightly reduced efficiency. Typical efficiency of a well designed class AB
power amplifier is around 70%.
The output characteristics of a single ended Class AB power amplifier
is shown in the figure below.

From the above figure, it is clear that the Q-point is not

positioned at cut-off unlike the Class B characteristics and there will be a
small amount of collector current flowing at zero input. As a result, some part
of the negative going half cycle will be also reproduced at the output. The
amount of negative going half cycle reproduced at the output depends on the
amount of pre-bias given to the transistor.
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Class AB Power Amplifier (Voltage Divider / Resistor Biasing)

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Details:
The basic circuit of Voltage divider Resistor Biasing is shown in above figure.
Q1 and Q2 conduct during the opposite half cycles of the input waveform.
That is, when VIN in is positive, Q1 conducts and when VIN is
negative, Q2 conducts.
i. The four resistances R1, R2, R3, & R4 are connected across the supply
voltage VCC to provide the required resistive biasing.
ii. Capacitors CIN & COUT provides input and output coupling to the circuit.
iii. The two resistors, R1 and R4 are chosen to set the Q-point slightly
above cut-off with the correct value of VBE being set at about 0.6V so
that the voltage drops across the resistive network brings the base
of Q1 to about 0.6V, and that of Q2 to about –0.6V. Then the total
voltage drop across biasing resistors R2 and R3 is approximately 1.2
volts, which is just below the value required to turn each transistor
fully-ON.
Working: The Transistor Q1 amplifies the Positive Half of the input signal
and transistor Q2 amplifies the Negative Half of the input signal. The
combined output of both cycles will appear at the Load.
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While the use of biasing resistors may not solve the temperature problem,
one way to compensate for any temperature related variation in the base-
emitter voltage, (VBE) is to use a pair of normal forward biased diodes within
the amplifiers biasing arrangement.
Class AB Power Amplifier ( Voltage Divider / Diode Biasing)
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Details: The basic circuit of Voltage divider Diode Biasing is

shown in above figure. Q1 and Q2 conduct during the opposite half cycles of
the input waveform. That is, when VIN in is positive, Q1 conducts and
when VIN is negative, Q2 conducts.

A small constant current flows through the series circuit of R1-D1-D2-

R2, producing voltage drops which are symmetrical either side of the input.
With no input signal voltage applied, the point between the two diodes is zero
volts. As current flows through the chain, there is a forward bias voltage drop
of approximately 0.7V across the diodes which is applied to the base-emitter
junctions of the switching transistors.
Therefore the voltage drop across the diodes, biases the base of
transistor Q1 to about 0.7 volts, and the base of transistor Q2 to about –0.7
volts. Thus the two silicon diodes provide a constant voltage drop of
approximately 1.4 volts between the two bases biasing them above cut-off.
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Capacitors CIN & COUT provides input and output coupling to the circuit.
Since both the transistors are slightly conducting at zero input, no
information in the input signal is lost at the output during the zero-crossing of
the input signal and thus cross-over distortion is completely eliminated at a
cost of slightly reduced efficiency.
Working:
The Transistor Q1 amplifies the Positive Half of the input signal and
transistor Q2 amplifies the Negative Half of the input signal. The combined
output of both cycles will appear at the Load.
Advantages of Class AB Power Amplifier:
i. No cross over distortion in Class – AB Power Amplifier.
ii. In Class – AB Power Amplifier, there is no need of the bulky coupling
transformers.
iii. In Class – B Power Amplifier , there is no hum at the output.
Hum is low-pitched sound (e.g., household appliances, traffic noise, etc)
Disadvantages of Class AB power amplifier:
i. Efficiency of Class – AB Power Amplifier is slightly less when
compared to Class B Power Amplifier.
ii. There will be some DC components in the output as the load is
Capacitive coupled.
iii. Capacitive coupling can eliminate DC components but it is not practical
in case of heavy loads.
iv) CLASS – C POWER AMPLIFIER :
The Power Amplifier in which operating Point is so adjusted that the collector
current flows for less than half cycle of the input signal, the Power Amplifier
is known as Class C Power Amplifier.
Circuit Diagram and Details: As shown in the below circuit diagram,
Resistor RB connects to the transistor Q base. A biasing resistor which
connects to the base of Transistor try to pulls the base of transistor further
downwards and set the operating point on DC Load Line below the cut-off
point.
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The reason for the major portion of the input signal is absent in the output
signal is that the transistor will start conducting only after the input signal
amplitude has risen above the base emitter voltage (Vbe~0.7V) and
according to the result the downward bias voltage caused by RB.
As shown in the above Figure, Inductor L and Capacitor C forms a
tuned circuit which is also called a tank circuit. LC circuits are used either for
generating signals at a particular (Resonant) frequency, or picking out a
signal at a particular frequency from a more complex signal which extract the
required signal from the pulsed output of the transistor.

A series of current pulses is produced by the transistor (active

element) according to the input which flow through the resonant circuit. The
tank circuit oscillates in the resonant frequency of the input signal by
selecting the proper value of L and C. All other frequencies are attenuated by
tank circuit and the tank circuit oscillates in one frequency.
The required frequency is obtained by using a suitably tuned load. The
output signal noise can be eliminated by using additional filters. For
transferring the power to the load from the tank circuit, a coupling transformer
is used.
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Applications of Class C Amplifier:

i. Class C Amplifier is used in RF oscillators.
ii. Class C Amplifier is used in RF amplifier.
iii. Class C Amplifier is used in FM transmitters.
iv. Class C Amplifier is used in Booster amplifiers.
v. Class C Amplifier is used in High frequency repeaters.
vi. Class C Amplifier is used in Tuned amplifiers.
Advantages of Class C Amplifier:
i. Class C Amplifier has Higher efficiency.
ii. Class C Amplifier gives Best result in RF applications.
iii. Physical size Class C Amplifier is suitable.
Disadvantages of Class C Amplifier:
i. Class C Amplifier has Poor linearity.
ii. Class C Amplifier are not suitable for audio applications.
iii. Class C Amplifier has more noise and RF interference.
iv. In Class C Amplifier, it is very difficult to obtain ideal inductors and
coupling transformers.
SUMMERY OF POWER AMPLIFIERS:
1. Class A Amplifier – Class – A Amplifier has low efficiency of less than 40%
but good signal reproduction and linearity.
2. Class B Amplifier – Class – B Amplifier is twice as efficient as class A
amplifiers with a maximum theoretical efficiency of about 70% because the
amplifying device only conducts (and uses power) for half of the input signal and
create crossover distortion in the output.
3. Class AB Amplifier – Class – AB Amplifier has an efficiency rating between
that of Class A and Class B and improve the crossover distortion in the signal but
poorer signal reproduction than Class A amplifiers.
4. Class C Amplifier – Class – C Power Amplifier is the most efficient amplifier
class but distortion is very high as only a small portion of the input signal is
amplified therefore the output signal bears very little resemblance to the input
signal. Class C amplifiers have the worst signal reproduction.
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Class A B C AB

Conduction
360o 180o Less than 90o 180 to 360o
Angle

Centre Point In between the X-

Position of Exactly on the Below the
of the Load axis and the Centre
the Q-point X-axis X-axis
Line Load Line.

Better than A
Overall Poor Better Higher
but less than B
Efficiency 25 to 30% 70 to 80% than 80%
50 to 70%

None if
Output Signal At the X-axis Large
Correctly Small Amounts
Distortion Crossover Point Amounts
Biased

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER AND POWER

AMPLIFER

Sr. No. Voltage Amplifier Power Amplifier

The main purpose of the Voltage The main purpose of the Power
1. Amplifier is to raise Voltage Level Amplifier to raise Power Level of
of weak Signal. weak signal.

In Voltage Amplifier, the output In Power Amplifier, the output

2. (collector) current is low. ( about (collector) current is very high.
1mA ) (greater than 100mA)

In Voltage Amplifier, the physical In Power Amplifier, The physical

size of transistor used is small and size of transistor used is large and
3.
is known as low or Medium is known as Power Transistor.
transistor.

In Voltage Amplifier, the transistor In Power Amplifier, the transistor

4. used has thin base to handle low used has thick base to handle
current. large current.
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In Voltage Amplifier, In Power Amplifier, The transistor

the transistor used can dissipate used can dissipate more heat
5.
less heat produced during its produced as compared to voltage
operation. amplifier during its operation.

In voltage amplifier, there is no In Power Amplifier, there is

6.
requirement of Heat Sink requirement of Heat Sink.

In voltage amplifier, the Output In power amplifier, the Output

7. (collector) Impedance is of high (collector) Impedance is of low
resistance. (4kΩ to 10kΩ). resistance. (5Ω to 20Ω)

In Voltage Amplifier, RC coupling is In Power Amplifier, Transformer

8.
used. coupling is used.

TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN POWER AMPLIFIER

 The Power Amplifiers are widely used in Audio / Video System, where Load is
Speaker of Low Impedance. The purpose of Power Amplifier is not only to raise the
Power Level of the Signal, but also to Transfer Maximum Power to the Load. As the
output Impedance of Amplifier is in few KΩ and Load is of few Ohms ( Ω ). Due to
Impedance mismatching, Maximum Power Transfer is not possible.
For Impedance matching, most of Power Amplifier used to deliver Power to Load
are Transformer coupled.
As shown in figure Transformer is placed instead of collector Resister ( R C ) in the
Amplifier Circuit. The secondary terminal is connected to the Load.
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LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

 For Maximum Power transferred to the Load, the Impedance matching can be
obtained by proper selection of number of turns on Primary and Secondary of the
transformer winding with the corresponding ratio of load impedance (Z LOAD) to
output impedance (ZOUT) matches.

If the load impedance ( ZLOAD ) is purely resistive and the source impedance
is purely resistive ( ZOUT ) then the equation for finding the maximum power transfer
is given as:

Where: NP is the number of Primary turns and NS the number of Secondary

turns on the transformer. Then by varying the value of the transformers turns ratio
the output impedance can be “matched” to the source impedance to achieve
maximum power transfer.
HEAT SINK
 Heat Sink: A heat sink is a heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by
an Electronic or a Mechanical device to surrounding environment, where it
is dissipated away from the device.

Heat sinks are used with high-power semiconductor devices such as

Power Transistors, CPU, RAM Modules, lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs),
where the heat dissipation ability of the component itself is insufficient to moderate
its temperature.
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LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the
cooling medium surrounding it, such as the air. A heat sinks are usually made out of
aluminium or copper metal which are good conductor of Heat.

 Heat Dissipation in Power Amplifiers: The main purpose of Power

Amplifier is to raise the Power Level of the Signal and to deliver large Power to the
Load. The current flow through the device will be in the range of Few Amperes to
several Amperes, which is depending upon the Power. The Large flow of current
causes Heat dissipation at the collector junction of the Power Transistor.

The ability of Transistor to dissipate Heat in to surrounding environment is

measured in terms of Power Dissipation. The Power dissipation depends upon the
following factors:

i. Size of transistor.

ii. Transistor mounted manures

iii. Ambient Temperature ( Temperature of surrounding Air / medium )

Figure (A)
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – II Page 26 of 31

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

Figure ( B)

Figure (C)
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 Heat Dissipation Curve: It is the Graph between Ambient Temperature and

Power Dissipation by the Device. The maximum Power dissipation that can be
handle by the device / transistor is always provided in the data manual If in practice
Ambient temperature exceed the rated temperature, then value of maximum Power
dissipation decreases.

The maximum power rating of a transistor is largely governed by the

temperature of the collector / base junction as can be seen from the graph given
below:

If too much power is dissipated, this junction gets too hot and the transistor
will be destroyed, a typical maximum temperature is between 100°C and 150°C,
although some devices can withstand higher maximum junction temperatures.

The maximum power output available from a power transistor is closely

linked to temperature, and above 25°C falls in a linear manner to zero power output
as the maximum permissible temperature is reached.
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 Importance of Heat Sinks in Electronic Circuits:

i. A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger, and it is designed to have large
surface area in contact with the surrounding (cooling) medium like air. The
components or electronic parts or devices which are insufficient to moderate
their temperature, require heat sinks for cooling and preventing the premature
failure of the component.
ii. Heat generated by every element or component of electronic circuit must be
dissipated by using heat sink for improving its reliability.
iii. Heat Sink maintains thermal stability in limits for every electrical and electronic
component of any circuit or electronics parts of any system.
iv. The central processing units and graphic processors of a computer are also
cooled by using the heat sinks.
v. Heat sinks are also called as Heat spreaders, which are frequently used as
covers on a computer’s memory to dissipate its heat.
vi. If heat sinks are not provided for electronic circuits, then there will be a chance
of failure of components such as transistors, voltage regulators, ICs, LEDs and
power transistors.
vii. Even while soldering an electronic circuit, it is recommended to use heat sink
to avoid over heating of the elements.
viii. Heat sinks not only provide heat dissipation, but also used for thermal energy
management by dissipating heat when heat is more.
ix. In case of low temperatures, heat sinks are intended to provide heat by
releasing thermal energy for proper operation of the circuit.
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FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. The last stage of Audio Amplifier is called ………………….
2. Class ………………. Power Amplifier has the highest collector efficiency.
3. In Power Amplifier, usually …………….. coupling is employed.
4. The size of Power Transistor is ………….. than other Transistors.
5. For Class C Amplifier, collector current flows for …………….. cycle only.
6. Audio Power Amplifier operates in frequency range …………. To ……………
7. For Class – A Amplifier, operating point lies on ……………. Position of DC
Load Line.
8. The maximum collector efficiency for Class – A Amplifier is ……………..
9. The maximum collector efficiency for Class – C Amplifier is …………….
10. The cross over distortion occurs in …………. Type of Amplifier.
11. Class – C Amplifiers are widely used in …………….. circuits.
12. Push Pull Amplifier always are …………. Type of Amplifier.
13. The distortion is minimum in ……………….. type of Power Amplifiers.
14. In Class – A Amplifier, collector current flows for …………… cycle.
15. Heat Sinks are used in Power Amplifiers to increase ……………….
16. In Class – B operating Point located at …………….. point.
17. Heat Sink reduces ……………… temperature.
18. When Ambient temperature increases, the power rating of Transistors………..
19. The collector efficiency of Amplifier is maximum for Class …………. Amplifier.
20. Class – C Amplifier is used as …………… Amplifier.

Answers:
1) Power Amplifier 2) C 3) Transformer 4) Larger
5) Less than half 6) 20 Hz , 20 KHz 7) Centre 8) 25%
9) 78% 10) Class – B 11) RF or High Frequency

12) Class – B 13) Push-Pull 14) Full

15) Power dissipation 16) Cut-Off 17) Ambient

18) Decrease 19) Class – C 20) RF

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FILL IN THE BLANKS:

21. The maximum overall efficiency of a Transformer Coupled Class –A Power
Amplifier is ………..%.
22. The output stage of multistage Amplifier ……………….. Amplifier.
23. Push-Pull Amplifier has Two transistors of …………….. Polarity.
24. A Complementary Push-Pull Amplifier uses Two Transistors …………. Polarity.
25. Complementary Push-Pull Amplifiers use…………and ………… Transistors.
26. The ………….. coupling is used for Impedance matching.
27. Push Pull Amplifier uses …………….. Amplifiers.
28. Efficiency of Class – B Amplifier is ……………. Than Class – A Amplifier.
29. The Push-Pull Circuit uses Class ….. operation of the Amplifier.
30. Single ended Power Amplifier has ……………… Transistor.
31. The current gain of Power Amplifier is ……… as compared to voltage amplifier.
32. The main purpose of using Transformer Coupling in a Class- A Amplifier is to
raise its……………..
33. Class – A Power Amplifier uses …………Transistor.
34. In ________ power amplifiers, the output signal varies for a full 360º of the
cycle.
35. The ________ has the hottest temperature in a power transistor
36. In class B power amplifiers, the output signal varies for ________ of the cycle.
37. In Class- C Amplifier, the bias voltage is ………. the cut off voltage.
38. A Heat sink provides ………………. Thermal resistance between case and Air.

39. A ________ power amplifier is limited to use at one fixed frequency.

40. A form of class A amplifier having maximum efficiency of ________ uses a
transformer to couple the output signal to the load.
Answers:
21) 50% 22) Power 23) Same 24) Opposite

25) NPN, PNP 26) Transformer 27) Two 28) Greater

29) B 30) One 31) High 32) Efficiency

33) One 34) A 35) Junction 36) Half

37) beyond 38) Low 39) Class –C 40) 50%
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TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTs:

1. The transformer coupling is used for Impedance matching.
2. The current gain of Power Amplifier is High as compared to voltage amplifier.
3. In Class – A Amplifier Transistor is cool when Input Signal is applied.
4. In Class AB Amplifier, collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input
waveform.
5. Push-Pull Amplifier has Two transistors of opposite Polarity.
6. The size of Power Transistor is larger than other Transistors.
7. In Class – B operating Point located at centre point on the DC load Line.
8. Class – A Power Amplifier uses one Transistor.
9. Class- A power amplifier is limited to use at one fixed frequency.
10. The RC coupling is used for Impedance matching.
11. In Class- A power amplifiers, the output signal varies for a full 360º of the cycle
12. The output waveform is exact replica of input in Class – C Amplifier.
13. Push-Pull Amplifier use Two Transistors.
14. Power Amplifier is also known as small signal Amplifier.
15. Push-Pull Amplifiers reduce harmonics in the output.
16. The cross over distortion occurs in Class- B Type of Amplifier.
17. Class – C Amplifier is used as audio Amplifier.
18. A form of class A amplifier having maximum efficiency of 50 uses a transformer
to couple the output signal to the load.
19. In Class- C Amplifier, the bias voltage is beyond the cut off voltage.
20. The maximum collector efficiency of Class – A Power Amplifier is 75%.

Answers:

1) TRUE 2) TRUE 3) TRUE 4) FALSE

5) FALSE 6) TRUE 7) FALSE 8) TRUE

9) FALSE 10) FALSE 11) TRUE 12) FALSE

13) TRUE 14) FALSE 15) TRUE 16) TRUE

17) FALSE 18) TRUE 19) TRUE 20) FALSE

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FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER
FEEDBACK
 FEEDBACK: Feedback is a process of injected back a part of the output signal
output from a circuit / device back to the input of that circuit / device.
Feedback is process by which a part of output Energy of a Device is injected back to
its Input is called Feedback.
Feedback Systems are widely used in Amplifier Circuits, Oscillators, Process
Control Systems, and in many other Electronic devices.
The Feedback is of Two Type:
1. Positive Feedback
2. Negative Feedback
 Positive Feedback : When Original Input Signal and Feedback Signal are in
phase with each other ( are in same phase ), this type of feedback is known as
Positive Feedback. It tends to increase the output. Positive Feedback increases the
Gain of the Amplifier, but also increases the Noise and Distortion in the signal.
Positive Feedback is used in Oscillators.

 Negative feedback : When Original Input Signal and Feedback Signal are out of
phase with each other ( are in opposite phase ), this type of feedback is known as
Negative Feedback. It tends to reduce the output. Negative Feedback Gain of the
Amplifier but also stabilize the Gain, reduction of distortion and noise in the Signal.
Negative Feedback is used in Amplifiers.
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PRINCIPLE OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

 Block Diagram of Amplifier With Feedback : The figure shows block diagram
of Amplifier with feedback.

The Feedback Amplifier consists of Two Parts.

I. Amplifier with Gain ( A )
II. Feedback Network with a fraction (β) .
The output of Amplifier ( VO ) is applied to feedback network which provide output
Voltage (Vf = βVO). The Feedback Fraction (β) varies from 0 to 1and Mostly is
always less than 1. Feedback output ( Vf ) of Feedback Network applied to the Input
of the Amplifier. This feedback may additive if the feedback Signal in phase Input
Signal or subtractive if the feedback Signal is opposite phase with Input Signal.
1. Positive Feedback: When the feedback energy i. e. either voltage or current
is in Phase with the Input Signal and which is additive with Input Signal , It is
called as Positive Feedback.
Though the Positive Feedback increases the Gain of the Amplifier, it has
the disadvantages such as Increasing distortion and Instability.
It is because of these disadvantages the Positive Feedback is not used in
Amplifiers. If the Positive Feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations, so
Positive feedbacks are used in Oscillators.
2. Negative Feedback : When the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or
current is out of Phase with the Input Signal which is Subtractive with Input
signal , It is called as Negative Feedback.
Though the Gain of Negative Feedback Amplifier is reduced, there are
many advantages of Negative Feedback such as Stability of Gain is improved,
Reduction in distortion, Reduction in Noise, Increase in input impedance,
Decrease in output impedance, and Increase in the range of uniform application.
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It is because of these Advantages Negative Feedback is frequently used

in Amplifiers.
TYPE OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS:
 An Amplifier Circuit simply increases the Signal strength. But while amplifying, it just
increases the strength of its Input Signal whether it contains information or some
noise along with information. This noise or some disturbance is introduced in the
amplifiers because of their strong tendency to introduce hum due to sudden
temperature changes or stray electric and magnetic fields. Therefore, every high
gain amplifier tends to give noise along with signal in its output, which is very
undesirable.
 The Noise Level in the Amplifier Circuits can be reduced by using Negative
Feedback done by injecting a fraction of Output in opposite phase to the Input
Signal.
 Negative Feedback in an Amplifier is the method of feeding a Portion of the
Amplified Output to the Input but in opposite Phase. The Phase opposition occurs
as the Amplifier provides 180o Phase shift whereas the Feedback Network doesn’t
provide any Phase shift.
There are Two main Types of Negative Feedback Amplifiers.
1) Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifiers
2) Negative Current Feedback Amplifiers
1) Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifiers: Negative Voltage Feedback
Amplifiers are those Amplifiers in which the Voltage Energy is used as
Feedback Signal to the Input of Amplifier. While the Output Voltage Energy is
injected back to the Input as Feedback, the Output is taken in shunt ( Parallel )
connection.
Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifiers are further Classified into two types −
i. Voltage-Series Feedback
ii. Voltage-Shunt Feedback
i. Voltage - Series Feedback: In the Voltage Series Feedback
Amplifier, a Fraction of the Output Voltage is applied in Series with the
Input Voltage through the Feedback Circuit. This is also known as Parallel-
Series Feedback Amplifier.
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The Figure shows the Block Diagram of Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier
in which the Feedback Circuit is placed in Shunt with the Output but in
Series with the Input.

As the Feedback Circuit is connected in Shunt with the Output, the Output
Impedance is decreased and due to the series connection with the Input,
the Input impedance is increased.
ii. Voltage-Shunt Feedback: In the Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier,
a Fraction of the Output Voltage is applied in Parallel with the Input
Voltage through the Feedback Circuit. This is also known as Parallel-
Parallel Feedback Amplifier.
The Figure shows the Block Diagram of Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier
in which the Feedback circuit is placed in Shunt with the Output and also
with the Input.

As the Feedback Circuit is connected in Shunt with the Output and the
Input as well, both the Output Impedance and the Input Impedance are
decreased.
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2) Negative Current Feedback Amplifiers: Negative Current Feedback

Amplifiers are those Amplifiers in which the Current Energy is used as Feedback
Signal to the Input of Amplifier. While the Output Current Energy is injected
back to the Input as Feedback, the Output is taken in shunt ( Series )
connection.
Negative Current Feedback Amplifiers are further Classified into two types −
i. Current-Series Feedback
ii. Current-Shunt Feedback
i. Current-Series Feedback: In the Current Series Feedback Amplifier, a
Fraction of the Output Signal is applied in Series with the Input Signal
through the Feedback Circuit. This is also known as Series-Series
Feedback Amplifier.
The Figure shows the Block Diagram of Current Series Feedback
Amplifier in which the Feedback Circuit is placed in Series with the Output
and also with the Input.

As the Feedback Circuit is connected in Series with the Output and the
Input as well, both the Output Impedance and the Input Impedance are
increased.
ii. Current-Shunt Feedback: In the Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier, a
Fraction of the Output Signal is applied in Series with the Input Signal
through the Feedback Circuit. This is also known as Series-Parallel
Feedback Amplifier.
The Figure shows the Block Diagram of Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier
in which the Feedback Circuit is placed in Series with the Output but in
Parallel with the Input.
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As the Feedback Circuit is connected in Series with the Output, the Output
Impedance is increased and due to the Parallel connection with the Input, the
Input Impedance is decreased.

Amplifier Characteristics With Different Types of Negative Feedbacks:

Types of Feedback

Characteristics Voltage-Series Voltage-Shunt Current-Series Current-Shunt

Voltage Gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases

Input resistance Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

Output resistance Decreases Decreases Increases Increases

Harmonic
Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases
distortion

Noise Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

GAIN OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

 A Feedback Amplifier generally consists of Two parts. One is the Amplifier and
other is the Feedback Circuit. The Feedback Circuit usually consists of Resistors.
The Figure shows the Block Diagram of Amplifier with Feedback:
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From the above Figure, the Gain of the Amplifier is represented as A. The Gain of
the Amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi . The Feedback
Network extracts a Voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the Amplifier.
This Voltage is added for Positive Feedback and Subtracted for Negative
Feedback, from the Signal Voltage Vs.
Now,
Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + βVo ( for Positive Feedback )

Vi = Vs − Vf = Vs − βVo (for Negative Feedback )

Where β = Vf / Vo is called as Feedback Ratio or Feedback Fraction

Let us consider the case of Negative Feedback. The Output Vo must be equal to the
input voltage (Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the Amplifier.
Hence,
VO = ( Vs − βVO ) x A
Or VO = Vs x A − βVO x A

Or VO + βVO x A = Vs x A
VO ( 1 + Aβ ) = A . VS
Therefore, Vo_ = _A__
VS 1+Aβ

Let Af be the Overall Gain (Gain with the Feedback) of the Amplifier. This is defined
as the ratio of Output Voltage Vo to the applied Signal Voltage Vs,
i.e., Af = Output voltage = Vo / Vs
Input signal voltage

Gain of the Feedback Amplifier with Negative Feedback is given by

Af = Vo_ = _A__
VS 1+Aβ

Af = _A__
1+Aβ

Gain of the Feedback Amplifier with Positive Feedback is given by

Af = _A__
1- Aβ
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 Advantages of Negative Feedback

1) Negative Feedback improve the Stability of gain.

2) Negative Feedback Reduces distortion of the Amplified Signal.

3) Negative Feedback Reduces noise in the Amplified Signal.

4) Negative Feedback increases Input Impedance of the Amplifier.

5) Negative Feedback decreases output impedance of the Amplifier

6) Negative Feedback increases the range of Bandwidth of the Amplifier.

 Disadvantages of Negative Feedback

1) Negative Feedback reduces the Gain of amplifier.

Effect of Feedback (Negative) on Gain Stability, Distortion and

Bandwidth of an Amplifier
1. Gain Stability: In a Negative Feedback Amplifier, the Feedback Value and
Output Values are subtracted from each other as the Feedback is out of Phase
with the original Input Signal. The Effect of Negative Feedback is to “reduce” the
Gain. Because Negative Feedback produces Stable Circuit responses which
improves stability in Gain.

In Negative Feedback Amplifier, Gain Stability is achieved by applying a

small part of the Output Voltage Signal at VO back to the Input in opposite Phase
with Input original Signal through Feedback Circuit of Feedback Factor ( β). If the
Input voltage VS is increases, the Amplifies Output ( VO ) also increases and this
Output VO connected to Feedback circuit, which Output Vf = βVO also increases.
Because of this increased Feedback Output given back to the Input in opposite
Phase with Original Input Signal, which reduces the input voltage to the Amplifier
causing output voltage to be reduced and vice-versa.
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Eventually the output will settle down and become stabilized and controlled by
Negative Feedback because with Negative Feedback Loops “more leads to less”
and “less leads to more”.
Negative Feedback improve the Stability of gain.
2. Distortion: In any Amplifier the Output Waveform is a less than perfect
reproduction of the input waveform, because the process of Amplification introduces
some distortions. These distortions in Amplifier reduce the quality of sound
reproduction.
When Negative Feedback applied to an Amplifier, it linearizes the transfer
characteristic of the Amplifier and reduces the distortion of the input signal that is
generated by the nonlinearity.
Using Negative Feedback to control the Gain of the Amplifier can also reduce
amplitude distortion by ensuring that a signal level is not reached where the output
waveform of one stage may drive into its saturation and/or cut off regions The Gain
of the Amplifier can reduced accordingly.
Negative Feedback Reduces distortion of the Amplified Signal by a
factor of 1 + Aβ.
3. Bandwidth: Bandwidth of an Amplifier is defined as the range (band) of
frequency over which the gain is greater than 70.7% of the maximum Gain.

The main Advantages of Negative Feedback is that it can increase the

bandwidth of an Amplifier. By using Negative Feedback, the overall Gain of the
Amplifier reduces, which increases the Upper cut off frequency and Lower cut off
frequency by the Factor of 1+Aβ as shown in the above figure. In this way we can
increases the bandwidth of an Amplifier by using Negative Feedback.
Negative Feedback increases the range of Bandwidth of the Amplifier.
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RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER WITH EMITTER BYPASS CAPACITOR :

 R-C Coupled Amplifier is Amplifier in which Resistance Capacitance components
are used as coupling to connect several stages of Amplifier is known as Resistance-
Capacitance Coupled (RC) Amplifier.
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Detail:
i. The capacitor CIN is used to couple the input signal Vs to base of transistor
while capacitor CO is used to couple the output signal from the collector of
the Transistor to load RL.
ii. Resistor R1 & R2 are used for biasing of Transistors.
iii. Resistor Rc is used for amplification.
iv. Resisters RE is used to stabilize the operating point.
v. The capacitor CE connected at the emitter of the Transistor needed
because it bypass the AC Signal from emitter to ground.
 What is a Bypass Capacitor?
The Bypass Capacitor is a capacitor that shorts AC signals to the ground in a way
that any AC noise that presents on a DC signal is removed producing a much
cleaner and pure DC signal.
A capacitor is a Component that offers a high resistance for signals of low
frequencies. Therefore, signals at low frequencies will not go through it. This is
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FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

because signals always takes the path of least resistance. Therefore, the Signal will
go through the resistor RE. In RC Coupled Amplifier, the low frequency signals is
basically DC signals. However, Capacitors offer much less Resistance at higher
frequencies (AC signals). So AC signals will go through the Capacitor and then to
Ground.
Therefore, DC signals will go through the Resistor, RE, while AC signals will
go through the Capacitor, getting shunted to Ground. So AC signals get shunted to
ground. In this way a clean DC signal across the circuit appears, while AC Noise
imposed on it is bypassed to the Ground.
To eliminate this AC ripples, a Bypass Capacitor is used in Transistor
Amplifier Circuit.

When an Emitter Resistance is added for stabilizing the operating point of the
Amplifier, its voltage Gain is reduced as it provide Negative Feedback to the
Amplifier, but the Input Impedance increases. Whenever Bypass Capacitor is
connected in parallel with an Emitter Resistance, it will reduce the effect of Negative
Feedback because at the operating frequency the Capacitor have a low Impedance
and so in parallel with RE will lower the Whole Impedance for operating frequency
which rises the voltage Gain of the Amplifier increases.
If the Bypass Capacitor is removed, an extreme degeneration is produced in
the Amplifier Circuit and the Voltage Gain will be reduced.
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EMITTER FOLLOWER AMPLIFIER AND ITS APPLICATION

 Emitter Follower Amplifier: An Amplifier , in which Output Signal is taken from
the Emitter terminal of the Transistor, so this type of transistor configuration is known
as an Emitter Follower Amplifier.
 In this Amplifier, the emitter output “follows” Input Signal. Thus V IN and VOUT are in-
phase producing zero phase difference between the Input and Output Signals.
In this Amplifier, the Input Signal is applied to the base terminal and the Output
Signal taken from the emitter terminal of the transistor. Thus the collector terminal is
common to both the Input and Output Signal. This type of configuration is called
Common Collector.
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Detail:
i. The capacitor CIN is used to couple the input signal VIN to base of transistor.
ii. Resistor R1 & R2 are used for biasing of Transistors.
iii. Resisters RE is used to stabilize the operating point.
iv. The Output Signal VOUT is taken across RE of the Transistor.
The constructional details of an Emitter Follower Circuit is nearly similar to a Normal
Amplifier. The main difference is that the load R L is absent at the collector terminal,
but present at the emitter terminal of the circuit. Thus the output is taken from the
emitter terminal instead of collector terminal. Emitter follower is Negative Current
Feedback Amplifier and is mostly used as a Last Stage Buffer Amplifier.
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Operation:
When the Input Signal Voltage Vi is applied between Base and Emitter of the
Transistor which gives an Output Voltage VOUT across RE in the Emitter
Section. Therefore,
VOUT = IE x RE
The Whole of this Output current is applied to the input through Feedback.
Hence,
Vf = VOUT
As the Output Voltage developed across RL is proportional to the Emitter
Current, this Emitter Follower Circuit is a Current Feedback Circuit.
Hence,
β = Vf x VOUT = 1
It is also noted that the Input Signal Voltage to the Transistor ( Vi ) is equal to
the difference of VIN and VOUT
i.e.,
Vi = VIN − VOUT
Hence the Feedback is Negative.
 The Important Features of Emitter Follower Amplifier:
1. It has high Input Impedance.
2. It has low Output Impedance.
3. Gain of Emitter Follower Amplifier is Unity and hence No Voltage Gain.
4. It uses 100% Negative Feedback.
5. Emitter Follower Amplifier has high Current gain and Power gain.
6. In this Amplifier , Input and Output AC Signals are in same phase.
7. It is ideal circuit for impedance matching
All these ideal features allow many applications for the Emitter Follower Amplifier.
This is a Current Amplifier Circuit that has no Voltage Gain.
 Applications of Emitter Follower Amplifier:
1. Emitter Follower Amplifier is used as an Impedance Matching Circuit.
2. It is used as a Switching Circuit.
3. It is used as a Great Voltage Buffer Circuit.
4. It is also used for Circuit Isolation.
5. It is used in Digital Circuits with Logic Gates.
6. It is used for Current Amplification without Voltage Gain.
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FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

 Numerical -1 The Voltage Gain of an Amplifier without Feedback is 3000.

Calculate the Voltage Gain of the Amplifier if Negative Voltage Feedback is
introduced in the Circuit. Given that feedback fraction β = 0.01.
Solution : Given A = 3000 β = 0.01 Af = ?

Af = _A__ = 3000 = 3000 / 1 + 30

1+Aβ 1 + 3000 x 0.01

Af = 3000 / 31 = 96.77
Af = 96.77
 Numerical -2 The Overall Gain of a Multistage Amplifier is 140. When
negative Voltage Feedback is applied, the Gain is reduced to 17.5. Find the
Feedback Fraction of the Amplifier.
Solution : Given A = 140 β =? Af = 17.5

Af = _A__
1+Aβ

17.5 = 140____
1 + 140 x β

17.5 (1 + 140 x β ) = 140

17.5 + 2450 x β = 140
2450 β = 140 - 17.5 = 122.5
β = 122.5 / 2450 = 0.05
β = 0.05
 Numerical -3 When Negative Voltage Feedback is applied to an Amplifier of
Gain 100, the Overall Gain falls to 50.
I. Calculate the Feedback Fraction of the output voltage.
II. If this Fraction is maintained, Calculate the value of the Amplifier Gain
required if the Overall stage Gain is to be 75.
Solution : Given: A = 100 β =? Af = 50

i. Af = _A__
1+Aβ

50 = 100
1 + 100 x β
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – III Page 15 of 19

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

50 (1 + 100 x β ) = 100
50 + 5000 x β = 100
5000 β = 100 - 50 = 50
β = 50 / 5000 = 0.01
β = 0.01
ii. Given: β = 0.01 ( Maintained ) Af = 75 A = ?
Af = _A__
1+Aβ
75 = __A___
1 + A x 0.01
75 ( 1 + 0.01 A ) = A
75 + 0.75 A = A
75 = A – 0.75 A = 0.25 A
A = 75 / 0.25 = 300
A = 300
 Numerical – 4 With a Negative Voltage Feedback, an Amplifier gives an
Output of 10 V with an Input of 0.5 V. When Feedback is removed, it requires
0.25 V Input for the same Output. Calculate (i) Gain without Feedback (ii)
Feedback Fraction β .
Solution : Given: Output with Feedback V’O = 10 V VIN = 0.5 V
Output without Feedback VO = 10 V, VIN = 0.25 V
(i) Gain of Amplifier without Feedback A = VO / VIN = 10 / 0.25 = 40
A = 40
(ii) Feedback fraction β = ?
Gain of Negative Feedback Amplifier, AF = V’O / VIN = 10 / 0.5 = 20
Af = _A__
1+Aβ
20 = __40___
1 + 40 x β
20 ( 1 + 40β ) = 40
20 + 800β = 40
800 β = 40 - 20
800 β = 20
β = 20 / 800 = 0.025
β = 0.025
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – III Page 16 of 19

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. When Negative Voltage Feedback is applied to an Amplifier, its voltage gain ……
2. The Gain of Amplifier ………………. with Positive Feedback.
3. The value of Negative Feedback Fraction is always ………….. than 1.
4. If the Output of an Amplifier is 10 V and 100 mV from the output is fed back to the
input, then Feedback Fraction is………………..
5. ………………. Feedback reduces the Gain of the Amplifier.
6. Negative Feedback occurs when Feedback Signal and Input Signal are in
………………. Phase.
7. A Feedback Circuit usually employs ……………… Network.
8. The Overall Gain of ………………… Feedback Amplifier is A / 1+ Aβ.
9. The Feedback Factor (β) of an Feedback Network is always less ………. .
10. The Gain of an Amplifier with Feedback is known as …………… Loop Gain.
11. When Voltage Feedback (Negative) is applied to an Amplifier, its Input Impedance
is ………….
12. Distortion in Amplifier decrease with …………. Feedback.
13. A Feedback Amplifier Circuit Consists of an Amplifier and a ………… Circuit.
14. ………….. Feedback is employed in Amplifiers.
15. Emitter Bypass Capacitor increases the …………. of Amplifier.
16. The voltage Gain of an Emitter Follower is…………….
17. Emitter follower is a ………….. Feedback circuit.
18. When Current Feedback (negative) is applied to an Amplifier, its Output
impedance is…………….
19. If Voltage Feedback (Negative) is applied to an Amplifier, its Output impedance
is……………….
20. When a ……………. Voltage Feedback is applied to an Amplifier, its Bandwidth
increased.
Answers:
1) Reduced 2) Increases 3) Less 4) 0.1
5) Negative 6) Opposite 7) Resistive 8) Negative
9) 1 10) Closed 11) Increased 12) Negative
13) Feedback 14) Negative 15) Gain 16) One
17) Current 18) Increased 19) Decreased 20) Negative
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – III Page 17 of 19

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

21. The Gain of …………………….. Amplifier is Unity.
22. ……………..Feedback occurs when Feedback Signal and Input Signal are in
Same Phase.
23. For Impedance matching at Input and Output terminals of Amplifier
…………….. Amplifier is used.
24. Ideal Buffer Amplifier has ………….. Input Impedance and ………….. Output
Impedance.
25. An Emitter Follower has …………… input impedance.
26. The ……………….. Impedance of an Emitter Follower is Low.
27. Oscillators uses …………….. Feedback.
28. With Negative Feedback, Gain is reduced by a factor……………..
29. Negative Feedback in an Amplifier ………………… the Noise.
30. The Overall Gain of ……………. Feedback Amplifier is A / 1- Aβ.
31. …………….. feedback in an Amplifier Stabilize the Gain.
32. Emitter Follower Amplifier uses ……………. Feedback.
33. Positive Feedback occurs when Feedback Signal and Input Signal are in
…………… Phase.
34. Positive Feedback is also known as ……………… Feedback
35. ……………….. Feedback is also Called De-generative Feedback.
Answers:
21) Emitter Follower 22) Positive 23) Buffer 24)Infinity, Zero
25) High 26) Output 27) Positive 28) 1 / 1+Aβ
29) Reduces 30) Positive 31) Negative 32) Negative
33) Same 34) Re-generative 35) Negative
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – III Page 18 of 19

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

1. When Current Feedback (Negative) is applied to an Amplifier, its Output
impedance is increased.
2. If Voltage Feedback (Negative) is applied to an Amplifier, its Output impedance is
increased .
3. When a Negative Voltage Feedback is applied to an Amplifier, its bandwidth
increased.
4. The Gain of Emitter Follower Circuit is Unity.
5. Positive Feedback occurs when Feedback Signal and Input Signal are in opposite
Phase.
6. For Impedance matching at Input and Output terminals of Amplifier Buffer
Amplifier is used.
7. Ideal Buffer Amplifier has Infinity Input Impedance and Zero Output Impedance.
8. An Emitter follower has Low input impedance.
9. The Output Impedance of an Emitter Follower is Low.
10. Oscillators use Negative Feedback.
11. With Negative Feedback, Gain is reduced by a factor 1 / 1+Aβ.
12. Negative Feedback in an Amplifier reduces the Noise.
13. The Overall Gain of Positive Feedback Amplifier is A / 1- Aβ.
14. When Negative Feedback is applied to an Amplifier, its voltage gain increased.
15. The Gain of Amplifier increased with Positive Feedback.
16. The value of Negative Feedback Fraction is always greater than 1.
17. If the Output of an Amplifier is 10 V and 100 mV from the output is fed back to the
input, then Feedback Fraction is 0.2.
18. Negative Feedback reduces the Gain of the Amplifier.
19. Positive Feedback occurs when Feedback Signal and Input Signal are in Opposite
Phase.
20. A feedback circuit usually employs Resistive network.
Answers:
1) TRUE 2) FALSE 3) TRUE 4) TRUE 5) FALSE
6) TRUE 7) TRUE 8) FALSE 9) TRUE 10) FALSE
11) TRUE 12) TRUE 13) TRUE 14) FALSE 15) TRUE
16) FALSE 17) FALSE 18) TRUE 19) FALSE 20) TRUE
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – III Page 19 of 19

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIER

TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

21. The Overall Gain of Negative Feedback Amplifier is A / 1+ Aβ.
22. The Feedback Factor (β) of an Feedback Network is always less 1 .
23. The Gain of an Amplifier with feedback is known as Open Loop gain.
24. When Voltage Negative Feedback is applied to an Amplifier, its input
impedance is increased.
25. Distortion in Amplifier decrease with Positive Feedback.
26. A Feedback Amplifier Circuit Consists of an Amplifier Circuit only.
27. Negative feedback is employed in Amplifiers.
28. Emitter Bypass Capacitor deceases the Gain of Amplifier.
29. The Voltage Gain of an Emitter follower is always less than One.
30. Emitter follower is a Current Feedback circuit.
31. When a Negative Voltage Feedback is applied to an Amplifier, its bandwidth
decreased.
32. The Gain of Amplifier increased with Negative Feedback.
33. Positive Feedback occurs when Feedback Signal and Input Signal are in
Same Phase.
34. Emitter Follower is also known as common Collector Circuit.
35. Larger the Feedback Factor, the Gain Stability of the Amplifier is Low.
36. Negative Feedback is also Called De-generative Feedback.
37. Positive feedback is employed in Amplifiers.
38. Input Impedance of an Emitter Follower is Low and Out Impedance is High.
39. Positive Feedback is also known as Re-generative Feedback.
40. Emitter Follower Amplifier uses 100% Negative Feedback.
Answers:
21) TRUE 22) TRUE 23) FALSE 24) TRUE 25) FALSE
26) FALSE 27) TRUE 28) FALSE 29) FALSE 30) TRUE
31) FALSE 32) FALSE 33) TRUE 34) TRUE 35) FALSE
36) TRUE 37) FALSE 38) FALSE 39) TRUE 40) TRUE
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 1 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
OSCILLATOR
 Oscillator: An Oscillator is a Electronic Circuit ( Device ) which converts DC
Energy into AC Energy of a Periodic Signal. This periodic signal will be having a
specific frequency and amplitude. If the Oscillator produces sinusoidal oscillations, it
is called as a Sinusoidal Oscillator.
An Amplifier with a Positive Feedback can be used as an Oscillator.
CLASSIFICATION OF OSCILLATORS
 Electronic Oscillators are classified mainly into the following Two Categories −
1. Sinusoidal Oscillators − The Oscillators that produce an output having a
sine waveform are called Sinusoidal or Harmonic Oscillators. Such oscillators
can provide output at frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.
2. Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The Oscillators that produce an output
having a square, rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called Non-
Sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at
frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz.
PRACTICAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
 A Practical Oscillator Circuit consists of three Parts:
1. A Tank Circuit (Frequency determining Circuit)
2. A transistor Amplifier
3. A Feedback Circuit.
The following Circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Practical Oscillator.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 2 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

Details of Parts of Practical Oscillator Circuit.

1. Tank Circuit − The Tank Circuit consists of an Inductance (L) connected in
parallel with Capacitor (C). The values of these two components determine the
Frequency of the oscillator circuit and hence this is called as Frequency
determining circuit.
2. Transistor Amplifier − The Output of the Tank Circuit is connected to the
Amplifier circuit so that the oscillations produced by the Tank Circuit are
amplified here. Hence the output of these oscillations are increased by the
Amplifier.
3. Feedback Circuit − The function of Feedback Circuit is to transfer a part of
the Output Energy to LC Circuit in same phase. This Feedback is Positive in
Oscillators which recover the loses in the oscillations.
FREQUENCY STABILITY OF AN OSCILLATOR
 The Frequency Stability of an Oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain a
constant frequency, over a long time interval.
When Oscillator operated over a longer period of time, the its frequency may
have a change from the previously set value either by increasing or by decreasing.
 The change in Oscillator frequency may arise due to the following factors −
i. Operating Point of the active device such as BJT or FET used should lie in
the linear region of the amplifier. Its deviation will affect the Oscillator
Frequency.
ii. The Temperature dependency of the performance of Circuit components
affect the Oscillator Frequency.
iii. The changes in DC Supply Voltage applied to the active device, shift the
oscillator frequency. This can be avoided if a regulated power supply is used.
iv. A change in output load may cause a change in the Q-factor of the tank
circuit, thereby causing a change in oscillator output frequency.
v. The presence of Inter Element Capacitances and stray capacitances affect
the Oscillator output frequency and thus frequency stability.
PRINCIPLE OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
 A Feedback Amplifier generally consists of Two Parts:
i. Amplifier with Gain A
ii. Feedback Circuit with feedback factor ( β )
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 3 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

The Feedback Circuit usually consists of resistors. The concept of feedback

amplifier can be understood from the following figure below.

From the above figure, the Gain of the Amplifier is represented as A. The Gain of the
Amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi. The Feedback
Network extracts a voltage Vf = β Vo from the Output Vo of the Amplifier.
This Voltage is added for Positive Feedback and subtracted for Negative
Feedback, from the Original Input Signal Voltage Vs.
So, for a Positive Feedback,
Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + β Vo
Where, β = Vf / Vo is called as Feedback Ratio or Feedback Fraction.
The output Vo must be equal to the Input Voltage (Vs + βVo) multiplied by the Gain A
of the Amplifier.
Hence,
( Vs + β Vo ) A = Vo
A x Vs + A x β Vo = Vo
A x Vs = Vo ( 1 – A β )
Therefore
Vo = __A__
Vs ( 1−Aβ )

Let Af be the Overall Gain (gain with the feedback) of the Amplifier. This is defined
as the ratio of output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs,
i.e., Af = Output Voltage = Vo
Input Signal Voltage Vs

From the above two equations, it is clear that, the equation of gain of the
Feedback Amplifier with Positive Feedback is given by
Af = __A__
( 1−Aβ )

Where Aβ is the Feedback Factor or the Loop Gain.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 4 of 32

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BARKHAUSEN CRITERION :
 Barkhausen Criterion for oscillation provide two necessary condition for producing
Un-damped Oscillations by any Oscillatory Circuit.
i. The Oscillator will provide Un-Damped oscillations at frequency when the total
phase shift between feedback signal and original Input signal is Zero or Integer
multiple of 2π. ( Positive Feedback )
ii. The Oscillator will provide Un-Damped Oscillations at frequency , when the
Loop Gain is equal to Unity. i. e. Aβ = 1.
When Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the Gain of the Amplifier with Feedback becomes infinity,
i.e., there is output without any input. In another words, the amplifier works as an
Oscillator.
The condition Aβ = 1 is called as Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations. This
is a very important factor to be always kept in mind, in the concept of Oscillators.
NATURE OF SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATIONS
 The Nature of sinusoidal oscillations are generally of Two Types.
i. Damped Oscillations
ii. Un-damped Oscillations
i. Damped Oscillations : The Electrical Oscillations whose amplitude goes on
decreasing with time are called as Damped Oscillations. The frequency of the
damped oscillations may remain constant depending upon the circuit
parameters.

Damped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that

produce power losses and doesn’t compensate if required.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 5 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

ii. Un-damped Oscillations : The Electrical Oscillations whose amplitude remains

constant with time are called as Un-damped Oscillations. The frequency of the Un-
damped oscillations also remains constant.

Un-damped Oscillations are generally produced by the Oscillatory Circuits that

produce no power losses and follow compensation techniques if any power losses
occur.
An Amplifier with Positive Feedback produces its output to be in phase with the input
and increases the strength of the signal. Positive Feedback is also called
as Regenerative Feedback . This kind of Feedback makes a Feedback Amplifier,
an Oscillator.
The use of Positive Feedback results in a Feedback Amplifier having closed-loop
gain greater than the open-loop gain. It results in instability and operates as an
oscillatory circuit. An oscillatory circuit provides a constantly varying amplified output
signal of any desired frequency.
OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT
 An Oscillatory Circuit produces Electrical oscillations of a desired frequency. This
Circuit is also known as Tank Circuits.
A simple Tank Circuit comprises of an Inductor L and a Capacitor C both of
which together determine the oscillatory frequency of the circuit.
To understand the concept of oscillatory circuit, let us consider the following
circuit. The Capacitor in this circuit is already charged using a DC Source. In this
situation, the upper plate of the Capacitor has excess of electrons whereas the lower
plate has deficit of electrons. The Capacitor holds some electrostatic energy and
there is a voltage across the capacitor.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 6 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

When the Switch S is closed, the Capacitor discharges and the current flows
through the Inductor. Due to the Inductive effect, the current builds up slowly
towards a maximum value. Once the Capacitor discharges completely, the magnetic
field around the coil is maximum.

Now, let us move on to the next stage. Once the Capacitor is discharged completely,
the magnetic field begins to collapse and produces a counter EMF according to
Lenz’s law. The Capacitor is now charged with Positive Charge on the upper plate
and negative charge on the lower plate.

Once the Capacitor is fully charged, it starts to discharge to build up a magnetic field
around the coil, as shown in the following circuit diagram.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 7 of 32

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This continuation of charging and discharging results in alternating motion of

electrons or an Oscillatory Current. The interchange of Energy between L and C
produce continuous oscillations.
In an ideal circuit, where there are no losses, the oscillations would continue
indefinitely. In a practical Tank Circuit, The losses ( resistive and radiation) in the coil
and dielectric losses in the capacitor occur. These losses result in damped
oscillations.
 Frequency of Oscillations : The frequency of the oscillations produced by the
Tank Circuit are determined by the components of the Tank Circuit ( L and C ). The
actual frequency of Oscillations is the resonant frequency (or natural frequency) of
the tank circuit which is given by
XL = XC
2π fr L = 1/ 2π fr C
fr = ___1___
2π √LC
An Oscillator Circuit is a complete set of all the parts of circuit which helps to
produce the oscillations. These oscillations should sustain and should be Un-
damped.
 Tuned Circuit Oscillator: Tuned circuit are the Circuits that produce
oscillations with the help of tuning circuits. The tuning circuits consists of an
inductance L and a capacitor C. These are also known as LC oscillators, resonant
circuit oscillators or tank circuit oscillators.
The Tuned Circuit Oscillators are used to produce an output in the radio
frequencies range and Hence these are also known as R.F. Oscillators. A BJT or a
FET is used as an Amplifier with Tuned Circuit Oscillators. With an Amplifier, an LC
Tank Circuit, and Positive Feedback Circuit, a Signal with right amplitude and phase
to maintain oscillations.
 Numerical-1 : Find the Resonant Frequency of oscillations in LC Tank
Circuit with the following parameters:
i) L = 10 mH , C = 40 pF
ii) L = 20 mH C = 10 µF
Solution:
i) Given L = 10 mH , C = 40 pF
The resonant frequency of LC circuit is given by ;
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 8 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

fr = ___1___ = _____1_______________ = ___1____ = 251.54 KHz

2π √LC 2π √10 x 10-3 x 40 x 10-12 3.9754 x 10-6

fr = 251.54 KHz
ii) Given L = 20 mH , C = 10 µF
The resonant frequency of LC circuit is given by ;
fr = ___1___ = _____1_______________ = ___1____ = 11.25MHz
2π √LC 2π √20 x 10-3 x 10 x 10-6 8.89 x 10-8

fr = 11.25 MHz
 Advantage of Oscillators:
1. Oscillator is Non-Rotating Device, hence Life of Oscillator is longer and high
efficiency.
2. The size of an Oscillator is Small.
3. The Cost of an Oscillator is less.
4. The Operation of Oscillator is silent.
5. The Oscillator has good frequency stability with time.
6. The operation of Oscillator is very easy.
7. It is portable due to small in size.
8. The frequency of the Oscillator can be varied whenever required.
 Applications of Oscillators :
1. Oscillators are used in Ratio Transmitter to provide the Carrier Frequency
Signal.
2. Oscillators are used in T V Transmitter to provide the Carrier Frequency Signal.
3. Oscillators are used in Radar System Satellite Transmitter to provide the
Carrier Frequency Signal.
4. Oscillators are used in Radio Receiver to provide Sinusoidal Signal to Mixer
Circuits.
5. Oscillators are used in T. V. Receiver to provide Sinusoidal Signal to Mixer
Circuits.
6. Oscillators are used in Radar System Satellite Receiver to provide Sinusoidal
Signal to Mixer Circuits.
7. Oscillators are widely used for practical purpose in the Laboratories for
measuring the frequency response of Amplifiers and for testing of Electronics
Equipments.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 9 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

 DIFFERENCE BETWEENN OSCILLATOR AND ALTERNATOR

Sr Oscillator Alternator
No
Oscillator is an Electronic Device An Alternator is Mechanical Device
that converts Electrical Energy that converts Mechanical (Kinetic)
1.
(DC) in to Electrical ( AC ) Energy to Electrical Energy ( AC ).
An Oscillator is Non-Rotating An Alternator is Rotating Device,
Device, hence Life of Oscillator is hence Life of Alternator is less and
2.
longer and high efficiency. Low efficiency.
3. The size of an Oscillator is Small. The Size of Alternator is Larger.
4. The Cost of an Oscillator is less. The Cost of an Alternator is high.

5. Operation of Oscillator is silent. The Operation of Alternator is Noisy.

The Operation of Oscillator is The Operation of Alternator is

6.
very easy. complex.
7. It is portable due to small in size. It is not portable due to larger in size.

The frequency of the Oscillator The frequency of the Alternator is fixed

8.
can be varied whenever required. and cannot varied whenever required.

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OSCILLATOR AND AMPLIFIER

Sr. Oscillator Amplifier
No
Oscillator is an Electronic Device Amplifier is a Electronics Device that
that converts Electrical Energy amplify AC Signal of Low Amplitude
1.
(DC) in to Electrical ( AC ) to high Amplitude at same frequency.
Oscillator generates a Signal Amplifier increases the Signal
without that Input Signal, but it strength of the Input Signal applied.
2.
requires dc for its operation.
Amplifier takes Energy from DC
Oscillator produces an oscillating
3. Source and converts it into AC
AC Signal on its own.
Energy at Input Signal Frequency.
The Frequency , Waveform, and The Frequency, Waveform, and
Magnitude of output of Oscillator Magnitude of AC Signal amplified by
4.
are controlled by the components an Amplifier, is controlled by the AC
in the circuit itself, which means Signal Voltage applied at the Input,
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 10 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

no external controlling Voltage is

required.

5.

CLASSIFICATION OF SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS:

 Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories: −
1. Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These Oscillators use a Tuned-circuit
consisting of Inductors (L) and Capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-
frequency signals. Thus these are also known as radio frequency R.F.
oscillators. Such oscillators are Tuned Collector Oscillator, Hartley Oscillator and
Colpitts Oscillators etc.
2. RC Oscillators − There Oscillators use Resistors and Capacitors and are
used to generate low or Audio-Frequency Signals. Thus they are also known as
Audio-Frequency (A.F.) Oscillators. Such Oscillators are RC Phase –Shift
Oscillator and Wein-bridge Oscillator.
3. Crystal Oscillators − These Oscillators use Quartz Crystals and are used to
generate highly stabilized output signal with frequencies up to 10 MHz. The
Piezo Oscillator is an example of a Crystal Oscillator.
 Types of Tuned Circuit Oscillators: Most of the Oscillators used in radio
transmitters and receivers are of LC oscillators type. Depending upon the way the
Feedback is used in the Circuit, the LC Oscillators are divided as the following types.
I. Tuned-collector or Armstrong Oscillator − It uses inductive
Feedback from the collector of a Transistor to the base. The LC circuit is in
the collector circuit of the Transistor.
II. Hartley Oscillator − It uses Inductive Feedback.
III. Colpitts Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.
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SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

I. Tuned Collector Oscillator: Tuned Collector Oscillators are called so, because
the tuned circuit is placed in the collector of the Transistor Amplifier. The
combination of L and C form the Tuned Circuit or frequency determining Circuit.
Circuit Diagram:
The Figure show the Circuit Diagram of Tuned Collector Oscillator:

Circuit Details:
i. The Resistors R1, and R2 are used to provide DC biasing to the Transistor .
ii. RE are used to provide for stabilizing the operating point by using Negative
Feedback.
iii. The Capacitors CE and C are used as by-pass Capacitors, which block DC
Signal and provide the path for AC Signal.
iv. The Secondary of the Transformer provides AC Positive Feedback Voltage
that appears across the base-emitter junction of Transistor.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o phase
shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360 o phase shift between the
Input and Output Voltages, due to which Positive feedback appears at the Input of
the Transistor.
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SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

Operation:
Once the Supply is Switched ON, the collector current starts increasing and
charging of Capacitor C takes place. When the Capacitor is fully charged, it
discharges through the Inductance L1. Now oscillations are produced. These
oscillations induce some voltage in the Secondary winding L2. The frequency of
voltage induced in the Secondary winding is same as that of the Tank Circuit and its
magnitude depends upon the number of turns in Secondary winding and coupling
between both the windings.
The Voltage across L2 is applied between base and emitter junction of the
Transistor and appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit, thus overcoming
the losses in the Tank Circuit. The number of turns of L 2 and coupling between
L1 and L2 are so adjusted that oscillations across L2 are amplified to a level just
sufficient to supply losses to the Tank Circuit.
Tuned Collector Oscillators are widely used as the local oscillator in radio
receivers.
Frequency:
The equation for frequency of Tuned Collector Oscillators is given as

fr = ___1___
2π √LC

 Numerical -2 : A Tuned Collector Oscillator has tuned circuit having L =

10mH and C = 10 µF . Find the resonant frequency of the Oscillator.
Solution : Given L = 10mH C = 10 µF
The equation for frequency of Tuned Collector Oscillators is given as

fr = ___1___ = ___1_______________ = ____1_____

2π √LC 2π √10 x 10-3 x10 x10-6 6.2857 x10-8

fr = 15.91 MHz

II. Hartley Oscillator A very popular Local Oscillator circuit that is mostly used
in radio receivers is the Hartley Oscillator Circuit. The Circuit details and operation of
a Hartley Oscillator are as below.:
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SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Details:
i. The Resistors R1, and R2 are used to provide DC biasing to the Transistor .
ii. Re are used to provide for stabilizing the operating point by using Negative
Feedback.
iii. The Capacitors Ce and Cb are used as by-pass Capacitors, which block DC
Signal and provide the path for AC Signal.
iv. The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) is used in the collector which offers very
high impedance to high frequency currents. This means, it provide Zero
impedance for DC Supply and offers very high impedance for AC Signal.
Hence it provides path for DC Supply from collector to Load and protect DC
Supply from AC Signal.
v. Tank Circuit : The frequency determining Network is a Parallel Resonant
Circuit which consists of the Inductors L 1 and L2 along with a variable
Capacitor C. The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed. The coil L1 has its one
end connected to the Transistor base via C b and the other to emitter via Ce.
So, L2 is in the Output Circuit. Both the coils L 1 and L2 are inductively
coupled and together form an Auto-transformer.
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As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another

180o phase shift is provided by the Transformer, which makes 360 o phase shift
between the Input and Output Voltages, due to which Positive feedback appears at
the Input of the Transistor.
Operation :
When the Power Supply is switched ON, it will charging the Capacitor C of the Tank
Circuit through RFC Coil and a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or
Tank Circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces AC Signal across L1.
The Auto-Transformer made by the inductive coupling of L 1 and L2 helps in
determining the frequency and establishes the feedback. As the CE configured
transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o phase shift is provided by the
transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the input and output voltages.
This makes the positive feedback which is essential for the condition of
oscillations. When the Loop Gain (Aβ) of the Amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the Circuit.
Frequency:
The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as
fr = ___1___
2π √LTC

Where; LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
Here, LT is the total cumulatively coupled Inductance; L1 and L2 represent
inductances of 1st and 2nd coils and M represents Mutual Inductance.Mutual
inductance is calculated when two windings are considered.
 Numerical -3 : A Hartley Oscillator has tuned circuit having L1 = 10mH , L2 =
10mH and Mutual Inductance M= 2 mH and C = 20 µF . Find the resonant
frequency of the Oscillator.
Solution : Given L1 = 10mH , L2 = 10mH M= 2 mH and C = 20 µF
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M = 10 + 10 + 2 = 22 mH

The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as

fr = ___1___ = ___1_______________ = _____1____
2π √LTC 2π √22 x 10-3 x 10 x 10-6 9.32 x 10-8

fr = 10.72 MHz
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Advantages:
1. In Hartley Oscillator, Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be
used as an auto-transformer.
2. In this Oscillator, Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable
capacitor or a variable inductor.
3. In this Oscillator, Less number of components are sufficient.
4. In this Oscillator, The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed
frequency range.
Disadvantages:
1. This Oscillator cannot be used at low frequencies.

2. In this Oscillator, Harmonic distortions are present.

Applications:
1. It is used to produce a sine wave of desired frequency.

2. It is mostly used as a Local Oscillator in radio receivers.

3. It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.

III. Colpitts Oscillator: A Colpitts Oscillator looks just like the Hartley Oscillator but
the Inductors and Capacitors are replaced with each other in the Tank Circuit.
The Circuit Details and operation of a Colpitts Oscillator are as below:
Circuit Diagram:
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Circuit Details:
i. The Resistors R1, and R2 are used to provide DC biasing to the Transistor .
ii. Re are used to provide for stabilizing the operating point by using Negative
Feedback.
iii. The Capacitors Ce and Cb are used as by-pass Capacitors, which block DC
Signal and provide the path for AC Signal.
iv. The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) is used in the collector which offers very
high impedance to high frequency currents. This means, it provide Zero
impedance for DC Supply and offers very high impedance for AC Signal.
Hence it provides path for DC Supply from collector to Load and protect DC
Supply from AC Signal.
v. Tank Circuit: The frequency determining Network is a Parallel Resonant
Circuit which consists of variable Capacitors C1 and C2 along with an Inductor
L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The capacitor C1 has its one end
connected to Transistor base via Cb and the other to emitter via Ce. the
voltage developed across C1 provides the Regenerative Feedback ( Positive
Feedback ) required for the sustained oscillations.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180 o phase shift, another 180o phase shift is
provided by the Capacitors (C1 & C2), which makes 360o phase shift between the
Input and Output Voltages, due to which Positive feedback appears at the Input of
the Transistor.
Operation:
When the DC Power Supply is switched ON, and this collector supply through
RFC Coil is given to Tank Circuit, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or
Tank Circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces AC voltage across
C1 which are applied to the base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in
the collector circuit and supply losses to the Tank Circuit.
If terminal 1 is at Positive Potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then
terminal 2 will be at Negative Potential with respect to 3 at that instant because
terminal 3 is grounded. Therefore, points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180 o. As the
CE configured Transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift
between the input and output voltages.
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This makes the Positive Feedback which is essential for the condition of
oscillations. When the Loop Gain (Aβ) of the Amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the Circuit.
Frequency:
The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as
fr = ___1___
2π √LCT

Where CT is the total Capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

CT = C1 × C2
C1+C2
 Numerical -4 : A Colpitts Oscillator has tuned circuit having L = 20mH , and
C1 = 10 µF & C2 = 10 µF . Find the resonant frequency of the Oscillator.
Solution : Given L = 20mH , C1 = 10 µF C2 = 10 µF

CT = C1 × C2 = 10 x10 / ( 10 + 10 ) = 100/20 = 5 µF
C1+C2
The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as
fr = ___1___ = ___1_______________ = _____1 _____
2π √LCT 2π √20 x 10-3 x 5 x 10-6 6.2857 x 10-8

fr = 15.91 MHz

 Advantages:
1. Colpitts Oscillator can generate sinusoidal signals of very high frequencies.
2. It can withstand at high and low temperatures.
3. The frequency stability of Colpitts Oscillator is high.
4. In Colpitts Oscillator, Frequency can be varied by using both the variable
Capacitors.
5. In this Oscillator, less number of components are sufficient.
6. In Colpitts Oscillator, the amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed
frequency range.
The Colpitts Oscillator is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of Hartley
Oscillator and have no specific disadvantages. Hence there are many applications of
a Colpitts Oscillator.
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 Applications
1. Colpitts Oscillator can be used as High frequency Sine Wave Signal
Generator.
2. This Oscillator can be used as a temperature sensor with some associated
circuitry.
3. This Oscillator is mostly used as a Local Oscillator in radio receivers.
4. This Oscillator is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
5. This Oscillator is also used in Mobile applications.
6. This Oscillator has got many other commercial applications.
 Drawbacks of LC circuits:
The LC Circuits have few drawbacks such as:
i. Frequency instability
ii. Poor Waveform.
iii. Cannot be used for low frequencies.

iv. Inductors are bulky and expensive.

By replacing the Inductors with Resistors, another type of Oscillator Circuits can be
made. These Oscillators improve the frequency stability and also improve the quality
of waveforms. These oscillators can also produce lower frequencies signal and the
circuit is neither bulky nor expensive.
All the drawbacks of LC Oscillator Circuits are eliminated in RC Oscillator Circuits.
These are also called as Phase–shift Oscillators.
PRINCIPLE OF PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATORS:
 The output voltage of an RC Circuit for a sine wave input leads the input voltage.
The Phase Angle by which it leads is determined by the value of RC Components
used in the Circuit.
The Circuit diagram shows a Single Section of an RC Network.
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The Output Voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the input voltage applied input
V1 by some phase angle ɸo. If R were reduced to zero, V1' will lead the V1 by
90o i.e., ɸo = 90o.
However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable, because it would lead to
no voltage across R. Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a value that makes
V1' to lead V1 by 60o. The following circuit diagram shows the Three Sections of the
RC network.

Each section produces a Phase

Shift of
60o. Consequently, a Total Phase shift of 180o is produced, i.e., voltage V1' leads the
voltage V1 by 180o.
I. RC Phase-shift Oscillator Circuit :
 The Oscillator Circuit that produces a Sine Wave using a RC Phase-Shift Network is
called as a RC Phase-Shift Oscillator Circuit.
The Circuit details and operation of a Phase-Shift Oscillator circuit are as given
below:
Circuit Diagram :
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The Phase-Shift Oscillator Circuit consists of a Single Stage Transistor Amplifier

Section and a RC phase-shift network. The phase shift network in this circuit,
consists of Three RC Sections. At the resonant frequency fo, the phase shift in each
RC section is 60o so that the total phase shift produced by RC network is 180 o. As
the CE configured Transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360 o phase shift
between the input and output voltages.
This makes the positive feedback which is essential for the condition of
oscillations. When the Loop Gain (Aβ) of the Amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the Circuit.
Operation:
The Circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant frequency fo. The output
Eo of the Amplifier is fed back to RC Feedback Network. This Network produces a
phase shift of 180o and a voltage Ei appears at its output. This voltage is applied to
the Transistor Amplifier.
The feedback applied will be
β = Ei / Eo
The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the Transistor Amplifier, which is in
CE configuration, produces a 180o phase shift. The phase shift produced by
Network and As the CE configured Transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes
360o phase shift between the input and output voltages.
This makes the positive feedback which is essential for the condition of
oscillations. When the Loop Gain (Aβ) of the Amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the Circuit.
Frequency:
The frequency of oscillations is given by
fo = _1_____
2π √6RC
Where
R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C3 = C
 Numerical -5 : A RC Phase Shift Oscillator has feedback circuit having R1 =
R2 = R3 = 100Ω , and C1 = C2 = C3 = 10 µF . Find the resonant frequency of the
Oscillator.
Solution : Given R1 = R2 = R3 = R = 100Ω C1 = C2 = C3 = C = 10 µF
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The frequency of oscillations is given by

fo = _1_____ = _1_________________ = ____1_____
2π √6RC 2π √6 x 100 x 10 x 10-6 486.88 x 10-6

fo = 2.054 KHz
 Advantages:
1. RC Phase-Shift Oscillator does not require transformers or inductors.
2. This Oscillator can be used to produce very low frequencies.
3. This Oscillator provides good frequency stability.
 Disadvantages:
1. In RC Phase-Shift Oscillator, starting of oscillations is difficult as the feedback is
small.
2. In RC Phase-Shift Oscillator, the output produced is small.
3. In RC Phase Oscillators, the frequency is not varied.
II. Wien Bridge Oscillator: Another type of popular audio frequency oscillator is
the Wien Bridge Oscillator Circuit. This is mostly used because of its important
features like as free from the circuit fluctuations and the ambient temperature.
The main advantage of this oscillator is that the frequency can be varied in the
range of 10Hz to about 1MHz whereas in RC oscillators, the frequency is not varied.
Circuit Diagram: The Circuit Diagram shows a Wien bridge oscillator:

It is a Two-Stage Amplifier with RC bridge circuit. The Bridge Circuit has four arms:
i) R1-C1 iii) R2-C2
ii) R3 iv) tungsten lamp Lp
Resistance R3 and the lamp Lp are used to stabilize the Amplitude of the output.
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Circuit Details:
The Transistor T1 works as an Oscillator and an Amplifier while the other
Transistor T2 serves as an Inverter. The Inverter operation provides a phase shift of
180o. This Circuit provides Positive feedback through R1C1, C2R2 to the Transistor
T1 and Negative feedback through the voltage divider to the input of Transistor T2.
Now, Simplify the above circuit as follows −

The Oscillator consists of two Stages of RC Coupled Amplifier and a

Feedback Network. The voltage across the Parallel combination of R and C is fed to
the input of Amplifier -1. The net phase shift through the two Amplifiers is Zero.
The usual idea of connecting the output of Amplifier - 2 to input of Amplifier-1
through RC Circuit to provide Signal Regeneration ( Positive Feedback ) for
Oscillator is not applicable here as the Amplifier-1 will amplify signals over a wide
range of frequencies and hence direct coupling would result in poor frequency
stability. By adding Wien Bridge Feedback Network, the Oscillator becomes
sensitive to a particular frequency and hence frequency stability is achieved.
Operation
When the Circuit is Switched ON, the bridge circuit produces oscillations of
the frequency fo as given below. The Two Transistors produce a total phase shift of
360o so that proper Positive Feedback is ensured. The Negative Feedback in the
Circuit ensures constant output. This is achieved by temperature sensitive tungsten
lamp Lp. Its resistance increases with current.
If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is produced and more
Negative Feedback is achieved. Due to this, the Output would return to the original
value. Whereas, if the Output tends to decrease, reverse action would take place.
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Frequency:
The frequency of oscillations is determined by the series element R1C1 and
parallel element R2C2 of the bridge.
fo = _1_________
2π √R1R2C1C2

If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
Then,
fo = _1____
2π RC

 Numerical -6 : A RC Wien bridge Oscillator has feedback circuit having R 1 =

R2 = 500Ω , and C1 = C2 = 20 nF . Find the resonant frequency of the Oscillator
Solution : Given R1 = R2 = R = 500Ω C1 = C2 = C = 20 nF
The frequency of oscillations is given by
fo = _1_____ = _1_________________ = ____1_____
2π RC 2π x 500 x 20 x 10-9 62.85 x 10-6

fo = 15.91 KHz

 Advantages:
1. The Wien Bridge Oscillator provides good frequency stability.
2. This Oscillator provides constant output.
3. The operation of this oscillator is quite easy.
4. The overall gain of this Oscillator is high because of two transistors.
5. In this Oscillator, the frequency of oscillations can be changed easily.
6. In this Oscillator, the amplitude stability of the output voltage can be maintained
more accurately, by replacing R2 with a thermistor.

 Disadvantages :
1. This Oscillator cannot generate very high frequencies.
2. Two transistors and number of components are required for this Oscillator,
which make it costly and complex.
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 Limitations of LC & RC Oscillators:

Whenever an LC & RC Oscillators are under continuous operation, their frequency
stability gets affected. There occur changes in its frequency. The main factors that
affect the frequency of an oscillator are
I.Power Supply variations

II.Changes in Temperature

III.Changes in Load or Output Resistance

In RC and LC Oscillators the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance vary

with temperature and hence the frequency gets affected. So, whenever an LC & RC
Oscillators are under continuous operation, their frequency stability gets affected.
In order to avoid this problem the frequency stability which was affected in LC & RC
Oscillators under long operation, the piezo electric crystals are being used in
Oscillators.
I. Crystal Oscillators: The Oscillators which uses piezo electric crystals in parallel
resonant circuits to provide high frequency stability in oscillators are called as Crystal
Oscillators.

 Principle of Crystal Oscillators :

The Principle of Crystal Oscillators depends upon the Piezo electric effect. The
natural shape of a crystal is hexagonal. When a crystal is cut perpendicular to X-
axis, it is called as X-cut and when it is cut along Y-axis, it is called as Y-cut. When
any Crystal used in Crystal Oscillator exhibits a property called as Piezo Electric
Effect.
 Piezo Electric Effect:
The Crystal exhibits the property that when a mechanical stress is applied
across one of the faces of the crystal, a potential difference is developed across the
opposite faces of the crystal. Conversely, when a potential difference is applied
across one of the faces, a mechanical stress is produced along the other faces. This
is known as Piezo Electric Effect.
Certain crystalline materials like Rochelle salt, quartz and tourmaline exhibit
piezo electric effect and such materials are called as Piezo Electric Crystals.
Quartz is the most commonly used piezo electric crystal because it is inexpensive
and easily available in nature.
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When a proper alternating potential provided to Piezo Electric Crystal, it

vibrates mechanically. The amplitude of mechanical vibrations becomes maximum
when the frequency of alternating voltage is equal to the natural frequency of the
crystal.
 Working of a Quartz Crystal:
In order to make a crystal work in an electronic circuit, the Crystal is placed
between two metal plates in the form of a Capacitor. Quartz is the mostly used type
of crystal because of its availability and strong nature while being inexpensive. The
AC Voltage is applied in parallel to the crystal. The circuit arrangement of a Quartz
Crystal shown as below ;

If an AC Voltage is applied, the Crystal starts vibrating at the frequency of the

applied voltage with negligible valve. However, if the frequency of the applied
voltage is made equal to the natural frequency of the crystal, resonance takes place
and crystal vibrations reach a maximum value. This natural frequency of the Crystal
is almost constant.
 Equivalent circuit of a Crystal
The Crystal with an equivalent electric circuit represented in two cases, i.e., when it
vibrates and when it doesn’t. The below figures represent the Symbol and Electrical
Equivalent Circuit of a Crystal.
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The above equivalent circuit consists of a series R-L-C circuit in parallel with a
capacitance C . When the crystal mounted across the AC source is not vibrating, it is
m

equivalent to the capacitance C . When the crystal vibrates, it acts like a tuned R-L-
m

C circuit.
 Frequency response of Crystal:
The frequency response of a crystal is as shown below. The graph shows the
reactance (XL or XC) versus frequency (f). It is shows that the crystal has two closely
spaced resonant frequencies.

i. The first one is the series resonant frequency (fs), which occurs when
reactance of the inductance (L) is equal to the reactance of the capacitance C.
In that case, the impedance of the equivalent circuit is equal to the resistance R
and the frequency of oscillation is given by the relation,
Frequency of Series Resonant Circuit:
The equation for series resonant frequency (fs) is given as
fS = ___1___
2π √LCS

ii. The second one is the parallel resonant frequency (f p), which occurs when the
reactance of R-L-C branch is equal to the reactance of capacitor C m. At this
frequency, the crystal offers a very high impedance to the external circuit and
the frequency of oscillation is given by the relation.
Frequency of Parallel Resonant Circuit:
The equation for Parallel resonant frequency (fP) is given as
fP = ___1___
2π √LCP
Where CP is the total Capacitance of C and Cm connected in series.
CP = C × Cm
C + Cm
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The value of Cm is usually very large as compared to C. Therefore, the

value of CT is approximately equal to C and hence the Series Resonant
Frequency is approximately equal to the Parallel Resonant Frequency.
fs = fp
 Crystal Oscillator Circuit
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Crystal Oscillator Circuit:

Circuit Detail:
i. The Resistors R1, and R2 are used to provide DC biasing to the Transistor .
ii. Re are used to provide for stabilizing the operating point by using Negative
Feedback.
iii. The Capacitors Ce is used as by-pass Capacitors, which block DC Signal and
provide the path for AC Signal.
iv. The Coupling Capacitor C has negligible impedance at the circuit operating
frequency. But it blocks any DC between collector and base.
v. The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) is used in the collector which offers very
high impedance to high frequency currents. This means, it provide Zero
impedance for DC Supply and offers very high impedance for AC Signal.
Hence it provides path for DC Supply from collector to Load and protect DC
Supply from AC Signal.
vi. In this circuit, the Crystal is connected as Series Element in the Feedback path
from collector to base.
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Operation:-
When Supply to Oscillator is Switch ON, the noise voltage at the base resister is
amplified at the output of Amplifier and this voltage is applied to the Crystal and it
starts vibrating at the natural frequency of the Crystal and produces the oscillations.
These electrical oscillation are applied back (Positive Feedback) to the input of the
Amplifier (base of Transistor) which again amplified at the output and recovers the
losses. When the Loop Gain (Aβ) of the Amplifier is equal to one, oscillations are
sustained in the Circuit.
The circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency of
the crystal and its value is given by the relation,
fS = ___1___
2π √LCS

It may be noted that the changes in supply voltage, transistor device

parameters etc. have no effect on the circuit operating frequency, which is held
stabilized by the crystal.

 Advantages:
1. The Crystal Oscillator have a high order of frequency stability.
2. The quality factor (Q) of the crystal Oscillator is very high.
 Disadvantages:
1. The Crystal Oscillators are critical and can be used only in low power circuits.
2. In Crystal Oscillator, the frequency of oscillations cannot be changed.
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FILL IN BLANKS:
1. Frequency of oscillation of a Wein bridge oscillator is given by………………..
2. The ………………………Oscillator is also called Harmonic oscillator.
3. An oscillator is circuit that converts ………………..Signal into AC Signal.
4. The amplitude of Damped oscillations …………………with time.
5. In-phase feedback is called ……………….feedback.
6. ………………..uses the Positive Feedback.
7. An Oscillator produce ……………….. oscillations.
8. Hartley Oscillator uses …………… Feedback.
9. ………………. Oscillator uses Capacitive Feedback.
10. The ………………. Oscillator uses Positive and Negative feedback .
11. In Wein Bridge Oscillator, if the resistance in the Positive feedback increases, the
frequency of the oscillation………………
12. For Un-damped oscillations, the closed loop gain of an Amplifier should
be…………..
13. A ……………. circuit uses Inductor and capacitor for frequency determining.
14. The minimum number of RC sections required in Phase-shift Oscillator
are…………..
15. In the Phase-Shift Oscillator, the operating frequency is determined by
……………. Combination.
16. The …………….. Oscillator uses Quartz substance as Crystal.
17. In RC phase shift Oscillator, each section causes phase shift of ………… degree.
18. The frequency of RC phase shift Oscillator is …………
19. The frequency of …………Oscillator is fr = ___1___
2π √LCT
20. In the Barkhausen criterion, the closed loop gain A β is equal to…………..

Answers:
1) 1/2πRC 2) Sinusoidal 3) DC 4) decreases
5) Positive 6) Oscillators 7) Un-damped 8) Inductive
9) Colpitts 10) Wein Bridge 11) Decreases 12) Unity
13) LC tuned 14) Three 15) RC 16) Crystal
17) 60 18) fo = _1_____ 19) Colpitts 20) Unity
2π √6RC
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FILL IN BLANKS:
21. With feedback factor β and the gain without the feedback is A, then overall gain
of the circuit is reduced by a factor …………………..
22. In LC tuned circuit, Resonance occurs when XL ……………. XC.
23. Frequencies above 50 KHz are called …………….frequencies.
24. ………………. Oscillators are used where high stable frequency is required.
25. The Wein Bridge Oscillator is useful at ……………….. frequencies.
26. The Harley Oscillator uses split…………….……
27. The Colpitts Oscillator uses split………………...
28. An …………….. Circuit must satisfy Barkhausen Criterion.
29. The Parallel-Resonant Impedance of a Crystal Oscillator is……………. .
30. The ………………-Resonant Impedance of a Crystal Oscillator is very low
31. In the Colpitts Oscillator, the frequency is determined are ………….. and
capacitance
32. ………………….. Oscillator is a fixed frequency Oscillator.
33. Oscillator is an Electronics Device which convert Electrical DC Energy into
Electrical …………… Energy.
34. To obtained Un-Damped oscillations …………… Feedback is required.
35. RC Phase shift Oscillator will not produce any oscillation until and unless votain
gain of its internal Amplifier is more than ………………..
36. An Oscillator is an ………………. Electronic device.
37. The Sinusoidal Oscillator is also called ……………….. oscillator.
38. ………………… Oscillator uses split Inductor.
39. Frequency of oscillation of a …………….. oscillator is given by1/2πRC
40. ………………. Oscillator uses split Capacitor.

Answers:
21) 1+Aβ 22) is equal to 23) Radios 24) Crystal
25) low 26) Inductor 27) Capacitor 28) Oscillator
29) very high 30) Series 31) Inductance 32) Crystal
33) AC 34) Positive 35) 29 36) Static
37) Harmonic 38) Harley 39) Wein bridge 40) Colpitts
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TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

1. In the Colpitts Oscillator, the frequency is determined are inductance and
capacitance.
2. Crystal Oscillator is a fixed frequency Oscillator.
3. Oscillator is an Electronics Device which convert Mechanical Energy into Electrical
AC Energy.
4. To obtained Un-Damped oscillations Negative Feedback is required.
5. RC Phase shift Oscillator will produce any oscillation until and unless votain gain of
its internal Amplifier is more than 29.
6. An Oscillator is an Static Electronic device.
7. The Crystal Oscillator uses Quartz substance as Crystal.
8. In RC phase shift Oscillator, each section causes phase shift of 90 degree.
9. The frequency of RC phase shift Oscillator is ___1___
2π √LCT
10. The frequency of Colpitts Oscillator is ___1___
2π √LCT
11. In the Barkhausen criterion, the loop gain A β is equal to Unity.
12. With feedback, β , the overall gain of the circuit is reduced by a factor 1 + A β
where A is the gain without the feedback.
13. In LC tuned circuit, Resonance occurs when XL is greater than XC.
14. Frequencies below 50 KHz are called Radios frequencies.
15. Crystal Oscillators are used where high stable frequency is required.
16. The Wein Bridge Oscillator is useful at high frequencies.
17. The Harley Oscillator uses split Inductor.
18. The Colpitts Oscillator uses split Capacitor.
19. An Oscillator circuit don’t need satisfy Barkhausen Criterion.
20. The Parallel-Resonant Impedance of a Crystal Oscillator is very high.

Answers:

1) TRUE 2) TRUE 3) FALSE 4) FALSE

5) FALSE 6) TRUE 7) TRUE 8) FALSE
9) FALSE 10) TRUE 11) TRUE 12) TRUE
13) FALSE 14) FALSE 15) TRUE 16) FALSE
17) TRUE 18) TRUE 19) FALSE 20) TRUE
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – IV Page 32 of 32

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS

TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

21. The Series-Resonant Impedance of a Crystal Oscillator is very high.
22. Frequency of oscillation of a Wein bridge oscillator is given by1/2πRC.
23. The Sinusoidal Oscillator is also called Harmonic oscillator.
24. An oscillator is circuit that converts AC Signal into AC Signal.
25. The amplitude of Damped oscillations decreases with time.
26. Oscillators uses the positive feedback.
27. An Oscillator produce damped oscillations.
28. Hartley Oscillator uses Capacitive Feedback.
29. Colpitts Oscillator uses Capacitive Feedback.
30. The Wein Bridge Oscillator uses Positive feedback only.
31. In Wein Bridge Oscillator, if the resistance in the Positive feedback increases, the
frequency of the oscillation decreases.
32. The amplitude of Damped oscillations remains same with time.
33. In the Barkhausen criterion, the loop gain A β is less than Unity
34. For Un-damped oscillations, the loop gain of an Amplifier should be Unit.
35. A LC tuned circuit uses Resistor and capacitor for frequency determining.
36. The minimum number of RC sections required in phase-shift oscillator are Two.
37. In the Phase-Shift Oscillator, the operating frequency is determined by RC
Combination.
38. The Parallel-Resonant Impedance of a Crystal Oscillator is very low.
39. The Sinusoidal Oscillator is also called Relaxation oscillator.
40. A LC tuned circuit uses Inductor and capacitor for frequency determining.

Answers:
21) FALSE 22) TRUE 23) TRUE 24) FALSE
25) TRUE 26) TRUE 27) FALSE 28) FALSE
29) TRUE 30) FALSE 31) TRUE 32) FALSE
33) FALSE 34) TRUE 35) FALSE 36) FALSE
37) TRUE 38) FALSE 39) FALSE 40) TRUE
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

 The different types of Amplifiers that discussed till now, cannot work effectively at
radio frequencies, even though they are good at Audio Frequencies. Also, Gain of
these Amplifiers is such that it will not vary according to the frequency of the signal,
over a wide range. These Amplifiers amplify the Signal equally well over a range of
frequencies and does not select a particular desired frequency while rejecting the
other frequencies.
There is a need of a circuit that can select as well as amplify the desired
signal and reject undesired signals. So, an Amplifier Circuit along with a selection
(tuned circuit) makes a Tuned Amplifier.
TUNED AMPLIFIER:
 Tuned Amplifier is an Amplifier which amplifying a selected frequency signal or a
narrow (slight) band of frequencies signal that are located at the resonant frequency
and reject undesired signals.
Tuned Amplifiers employed for the purpose of Tuning. Tuning means
selecting a desired signal from among a set of frequencies signal available. If there
is a need to select a particular frequency, while rejecting all other frequencies, such
a process is called Selection. This selection is done by using a circuit called
as Tuned circuit.
In Tuned Circuit, the Inductor's reactance balances the Capacitor's
reactance within the Circuit at a specific frequency, then this freuency is called
resonant frequency, and it can be denoted with 'f r'. When in an Amplifier Circuit, its
load replaced by a Tuned Circuit, such an Amplifier is called as a Tuned Amplifier.
TYPES OF TUNED CIRCUITS
 According to the type of connection to the main circuit, the Tuned Circuit are of
Two Types :
1. Series Tuned Circuit (Series resonant circuit)
2. Parallel Tuned Circuit (Parallel resonant circuit)

1. Series Tuned ( Resonance ) Circuit : The Inductor and Capacitor are

connected in series make a Series Tuned Circuit. When this circuit is connected to
AC voltage source of constant amplitude and varying frequency from Zero to
Infinity, at a frequency resonance will occur for which impedance of circuit will be
minimum and draw maximum current.
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When Resonance occurs in a Series Circuit, the Supply voltage causes the voltages
across L and C to be equal and opposite in phase.
In a Series RLC Circuit, at frequency when inductive reactance of the
Inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the Capacitor or In
other words, XL = XC resonant occurs. The frequency point at which this resonant
occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the circuit.
Series Resonance Circuits are one of the most important circuits used in
many electrical and electronic circuits such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and
also in radio and television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit
for the receiving of the different frequency channels.
 Simple Series RLC Circuit :

When AC Signal is connected in series of RLC Circuit as above, the Inductive

reactance (XL) causes total current to lag the applied voltage, whereas Capacitive
reactance ( XC ) cause the current to lead. Thus the effect of X L and XC are
opposite. Therefore the net reactance and Impedance in series circuit can be
calculated as :
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 Inductive Reactance against Frequency

We know; XL = 2π f L
From the above equation for Inductive reactance, if either the Frequency or
the Inductance is increased the overall inductive reactance value of the inductor
would also increase. As the frequency approaches infinity the inductors reactance
would also increase towards infinity with the circuit element acting like an open
circuit.
However, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the Inductors reactance
would decrease to zero, causing the opposite effect acting like a short circuit. This
means then that inductive reactance is “Proportional” to frequency and is small at
low frequencies and high at higher frequencies as shown in the following curve:

The graph of inductive reactance against frequency is a straight line linear

curve. The inductive reactance value of an inductor increases linearly as the
frequency across it increases.
Therefore, inductive reactance is positive and is directly proportional to
frequency ( XL ∝ ƒ )
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 Capacitive Reactance against Frequency:

We Know that XC = 1 / 2π f C
From the above equation for Capacitive reactance, If either the Frequency or
the Capacitance is increased the overall capacitive reactance would decrease. As
the frequency approaches infinity the capacitors reactance would reduce to
practically zero causing the circuit element to act like a perfect conductor of 0Ω.
But as the frequency approaches zero or DC level, the Capacitors reactance
would rapidly increase up to infinity causing it to act like a very large resistance,
becoming more like an open circuit condition. This means then that capacitive
reactance is “Inversely proportional” to frequency for any given value of
capacitance and this shown below:

The graph of capacitive reactance against frequency is a hyperbolic curve. The

Reactance value of a Capacitor has a very high value at low frequencies but quickly
decreases as the frequency across it increases. Therefore, capacitive reactance is
negative and is inversely proportional to frequency ( XC ∝ ƒ -1 )
 Series Resonance Frequency:
The values of these resistances ( reactance ) depend upon the frequency of the
Input Sigal. At a higher frequency XL is high and at a low frequency XC is high. Then
there must be a frequency point were the value of XL is the same as the value
of XC and there is. When the curve for inductive reactance placed on the curve for
capacitive reactance , the point of intersection will give the result of the series
resonance frequency point, i. e. ( ƒr or ωr ) as shown below.
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where: ƒr is resonant frequency in Hertz,

L is Inductance in Henries
C is Capacitance in Farads.
Electrical resonance occurs in an AC Circuit, when the two reactances which are
opposite and equal cancel each other out as XL = XC and the point on the graph at
which this happens, where these two reactance curves cross each other.
In a series resonant circuit, the resonant frequency, ƒr point can be
calculated as follows.
XL = XC
2π fr L = 1/ 2π fr C
fr = ___1___
2π √LC

 Impedance in a Series Resonance Circuit:

At resonance, the two reactances cancel each other, which makes a Series LC
Circuit act as a short circuit. But only the resistance R opposes to the current flow in
a Series Resonance Circuit.

In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total
impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary
impedance’s exist. This is because at resonance they are cancelled out.
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So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance
and therefore: Z = R.
Therefore, at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum
value and equal only to the resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at
resonance is called the “dynamic impedance” of the circuit and depending upon the
frequency, XC (typically at high frequencies) or XL (typically at low frequencies) will
dominate either side of resonance as shown below.

It is observed from the above curve, when the capacitive reactance dominates the
circuit the impedance curve has a hyperbolic shape to itself, but when the inductive
reactance dominates the circuit the curve is non-symmetrical due to the linear
response of XL.
It is also observed, the circuits impedance is at its minimum value at
resonance so that the circuits admittance will be maximum and one of the
characteristics of a series resonance circuit is that admittance is very high. But
because a very low value of resistance at resonance means that the resulting
current flowing through the circuit may be very high.
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

 Series RLC Circuit Voltage at Resonance :

The voltage across a series combination is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. At
resonance the two reactances are equal and opposite so cancel each other. Then
two voltages representing VL and VC must also be opposite and equal in value
thereby cancelling each other. Because of pure ( Resistance ) components the
phasor voltages are drawn at +90o and -90o respectively.

So that, in a Series Resonance Circuit as VL = -VC the resulting reactive voltages

are zero and all the supply voltage is dropped across the resistor only.
Therefore, VR = Vsupply
Due to this reason, Series Resonance Circuits are known also as Voltage
Resonance Circuits.
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 Series Circuit Current at Resonance:

Since the current flowing through a series resonance circuit is equal to Voltage
divided by Impedance. At resonance the impedance, Z is at its minimum value, ( =
R ). Therefore, the circuit current at this frequency will be at its maximum value
of V/R as shown below.

The frequency response curve of a series resonance circuit shows that the
magnitude of the current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph
shows us that the response starts at near to zero, reaches maximum value at the
resonance frequency when IMAX = IR and then drops again to nearly zero
as ƒ becomes infinite.
As a series resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type
of circuit is also known as an Acceptor Circuit because at resonance, the
impedance of the circuit is at its minimum so easily accepts the current whose
frequency is equal to its resonant frequency.
 Bandwidth of a Series Resonance Circuit:
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the current value is
70.7% of its maximum resonant value The point corresponding to the lower
frequency is called the “lower cut-off frequency” ( ƒL) and point corresponding to the
upper frequency is called the “upper cut-off frequency” ( ƒH). The range between
these two points, i.e. ( ƒH – ƒL ) is called the Bandwidth, (BW)
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1. NOTE Quality Factor ( Q ) : Quality factor of Inductor / Capacitor is

defined as the ratio of Inductive Reactance or Capacitive reactance to
Resistance in that component ( XL/ R or XC/ R ).
Q = XL / R = XC / R
2. NOTE Bandwidth of Tuned Amplifier ( B. W.) : Bandwidth of a
Tuned Amplifier is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency ( ƒr ) to the
Quality factor (Q) of tuned components used in that amplifier . ( BW = ƒr /Q ).
The sharpness of the peak value is depend upon the Quality factor (Q = (XL or
XC)/R) of the circuit. If the Quality factor of the circuit is high ( valve of resistance is
low ), which gives the narrow bandwidth ( BW = ƒr /Q ). If the quality factor of the
circuit is low ( value of resistance is high ) which increases the bandwidth the
Circuit.

The selectivity of the circuit is a measure of its ability to reject any frequencies
either side of these points. A more selective circuit will have a narrower bandwidth
whereas a less selective circuit will have a wider bandwidth. The selectivity of a
series resonance circuit can be controlled by adjusting the value of the resistance
only.
If the resonant frequency remains constant, an increase in the quality factor
( Q ) means decrease the resistance ( R ) of the tuned component, will cause a
decrease in the bandwidth and likewise, a decrease in the quality factor will cause
an increase in the bandwidth
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

 Numerical-1: For the given circuit diagram as below:

I. Calculate RLC series circuit impedance
II. Current
III. Voltage across each component
IV. Power Factor.
V. Also draw the Phasor diagram of current and voltage, impedance
triangle and voltage triangle.

Solution:
i. First of all Calculate the total impedance with the following formula
Resistance: R = 12 Ω
Inductive Reactance: XL = ωL = 2 π f L = 2 × π × 50 × 0.15 = 47.1 Ω
Capacitive Reactance XC = 1/ ωL = 1 / 2 π f L = 1 / 2 π x 50 x 100 x10-6 = 31.83 Ω

The Total Impedance Z = √R2 + ( XL2 - XC2) = √ (12)2 + ( 47.1 – 31.83 )2

Z= √ 144 + 234 = 19.4 Ω

ii. Current I = V / Z = 100 / 19.4 = 5.14 Amps.

iii. Voltage across each component

Voltage across Resister VR = I x R = 5.14 x 12 = 61.7 Volts
Voltage across Capacitor VC = I x XC = 5.14 x 31.8 = 163.5 Volts
Voltage across Inductor VL = I x XL = 5.14 x 47.13 = 242.2 Volts
iv. Power Factor:
P. F = R / Z = 12 / 19.4 = 0.619 ( Lagging )
As from the above calculation, it is observed that inductive reactance is larger than
capacitive, so the power factor is considered lagging .
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

P. F. = Cos ǿ = 0.619
ǿ = Cos-1 x 0.619 = 51.8o
v i) Phasor diagram of Current and Voltage,
ii) Impedance Triangle
iii) Voltage Triangle

 Numerical -2 For a Series RLC Circuit, R = 25 Ohm, C = 50 pF , L = 10 mH

and source voltage = 100Volts. Find the resonant frequency and Current.
Solution :
i. Given R = 25 Ohm, C = 50 pF , L = 10 mH and
Source Voltage = 100Volts.
fr = ____1____ = ____1________________ = _____1______
2 π √ LC 2 π √ 10 x10-3 x 50 x 10-12 2 π x7.707 x 10-7

fr = 225 KHz
ii. At resonant Z =R
I = VS / R = 100 / 25 = 5 Amps.

2. Parallel Tuned ( Resonance ) Circuit : The Inductor and Capacitor are

connected in Parallel make a Parallel Tuned Circuit. When this parallel circuit is
connected to AC voltage source of constant amplitude and varying frequency from
Zero to Infinity, at a frequency resonance will occur for which impedance of circuit
will be maximum and draw minimum current.
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Parallel Resonance means when the circuit current is in phase with the applied
voltage of an AC circuit containing an Inductor and a Capacitor connected together
in parallel.
Parallel Resonance circuit diagram shown below:

Consider an Inductor of L Henry having some resistance of R ohms connected in

parallel with a capacitor of capacitance C farads. A supply voltage of V volts is
connected across these elements. The circuit current Ir will only be in phase with
the supply voltage when the following condition given below in the equation is
satisfied.

In Parallel Resonant Circuit, resistance R actually represents resistance of

the coil. The Total current Ir is divided into two parts, one of which current IC flows
through the capacitor whereas the current I L flows through the Inductor should be
lags by 90o. As Inductor has small resistance R, therefore current does not lags by
90o but less than 90o let us say that phase lags by ǿ as shown in Phasor diagram.
 Phasor Diagram:
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 Frequency at Resonance Condition in Parallel resonance Circuit

The value of inductive reactance XL = 2πfL and capacitive reactance XC = 1/2πfC
can be changed by changing the supply frequency. As the frequency increases the
value of XL and consequently the value of Z L increases. As a result, there is a
decrease in the magnitude of current IL and this IL current lags behind the voltage V.
On the other hand, the value of capacitive reactance decreases and
consequently the value of IC increases.
At some frequency, fr called resonance frequency.

If R is very small as compared to L, then Resonant frequency will be

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 Impedance in a Parallel Resonance Circuit

In Parallel Circuits at resonance frequency fr, impedance is very high so that the
circuits is having very low limiting the circuits current. Unlike the series resonance
circuit, the resistor in a parallel resonance circuit has a damping effect on the
circuits bandwidth making the circuit less selective.
At the resonant frequency, ƒr the current drawn from the supply must be “in-
phase” with the applied voltage as effectively there is only the resistance present in
the parallel circuit, so the power factor becomes one or unity, ( θ = 0o ).
Also as the impedance of a parallel circuit changes with frequency, this
makes the circuit impedance “dynamic” with the current at resonance being in-
phase with the voltage since the impedance of the circuit acts as a resistance. Then
we have seen that the impedance of a parallel circuit at resonance is equivalent to
the value of the resistance and this value must, therefore represent the maximum
dynamic impedance (Zd) of the circuit as shown.
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

 Parallel Circuit Current at Resonance

The frequency response curve of a parallel resonance circuit shows that the
magnitude of the current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph
shows us that the response starts at its maximum value, reaches its minimum value
at the resonance frequency when IMIN = IR and then increases again to maximum
as ƒ becomes infinite.
The result of this is that the magnitude of the current flowing through the
inductor, L and the capacitor, C tank circuit can become many times larger than the
supply current, even at resonance but as they are equal and at opposition (180o out-
of-phase ) they effectively cancel each other out.
As a parallel resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this
type of circuit is also known as an Rejecter Circuit because at resonance, the
impedance of the circuit is at its maximum thereby suppressing or rejecting the
current whose frequency is equal to its resonant frequency. The effect of resonance
in a parallel circuit is also called “Current Resonance”.
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

 Bandwidth & Selectivity of a Parallel Resonance Circuit:

The bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the current value is 70.7% of
its maximum resonant value The point corresponding to the lower frequency is
called the “lower cut-off frequency” ( ƒL) and point corresponding to the upper
frequency is called the “upper cut-off frequency” ( ƒH). The range between these two
points, i.e. ( ƒH – ƒL ) is called the Bandwidth, (BW).

The bandwidth of a parallel resonance circuit is defined in exactly the same way as
for the series resonance circuit. As with the series circuit, if the resonant frequency
remains constant, an increase in the quality factor, Q will cause a decrease in the
bandwidth and likewise, a decrease in the quality factor will cause an increase in
the bandwidth as defined by:
BW = ƒr / Q or BW = ƒupper - ƒlower
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

 Comparison Between Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits

Sr. Specifications Series Resonant Circuits Parallel Resonant Circuits
No.
1. Impedance at
Minimum ( Zr = R ) Maximum ( Zr = L / CR )
resonance
2. Current at
Maximum ( Ir = V / R ) Minimum ( Ir = V / Z r
resonance
3. Effective
R L/CR
impedance
Resonant
4. frequency

5. It magnifies
Voltage Current
6. It is known as
Acceptor circuit Rejector circuit
7. Power Loss (Ir2R) is High as Ir is high (Ir2R) is Low as Ir is Low
8. Power Factor
Unity Unity
9. Quality Factor
Q = XL / R ( Same ) Q = XL / R ( Same )
10. Frequency
Same Same
Response
11. Bandwidth
Same Same

APPLICATIONS OF LC CIRCUITS
1. The applications of the resonance of the series and parallel LC circuits mainly
involve in communications systems and signal processing.
2. The common application of an LC circuit is, tuning radio Transmitters and
Receivers. For instance, when we tune a radio to an exact station, then the circuit
will set at resonance for that specific carrier frequency.
3. A series resonant LC circuit is used to provide voltage magnification
4. A parallel resonant LC circuit is used to provide current magnification and also
used in the RF amplifier circuits as the load impedance, the amplifier’s gain is
maximum at the resonant frequency.
5. Both series and parallel resonant LC circuits are used in induction heating.
6. These circuits perform as electronic resonators, which are an essential
component in various applications like amplifiers, oscillators, filters, tuners,
mixers, graphic tablets, contactless cards and security tags XL and XC.
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TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

CLASSIFICATIONS OF TUNED AMPLIFIERS

 There are two main types of tuned amplifiers. They are −
1. Single tuned amplifier
2. Double tuned amplifier
1. Single Tune Voltage Amplifier: An amplifier circuit with a single tuner section
being at the collector of the amplifier circuit is called as Single Tuner Amplifier
Circuit
A simple transistor amplifier circuit consisting of a parallel tuned circuit in its
collector load makes a single tuned amplifier circuit. The values of capacitance and
inductance of the tuned circuit are selected such that its resonant frequency is equal
to the frequency to be amplified.
The Basic Single Tuned Amplifier Circuit is as shown below:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit Details:
i. The Resistors R1, and R2 are used to provide DC biasing to the Transistor .
ii. RE are used to provide for stabilizing the operating point by using Negative
Feedback.
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iii. The Capacitors CE is used as by-pass Capacitors, which block DC Signal

and provide the path for AC Signal.
iv. The Capacitors Cin is used as Coupling Capacitors, which block DC supply
and provide the path for Input AC Signal.
v. The Transformer is used for Output Coupling, which block DC supply and
provide the path for AC Signal to the Output Load.
vi. Tuned Circuit: Tuned Circuit is nothing but a LC circuit which is also called
as resonant or Tank Circuit. It selects the desired frequency signal. A
tuned circuit is capable of amplifying selected signal over a narrow band of
frequencies that are centered at resonant frequency.

Operation:

Once the Supply is Switched ON and the high frequency signal that has to be
amplified is applied at the input of the amplifier. The resonant frequency of the
parallel tuned circuit is made equal to the frequency of the signal applied by
changing the capacitance value of the capacitor C, in the tuned circuit.
At this stage, the tuned circuit offers high impedance to the signal frequency,
which helps to offer high output across the tuned circuit. As high impedance is
offered only for the tuned frequency, all the other frequencies which get lower
impedance are rejected by the tuned circuit. Hence the tuned amplifier selects and
amplifies the desired frequency signal and such a frequency is called as resonant
frequency. It is denoted by fr.

When, XL = XC
2π fr L = 1/ 2π fr C
The formula for resonance is
fr = ___1___
2π √LC

The Amplifier select the signal with narrow band frequencies located
at the resonant frequency of the Amplifier & amplify it. The tuned amplifier also
reject all other undesired frequencies signal if available.
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 Frequency Response, Bandwidth & Selectivity of a Single Tuned

Amplifier:
The frequency response of Single Tuned Amplifier is a graph between the Voltage
Gain and frequency of the signal. The frequency response of Single Tuned Amplifier
is as shown below:

At resonant frequency fr the impedance of parallel tuned circuit is very high and is
purely resistive. The voltage across RL is therefore maximum, when the circuit is
tuned to resonant frequency. Hence the voltage gain of tuned Amplifier is maximum
at resonant frequency and drops off above and below it.
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the current value is
70.7% of its maximum resonant value The point corresponding to the lower
frequency is called the “lower cut-off frequency” ( ƒL) and point corresponding to the
upper frequency is called the “upper cut-off frequency” ( ƒH). The range between
these two points, i.e. ( ƒH – ƒL ) is called the Bandwidth, (BW).
The bandwidth of Single tuned Amplifier is denoted in the above frequency
response. The bandwidth of Tuned Amplifier should be minimum or single point
depending upon the quality factor of the tuning components. The higher the quality
Factor Q, the narrower will bandwidth.
If the resonant frequency remains constant, an increase in the quality
factor, Q will cause a decrease in the bandwidth and likewise, a decrease in the
quality factor will cause an increase in the bandwidth as defined by:
BW = ƒr / Q or BW = ƒupper - ƒlower
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2. Double Tuned Amplifier

 An Amplifier Circuit with a double tuner section being at the collector of the amplifier
circuit is called as Double Tuner Amplifier Circuit.
The double tuned circuit basically used to overcome potential instability
present in the single tuned amplifier. It consists of Two inductively coupled tuned
circuits. As the coupling of the Two tuned circuit is changed, the shape of the
frequency response will also change.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit Details:
i. The Resistors R1, and R2 are used to provide DC biasing to the Transistor .
ii. RE are used to provide for stabilizing the operating point by using Negative
Feedback.
iii. The Capacitors CE is used as by-pass Capacitors, which block DC Signal
and provide the path for AC Signal.
iv. The Capacitors Cin is used as Coupling Capacitors, which block DC supply
and provide the path for Input AC Signal.
v. The Transformer is used for Output Coupling, which block DC supply and
provide the path for AC Signal to the Output Load.
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vi. Tuned Circuit: Tuned Circuit is nothing but a LC circuit which is also
called as resonant or Tank Circuit. It selects the desired frequency signal.
A tuned circuit is capable of amplifying selected signal over a narrow band of
frequencies that are centered at resonant frequency. This circuit consists of
two tuned circuits L1C1 and L2C2 in the collector section of the amplifier. The
signal at the output of the tuned circuit L 1C1 is coupled to the other tuned
circuit L2C2 through mutual coupling method.
Operation
Once the Supply is Switched ON and the high frequency signal which has to be
amplified is given to the input of the amplifier. The tuning circuit L 1C1 is tuned to the
input signal frequency. At this condition, the tuned circuit offers high reactance to
the signal frequency. Consequently, large output appears at the output of the tuned
circuit L1C1 which is then coupled to the other tuned circuit L 2C2 through mutual
induction. These double tuned circuits are extensively used for coupling various
circuits of radio and television receivers.

 Frequency Response of Double Tuned Amplifier

The Double Tuned Amplifier has the special feature of coupling which is important
in determining the frequency response of the amplifier. The amount of mutual
inductance between the two tuned circuits states the degree of coupling, which
determines the frequency response of the circuit. As the coupling of the Two tuned
circuit is changed, the shape of the frequency response will also change.

Basic idea on the mutual inductance property & its basic principle:
Mutual Inductance
As the current carrying coil produces some magnetic field around it, if
another coil is brought near this coil, such that it is in the magnetic flux region of the
primary, then the varying magnetic flux induces an EMF in the second coil. If this
first coil is called as Primary coil, the second one can be called as a Secondary
coil.When the EMF is induced in the secondary coil due to the varying magnetic
field of the primary coil, then such phenomenon is called as the Mutual
Inductance.
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The figure below gives an idea about this.

The current is in the figure indicate the source current while iind indicates the
induced current. The flux represents the magnetic flux created around the coil. With
the application of voltage, the current is flows and flux gets created. When the
current is varies the flux gets varied, producing iind in the secondary coil, due to the
Mutual inductance property.

 Coupling and Frequency Response

Mutual Inductance Coupling is as shown in the figure below.

When the coils are spaced apart, the flux linkages of primary coil L 1 will not
link the secondary coil L2. At this condition, the coils are said to have Loose
coupling. The Resistance reflected from the secondary coil at this condition is
small and the resonance curve will be sharp and the circuit Quality factor (Q) is high
as shown in the figure below.
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When the primary and secondary coils are brought close together, they have Tight
coupling. Under such conditions, the reflected resistance will be large and the
circuit Quality factor (Q) is lower. Two positions of gain maximum, one above and
the other below the resonant frequency are obtained.
 Bandwidth of Double Tuned Circuit
The above figure clearly states that the bandwidth increases with the degree of
coupling. The determining factor in a double tuned circuit is not Quality factor (Q)
but the coupling. For a given frequency, if the coupling is tighter, then bandwidth
will be increased and if the coupling is looser, then bandwidth will be decreased
The equation for bandwidth is given as
BW dt = k x fr Where BW dt is bandwidth for double tuned circuit
K is coefficient of coupling
fr is resonant frequency
 Advantages of Tuned Amplifiers
1. In Tuned Amplifier, the Power Loss is less due to the lack of Collector
Resistance. Only Reactive Components ( L & C ) are used in the collector,
which provide the reactance at resonant frequency only.
2. The Tuned Amplifier has high Selectivity. It can select the desired frequency
signal out of a large number of signals and reject other undesired signals.
3. In Tuned amplifier, Due to lack of RC in the collector, a small value of Power
Supply VCC is required .
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4. The usage of reactive components like L and C, minimizes the power loss,
which makes the tuned amplifiers more efficient.
5. This Amplifier has a good Signal to Noise ratio.
6. Tuned amplifiers provide variable bandwidth for signal amplification.
 Disadvantages:
1. The overall circuitry of Tuned Amplifier is costly as well as bulky due to the
presence of inductors and capacitors in tuned circuits.
2. In Tuned Amplifier, Amplification in the range of audio frequency cannot be
achieved.
3. In this Amplifier, when bandwidth increased leads to complexity in the circuit.
 Applications:
1. The Tuned Amplifiers are used in Radio transmitters
2. These Amplifiers are used in TV Transmitters.
3. These Amplifiers are used in Radio Receivers.
4. These Amplifiers are used in TV Receivers.
5. These Amplifiers are used in Radar system and for other communication
systems.
 Numerical -3 The Quality Factor (Q) of a tuned amplifier is 50. If the
resonant frequency for the Amplifier is 1000 KHZ, Find the Bandwidth and
Lower Cutoff and Higher cutoff frequency of the amplifier.
Solution : I. Given : Quality factor (Q) = 50
Resonant frequency ( fr) = 1000 KHz
Bandwidth = fr / Q
Bandwidth = 1000 / 50 = 20 KHz.

II. Given Bandwidth = 20 KHz

Resonant frequency ( fr) = 1000 KHz
Lower Cutoff Frequency (fL) = fr – BW/2
= 1000 – 20 /2
= 1000 – 10 = 990 KHz
Higher Cutoff Frequency (fH) = fr + BW/2
= 1000 + 20 /2
= 1000 + 10 = 1010 KHz
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 Numerical-4 The Quality Factor (Q) of a tuned amplifier is 250. If the

resonant frequency for the Amplifier is 10000 KHZ, Find the Bandwidth and
Lower Cutoff and Higher cutoff frequency of the amplifier.
Solution : I. Given : Quality factor (Q) = 250
Resonant frequency ( fr) = 10000 KHz
Bandwidth = fr / Q
Bandwidth = 10000 / 250 = 40 KHz.
II. Given Bandwidth = 40 KHz
Resonant frequency ( fr) = 10000 KHz
Lower Cutoff Frequency (fL) = fr – BW/2
= 10000 – 40 /2
= 10000 – 20 = 9080 KHz
Higher Cutoff Frequency (fH) = fr + BW/2
= 10000 + 40 /2
= 1000 + 20 = 10020 KHz

FILL IN BLANKS:
1. A ………………….. amplifier uses LC Tank as load.
2. The voltage gain of a tuned amplifier is ……………… at resonant frequency
3. If a tuned amplifier has a bandwidth of ……….. kHz and fr = 120 kHz, then
the Q of the circuit is 4.
4. At series resonance, the circuit power factor is…………………..
5. At …………… resonance, the line current is Minimum.
6. At series resonance, the circuit behaves as a …………….load
7. If fL = 100 kHz and fH = 150 kHz, then fr = ……….. KHz.
8. In the Electronic Tuning Circuit for a discrete Tuned Amplifier, the component
that is used to adjust the frequency is a ………….. Capacitor.
9. A tuned amplifier is generally operated in ………….. operation.
10. A Tuned amplifier is used in …………… Frequency applications.
Answers:
1) Tuned 2) Maximum 3) 30 4) Unity
5) Parallel 6) Resistive 7) 125 8) Stray
9) Class –C 10) Radio
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FILL IN BLANKS:
11. Frequencies above 200 kHz are called ………….. frequencies Signal.
12. At parallel resonance, the circuit power factor is ……………..
13. At ……………… resonance, the circuit offers Minimum impedance.
14. A resonant circuit contains …………… elements.
15. At parallel resonance, the ratio L/C is ……………….
16. If L/C ratio of a parallel LC circuit is increased, the Quality factor (Q) of the circuit
is ……………..
17. At parallel resonance, the net reactive component circuit current is…………..
18. At parallel resonance, the circuit behaves as a …………………. load.
19. At ………..resonance, the phase angle between applied voltage and circuit is 0o
20. At series resonance, voltage across L isequal and ………… in phase to voltage
across C. eq
21. In parallel resonance, the circuit impedance is………………….
22. In a parallel LC circuit, if the input signal frequency is ……….resonant fruency
then XL increases and XC decreases.
23. If a high degree of selectivity is desired, then double-tuned circuit should have
………coupling.
24. In the double tuned circuit, if the mutual inductance between the two tuned
circuits is decreased, the Bandwidth is …………….
25. The Quality Factor (Q) of an LC circuit is given by…………….

ANSWERS:
11) Radio 12) Unity 13) Series 14) L & C 15) Very Large
16) Increased 17) Zero 18) Resistive 19)Series 20)Opposite
21) L/CR 22) increased above 23) Loose 24) Decreased
25) 2πfrL / R
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FILL IN BLANKS:
26. If Quality Factor (Q) of an LC circuit ……………, then bandwidth decreases.
27. If the resistance of a tuned circuit is increased, the Quality Factor (Q) of the
circuit is………...
28. The dimensions of L/CR are that of ( Ohm) ……………
29. The Quality factor (Q) of a tuned circuit refers to the property of ……………….
30. At parallel resonance, the phase angle between the applied voltage and circuit
current is…….
31. The Quality Factor (Q) of a tuned amplifier is 50. If the resonant frequency for
the amplifier is 1000kHZ, then bandwidth is …………...
32. For frequencies below resonant frequency, a series LC circuit behaves as a
……….. load.
33. For frequencies above the resonant frequency , a series LC circuit behaves as a
……….load.
34. A class C amplifier always drives a ………………. load.
35. For frequencies below the resonant frequency , a ………….LC circuit behaves
as a Inductive load.
36. For frequencies above the resonant frequency , a parallel LC circuit behaves as
a …………..load.
37. For frequencies below the resonant frequency , a Series LC circuit behaves as
a ………..load.
38. For frequencies above the resonant frequency , a Series LC circuit behaves as
a ………..load.
39. A Tuned Voltage Amplifiers are used to amplify the ………….. signals.
40. Resonance Curve of Series RLC Tuned circuit is a graph between frequency
and ………..
Answers:

26) Increases 27) Decreased 28) Ω 29) Selectivity

30) 0o 31) 20 KHz 32) Capacitive 33) Inductive
34) resonant tank 35) Parallel 36) Capacitive 37) Capacitive
38) Inductive 39) RF frequency 40) Current
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TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

1. In parallel resonance, the circuit impedance is L/CR.
2. In a parallel LC circuit, if the input signal frequency is increased above resonant
frequency then XL increases and XC decreases.
3. If a high degree of selectivity is desired, then double-tuned circuit should have Tight
coupling.
4. In the double tuned circuit, if the mutual inductance between the two tuned circuits
is decreased, the Bandwidth is Decreased.
5. The Quality Factor (Q) of an LC circuit is given by 2πfrL / C.
6. A tuned amplifier uses RC as load.
7. The voltage gain of a tuned amplifier is maximum at resonant frequency.
8. If a tuned amplifier has a bandwidth of 30 kHz and fr = 120 kHz, then the Q of the
circuit is 8.
9. At series resonance, the circuit power factor is Unity.
10. At parallel resonance, the line current is Maximum.
11. If Quality Factor (Q) of an LC circuit increases, then bandwidth decreases.
12. If the resistance of a tuned circuit is increased, the Quality Factor (Q) of the circuit is
also increased.
13. The dimensions of L/CR are that of ( Ohm) Ω.
14. The Quality factor (Q) of a tuned circuit refers to the property of Selectivity.
15. At parallel resonance, the phase angle between the applied voltage and circuit
current is 90o.
16. At series resonance, the circuit behaves as a Inductive load.
17. If fL = 100 kHz and fH = 150 kHz, then fr = 125 KHz.
18. In the Electronic Tuning Circuit for a discrete Tuned Amplifier, the component that is
used to adjust the frequency is a Stray capacitor.
19. A tuned amplifier is generally operated in Class -A operation.
20. A tuned amplifier is used in Radio Frequency applications.
Answers:
1) TRUE 2) TRUE 3) FALSE 4) TRUE 5) FALSE
6) FALSE 7) TRUE 8) FALSE 9) TRUE 10) FALSE
11) TRUE 12) FALSE 13) TRUE 14) TRUE 15) FALSE
16) FALSE 17) TRUE 18) TRUE 19) FALSE 20) TRUE
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TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

21 The Quality Factor (Q) of a tuned amplifier is 50. If the resonant frequency for the
amplifier is 1000kHZ, then bandwidth is 10 KHz.
22 For frequencies below resonant frequency, a series LC circuit behaves as a
Capacitive load.
23 For frequencies above the resonant frequency , a series LC circuit behaves as a
Inductive load.
24 A class B amplifier always drives a resonant tank load.
25 For frequencies below the resonant frequency , a parallel LC circuit behaves as a
Inductive load.
26 Frequencies above 200 kHz are called radio frequencies.
27 At parallel resonance, the circuit power factor is less than Unity.
28 At series resonance, the circuit offers Maximum impedance.
29 A resonant circuit contains L & C elements.
30 At parallel resonance, the ratio L/C is Very Low.
31 For frequencies above the resonant frequency , a Series LC circuit behaves as a
Inductive load.
32 A Tuned Voltage Amplifiers are used to amplify the Audio frequency signals.
33 Resonance Curve of Series RLC Tuned circuit is a graph between frequency and
Voltage.
34 If L/C ratio of a parallel LC circuit is increased, the Quality factor (Q) of the circuit is
Increased.
35 At parallel resonance, the net reactive component circuit current is One.
36 At parallel resonance, the circuit behaves as a Resistive load.
37 At series resonance, the phase angle between applied voltage and circuit is 0o
38 At series resonance, voltage across L is equal in same phase to voltage across C.
Answers:
21) FALSE 22) TRUE 23) TRUE 24) FALSE
25) TRUE 26) TRUE 27) FALSE 28) FALSE
29) TRUE 30) FALSE 31) TRUE 32) FALSE
33) FALSE 34) TRUE 35) FALSE 36) TRUE
37) TRUE 38) FALSE
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SWITCH
 Switch is a device that can ON ( Make) / OFF (Break) Electrical Circuit automatically
or manually.
Depending upon the their working mechanism, the switch can classified in to three
types:
1. Mechanical Switch
2. Electromechanical Switch
3. Electronic Switch
1. Mechanical Switch : A switch which can operated mechanically in order to turn
ON / OFF electrical circuit is called Mechanical Switch. E. g. PVC Switches

2. Electromechanical Switch : A switch which work mechanically but operated

electrically in order to turn ON / OFF electrical circuit is called Electromechanical
Switch. E. g. Relays
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3. Electronic Switch: A switch which is operated electronically ( Automatically ) in

order to turn ON / OFF electrical circuit is called Electronic Switch. E. g Transistor
Switch
Transistor as Switch: The Transistor can operate as an Electronic Switch to
turn ON (during Saturation region ) or Turn OFF ( During Cutoff region ) electrical
circuit.
The areas of operation for a Transistor as Switch are known as
the Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region. This means that use the transistor
as a switch by driving it back and forth between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off) and “fully-
ON” (saturation) regions as shown in output characteristics of Transistor as
explained below.

The bottom of the curves represents the “Cut-off” region while the upper area to the
left represents the “Saturation” region of the transistor.
I. Cutoff Region: In this operating conditions of the transistor, Input base
voltage is Zero or Negative ( Both junctions are reversed biased ) due to which
Input base current ( IB ) is also zero. When both junctions are reversed biased
which results in a large depletion layer. This large depletion layer allows Zero or
Negligible (Leakage current) output collector current ( IC ) flow up to the
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maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) and hence no current flowing through the
device. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-OFF”.

Cut-off Characteristics:
i. The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )
ii. Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
iii. Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
iv. Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
v. Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
vi. No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
vii. VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″
viii. Transistor operates as an “open switch”
II. Saturation Region: In this operating conditions of Transistor, Input base
voltage is made so much Positive ( Both junctions are forward biased ) so that
maximum amount of base current flows in the junctions of transistor and it will
be properly biased. When both junctions are forward biased, which results in a
negligible depletion layer between the junctions. This negligible depletion allows
maximum collector current, due to which the minimum collector emitter voltage
drop across output of the transistor. Therefore transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.
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Saturation Characteristics:
i. The input and Base are connected to VCC
ii. Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
iii. Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
iv. Base-Collector junction is forward biased
v. Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )
vi. Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc/RL )
vii. VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
viii. VOUT = VCE = ”0″
ix. Transistor operates as a “closed switch”
 Advantages of Electronic Switch ( Transistor Switch) :
i. Transistor switch is Cheaper than other switches.
ii. It gives trouble free service because of its solid state nature.
iii. It gives noiseless operation.
iv. It has no moving parts and hence there is no tear and wear.
v. Transistor switch has lesser in size and light in weight.
vi. Speed of operation of Transistor Switch is very fast as compared to
mechanical switches.
vii. Transistor switch requires little maintenance.
 Disadvantages of Electronic Switch ( Transistor Switch) :
i. Transistor Switch can be affected by temperature.
 Applications of Electronic Switch ( Transistor Switch):
i. Transistor switches are used in modern Inverters.
ii. These Switches are used to drive LED Display.

MULTIVIBRATOR
 Multivibrator Circuit is a switching circuit that generates Non-Sinusoidal waves such
as Square waves, Rectangular waves and Saw tooth waves etc.
Multivibrators are used as frequency generators, frequency dividers and
generators of time delays and also as memory elements in computers etc.
 Working Principle of Multivibrator: A Multivibrator is a Two-Stage
Resistance Coupled Switching Circuit in which output of One switching circuit is
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connected to Input of the Second Switching circuit and Output of the Second
Switching Circuit connected back to the Input of First Switching Circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of a Multivibrator:

Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the state
of the other. Hence the ON and OFF states of the whole circuit, and the time
periods for which the transistors are driven into saturation or cut off are controlled
by the conditions of the RC Circuit.

There are two possible states of a Multivibrator. In first stage, the transistor
Q1 turns ON while the transistor Q2 turns OFF. In second stage, the transistor
Q1 turns OFF while the transistor Q2 turns ON. These two states are interchanged
for certain time periods depending upon the circuit conditions.
 Applications of Multivibrators
i. Multivibrators are used as a Frequency dividers circuits.
ii. These are used as a saw tooth generators.
iii. These are used as wave and pulse generators.
iv. These are used as standard frequency source.
v. These are used in Radar and TV circuits.
vi. These are also used as a memory elements in computer.
TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATORS
 Depending upon the manner in which these two states are interchanged, the
Multivibrators are classified into three types.
1. A-stable Multivibrator : An Astable Multivibrator is such Multivibrator that
it automatically switches between the two states continuously without the
application of any external pulse for its operation. This Multivibrator has no
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stable state and running freely. So, it is also called as a Free-running

Multivibrator and produces a continuous square wave output.
The time period of these states depends upon the Time Constants of
the components used. As the Multivibrator keeps on switching, these states
are known as quasi-stable or halfstable states. Hence, an Astable Multivibrator
has two quasi-stable states.
2. Mono-stable Multivibrator: An Monostable Multivibrator is such
Multivibrator that has one stable state and one quasi-stable state. When a
trigger input given to any one Transistor and this Transistor changes its state
automatically, and remain for a time period depends upon the Time Constants
of the components used and retuned back to previous state.
As this Multivibrator produces a single output for each Trigger Pulse.
So, this is known as One-shot Multivibrator. This Multivibrator cannot stay in
quasi-stable state for a longer period while it continuously stays in the stable
state until the trigger pulse is again given.
3. Bi-stable Multivibrator : A Bistable Multivibrator is such Multivibrator that
has both the two states stable. When a Trigger Pulse is given to any one
Transistor and this transistor change its state automatically, and remain in this
state permanently and continuously stays in this stable state until the trigger
pulse is again given. This Multivibrator cannot change its state without
triggering,
As the Trigger Pulse sets or resets the output, and as some data, i.e.,
either high or low is stored until it is disturbed, so this Multivibrator is also
called as a Flip-flop.
The following figure shows the final conclusion about the Multivibrators:
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Detail of Square Wave or Clock :

1) Active HIGH – If the state change occurs from a “LOW” to a

“HIGH” at the clock’s pulse rising edge or during the clock width.
2) Active LOW – If the state change occurs from a “HIGH” to a “LOW”
at the clock’s pulses falling edge.
3) Duty Cycle – This is the ratio of the ( HIGH ) clock width to the
clock period.
4) Clock Width – This is the time during which the value of the clock
signal is equal to a logic “1”, or HIGH.
5) Clock Period – This is the time between successive transitions in
the same direction, i. e, between two rising or two falling edges.
6) Clock Frequency – The clock frequency is the reciprocal of the
clock period. frequency = 1/clock period. ( ƒ = 1/T ).
1. Astable Multivibrator: An astable multivibrator has No stable states. Once
the Multivibrator is turned ON, it just changes its states on its own after a certain
fixed time period which is determined by the RC Time Constants. A DC Power
Supply or Vcc is given to the circuit for its operation.
The Figure shows the Circuit Diagram of Astable Multivibrator.
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Circuit Details
Two transistors named Q1 and Q2 are connected back to back to each
another. The collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor
Q2 through the capacitor C1 and collector of transistor Q2 is connected to the base
of transistor Q1 through the capacitor C2. The Emitters of both the transistors are
connected to the ground. The collector load resistors R1 and R4 and the biasing
resistors R2 and R3 are of equal values. The capacitors C1 and C2 are also of equal
values.
Operation
When Vcc is applied, the collector current of the transistors increase. As the
collector current depends upon the base current,
IC = β IB
As no transistor characteristics are same, One of the two transistors say
Q1 has its collector current increase and thus it start conducting (ON) and decrease
the collector voltage . The collector of Q1 is connected to the base of Q2 through C1.
This decrease the voltage at the collector of Q1 to get applied at the base of Q2 and
its collector current decreases. This continuous action makes the collector current
of Q2 to decrease further and increase collector voltage of Transistor Q2. Now, this
voltage applied to the base of Q1, and gets it into saturation and Q2 to cut off.
During this period, the output voltage of Q1 will be VCE (sat) and Q2 will be
equal to VCC.
Under this condition one end of the Capacitor C1 is grounded through ON
Transistor Q1 and other terminal connected to VCC through R2. This capacitor C1
starts charging towards VCC through R2. As this terminal of the Capacitor C1 also
connected the base of Transistor Q2, when the voltage across C1 reaches 0.7v, the
transistor Q2 will be turned ON and get it in to saturation and its collector voltage
decreases. As this reduction of voltage at collector of Q2 is applied to the base of
transistor Q1 through C2 which makes the Q1 reverse biased and turn this transistor
Q1 to cut off and transistor Q2 to saturation.
Now, one end of the Capacitor C2 is grounded through ON Transistor Q2 and
other terminal connected to VCC through R3. This capacitor C2 starts charging
towards VCC through R3. As this terminal of the Capacitor also connected the base
of Transistor Q1, when the voltage across C2 reaches 0.7v, the transistor Q1 will be
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turned ON and get it in to saturation and its collector voltage decreases. As this
reduction of voltage at collector of Transistor Q1 is applied to the base of transistor
Q2 through C1 which makes the Q2 reverse bias and turn the transistor Q2 to cut off
and transistor Q1 to saturation.
During this period, the output voltage of Q2 will be VCE (sat) and Q1 will be
equal to VCC.
Hence the output voltage and the output waveform are formed by the
alternate switching of the transistors Q1 and Q2. The time period of these ON/OFF
states depends upon the values of biasing resistors ( R2 & R3 )and capacitors ( C1
& C2 )used used. As both the transistors are operated alternately, the output is a
square waveform, with the peak amplitude of VCC.
Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the
following figures.

Frequency of Oscillations:

The ON Time of Transistor Q1 or the OFF Time of Transistor Q2 is given by

T1 = 0.69R2C1
Similarly, The OFF Time of transistor Q1 or ON Time of transistor Q2 is given by
T2 = 0.69R3C2
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Hence, Total Time Period of Square Wave

T = T1 + T2 = 0.69 (R2 C1 + R3 C2)
As R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C,
T = 1.38 RC
The frequency of Square Wave will be
f = 1 / T = 1 / 1.38 RC = 0.7RC
 Advantages
1) In Astable Multivibrator, No external triggering required.
2) Circuit design of Astable Multivibrator is simple.
3) It is Inexpensive.
4) The Astable Multivibtator can function continuously.
 Disadvantages
1) In Astable Multivibrator, the energy absorption is more within the circuit.
2) Output signal of Astable Multivibrator is of low energy.
3) In Astable Multivibrator, Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be
achieved.
 Applications
1) Astable Multivibrators are used as square wave frequency generators.
2) It is used as timing oscillator
3) It is used for flashing lights, switching and power supply circuits.
4) It is used in radio.
5) It is used in Morse code generators.
6) It is used in timer circuits.
7) It is used in analog circuits.
8) It is used in TV systems.
2. Monostable Multivibrator: A Monostable Multivibrator, as the name implies,
has only one stable state. When the transistor conducts, the other remains in non-
conducting state. The stable state is such a state where the transistor remains
without being altered, unless disturbed by some external trigger pulse. It is also
called as One-shot Multivibrator.
Circuit Details
Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected back to back to each another. The
collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor Q2 through the
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capacitor C1. The base Q1 is connected to the collector of Q2 through the resistor
R2 and capacitor C. Another DC Supply voltage –VBB is given to the base of
transistor Q1 through the resistor R3. The trigger pulse is given to the base of
Q1 through the capacitor C2 to change its state. RL1 and RL2 are the load resistors of
Q1 and Q2.
The figure shows the circuit diagram of a Monostable Multivibrator.

One of the transistors, when gets into a stable state, an external trigger pulse is
given to change its state. After changing its state, the transistor remains in this
quasi-stable state for a specific time period, which is determined by the values of
RC Time Constants and gets back to the previous stable state.
Operation
Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, Let us consider that transistor
Q1 is in OFF state and Q2 will be in ON state ( Saturation ) . This is the stable state.
As Q1 is OFF, the collector voltage will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets
charged. A positive trigger pulse applied at the base of the transistor Q 1 to turn ON
the transistor which decrease the collector voltage . This collector of Q1 is
connected to the base of Q2 through C1. This decreased voltage at the collector of
Q1 to get applied at the base of Q2 and its collector current decreases. This
continuous action makes the collector current of Q 2 to decrease further and
increase collector voltage of Transistor Q2. Now, this voltage applied to the base of
Q1, and gets it into saturation and Q2 to be in cut off. This is the quasi-stable state
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and the transistor remains in this quasi-stable state for a specific time period, which
is determined by the values of RC Time Constants and gets back to the previous
stable state. During this period, the output voltage of Q1 will be VCE (sat) and Q2 will
be equal to VCC.
Under this condition one end of the Capacitor C1 is grounded through ON
Transistor Q1 and other terminal connected to VCC through R2. This capacitor C1
starts charging towards VCC through R2. As this terminal of the Capacitor C1 also
connected the base of Transistor Q2, when the voltage across C1 reaches 0.7v, the
transistor Q2 will be turned ON and get it in to saturation and its collector voltage
decreases. As this reduction of voltage at collector of Q2 is applied to the base of
transistor Q1 through C2 which makes the Q1 reverse biased and turn this transistor
Q1 to cut off and transistor Q2 to ON ( saturation ) again.
This is the stable state for the Transistor and the transistor remains in this
state without being altered, unless disturbed by some external trigger pulse again.
Output Wave:

The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant. Hence it
depends on the values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given by
T = 0.69 R1 C1
The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the action.
This triggers the circuit to change its state from Stable state to Quasi-stable or
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Semi-stable state, in which the circuit remains for a short duration. There will be
one output pulse for one trigger pulse.
 Advantages
1) Circuit design of Monostable Multivibrator is simple
2) The Circuit of Monostable Multivibrator is Inexpensive
 Disadvantages
1) The main drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the time
between the applications of trigger pulse has to be greater than the RC time
constant of the circuit.
 Applications
1) Monostable Multivibrators are used in television circuits
2) These are used in control system circuits.
3) It is used as delay circuits.
4) It is often to trigger another pulse Generators.
3. Bistable Multivibrator: A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states. The
circuit stays in any one of the two stable states. It continues in that state, unless an
external trigger pulse is given. This Multivibrator is also known as Flip-flop. This
circuit is simply called as Binary.
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Detail
Two similar transistors Q1 and Q2 with load resistors RL1 and RL2 are connected in
back to back to each other. The base resistors R3 and R4 are joined to a common
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source –VBB. The feedback resistors R1 and R2 are shunted by capacitors C1 and
C2 known as Commutating Capacitors. The transistor Q1 is given a trigger input at
the base through the capacitor C3 and the transistor Q2 is given a trigger input at its
base through the capacitor C4.
The capacitors C1 and C2 are also known as Speed-up Capacitors, as they
reduce the transition time, which means the time taken for the transfer of
conduction from one transistor to the other.
Operation
When the circuit is switched ON, As no transistor characteristics are same, One of
the two transistors say Q1 has its collector current increase and thus it start
conducting (ON), while the transistor Q2 gets switched OFF. This is a stable state of
the Bistable Multivibrator.
By applying a Negative Trigger at the base of transistor Q1 or by applying a
positive trigger pulse at the base of transistor Q2, this stable state is unaltered. So,
let us understand this by considering a negative pulse at the base of transistor Q 1.
As a result, the collector voltage of Transistor Q1 increases, which is connected to
base of the transistor Q2 through R1 and forward biases the base of transistor Q2.
The collector current of Q2 is also decreased as applied at the base of Q1 , which
reverse biases transistor Q1 and this cumulative action, makes the transistor
Q1 OFF and transistor Q2 ON. This is another stable state of the Multivibrator.
Now, if this stable state has to be changed again, then either a negative
trigger pulse at transistor Q2 or a positive trigger pulse at transistor Q1 is applied.
Output Waveforms
The output waveform at the collectors of Q2 along with the trigger inputs given at
the bases of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the following figures.
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 Advantages
1) The Bistable Multivibrator can stores the previous output unless disturbed.
2) Circuit design of Bistable Multivibrator is simple.
 Disadvantages
1) The biastable Multivibrator required two kinds of trigger pulses.
2) This Multivibrator is costlier than other Multivibrators.
 Applications
1) Bistable Multivibrators are used as pulse generation
2) It is used in digital operations like in Computers, Digital Communication and
counting.
3) It is used for storing of binary information.
4) It is used to change supply to two circuits at regular intervals.
IC-555 ( TIMER)
 The 555 (Timer) IC is a 8 Pin integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer,
pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time
delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element.
The 555 Timer IC got its name from the three 5KΩ resistors that are used in its
voltage divider network.
PIN Diagram of IC 555 : The IC 555 is a 8- Pin Integrated circuit as shown in
the Pin Diagram below:
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Pin No. Pin Name Pin Function

Pin -1 : This Pin for ground purpose and connect the 555 timer chip
1 Ground
to ground.

Pin -2 : This is the trigger pin. It works like a starter pistol to start
the 555 timer running. The trigger is an Active Low Trigger, this
2 Trigger means, the timer starts when voltage on Pin 2 goes to below 1/3 of
the supply voltage VCC. When the 555 is triggered through Pin 2, the
output on pin 3 goes High.
Pin -3 is the Output Pin. 555 timer's output is digital in nature. It is
either High or Low. The output is either low, which is very close to
3 Output 0V, or high, which is close to the supply voltage VCC.
The Output Pin is connected to the load and it may be an LED, in
the case of a 555 timer LED flasher circuit.
Pin - 4 is the Reset Pin. This pin can be used to Restart the 555
timer's timing operation.
This is an Active Low input, just like the trigger input. Thus, Pin 4
4 Reset
must be connected to the supply voltage VCC of the 555 timer to
operate. If it is momentarily grounded, the 555 timer's operation is
interrupted and won't start again until it's triggered again via Pin 2.
Pin - 5 is the Control Pin. In most 555 timer circuits, this Pin is
simply connected to ground, usually through a small capacitor, about
0.01 µF capacitor. This capacitor serves to level out any fluctuations
Control
5 in the Power Supply Voltage that might affect the operation of the
Voltage
timer.
When pulse width of Timer is to be changed, an external voltage can
be applied to this Pin. Most circuits do not use this capability.
Pin - 6 is the Threshold Pin. The purpose of this Pin is to monitor
the voltage across the capacitor that's discharged by pin 7. When
6 Threshold
this voltage reaches 2/3 of the Supply Voltage (VCC), the Timing
cycle ends, and the output on pin 3 goes Low.
Pin - 7 is the Discharge Pin. This pin is used to discharge an
external capacitor that works in combination with a resistor to control
7 Discharge
the timing interval. In most circuits, pin 7 is connected to the Supply
Voltage VCC through a resistor and to ground through a capacitor.
Pin - 8 is connected to the Positive Power Supply Voltage. (+VCC).
Power
555 timer ICs need DC voltage in order to operate it. This is the pin
8 Supply
(Vcc) which connects to the DC voltage to power the 555 chip.
The voltage must be at least 4.5V and no greater than 15V.
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Block Diagram of IC – 555 ( TIMER)

 The Block Diagram of a IC 555 Timer is shown in the above figure. A IC 555 Timer
consists of the following components fabricated on single IC Chip.
I. Resistive Network: This resistive network is a voltage divider circuit and
consisting by three resistors of 5 KΩ connected in Series. This circuit creates
two voltage level. One voltage level is +2/3 VCC which is connected to
reference input ( - ) of the Non Inverting Comparator. The second voltage
level is +1/3 VCC which is connected to reference input (+) of the Inverting
Comparator.
II. Two Comparators: Basically Two Op-Amp are used in Non Inverting and
Inverting Comparator. The Comparator -1 is Non-Inverting Comparator with
reference voltage of +2/3 VCC and compare with threshold voltage. The
Comparator -2 is Inverting Comparator with reference voltage +1/3 VCC and
compare with Trigger Voltage. The Comparator -1 gives output logic 1 (High),
when Threshold voltage is greater than +2/3 VCC otherwise it gives logic 0 (
Low). But Comparator -2 works in opposite mode, it will give out logic -1
(High) , when Trigger voltage is less than +1/3 VCC otherwise it logic 0 ( Low).
The Output these Comparator is given to input of S-R Flip-Flop.
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III. S-R Flip-Flop: Output of both the comparators is supplied to the Flip-Flop.
Flip-flop assumes its state according to the output of the two comparators. R
is connected to output of Non Inverting Comparator and S is connected to
output of Inverting comparator. When R is logic 1 ( High), its output ( ¯Q) Q-
bar will be logic 1 (High) and when S is logic 1 (High) its output ( ¯Q) Q-bar
will be logic 0 (Low). This terminal connected to base of the transistor and
also connected to the OUPUT stage ( Inverter).
IV. Discharge Transistor: This is a NPN transistor and working in switching
mode and will be saturates or cuts-off according to the output state of the Flip-
Flop. The collector of this transistor is Discharge Pin -7 and emitter terminal is
grounded. When Input is ( High) to the base of this Transistor, it will be turned
ON and discharge the capacitor connected externally at the collector to
ground. When Input is (Low) to the base of this Transistor, it will be turned
OFF and Capacitor is disconnected from the ground.
V. OUTPUT Stage: This is Inverter stage which invert (opposite) the input
signal. When output of the ( ¯Q) Q-bar is logic 1 (HIGH), it will invert as logic 0
(LOW) and vice versa. The OUTPUT stage gives final output of IC 555 at PIN
no. 3.
APPLICATIONS OF IC - 555 ( TIMER )
There are the applications of IC 555 ( TIMER)
1) IC 555 as Astable Multivibrator
2) IC 555 as Monostable Multivibrator
3) IC 555 as Bistable Multivibrator
1) IC 555 as Astable Multivibrator:
An Astable Multivibrator is a Multivibrator circuit that continuously produces
rectangular wave without the any external triggering. It has no stable state and is
freely running continuously.
Astable Multivibrator using 555 Timer is very simple, easy to design can be
used for timing from microseconds to hours. it automatically interchange its two
states on a particular interval, hence generates a rectangular waveform. This time
duration of HIGH and LOW of the output is determined by the external resistors (R1
and R2) and a capacitor(C1).
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Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Details: Circuit detail is as under:

i. Pin No. 4 (Reset) and Pin No. 8 (VCC) are connected to DC supply voltage
+VCC
ii. Pin No. 1 ( Ground ) is connected to ground terminal and Pin No. 5 is also
connected to ground through capacitor C2.
iii. Pin No. 3 is connected to Output load.
iv. Resistance R1 is connected between Pin No. 8 (VCC) and Pin No. 7
(Discharge).
v. Resistance R2 is connected between Pin No. 7 and Pin No. (2 Trigger & 6
Threshold).
vi. Capacitor C1 is connected between (2 & 6) and Pin No. 1 (Ground).
Operation:
i. When initially power is turned ON, Trigger Pin voltage is below Vcc/3, that
makes the lower comparator output HIGH and SETS the flip flop and output of
the 555 chip is HIGH.
ii. This makes the Discharge Transistor OFF, because Qbar, = 0 ( LOW) is
directly applied to base of discharge transistor. As the transistor is OFF,
capacitor C1 starts charging towards VCC through R1 and R2 and when it gets
charged to a voltage above than 1/3 Vcc, then Lower comparator output
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becomes LOW (Upper comparator is also at LOW) and Flip flop output
remains the same as previous (555 output remains HIGH).
iii. Now when capacitor charging gets to voltage above than 2/3Vcc, then the
voltage of non-inverting end (Threshold PIN 6) becomes higher than the
inverting end of the comparator. This makes Upper comparator output HIGH
and RESETs the Flip flop, output of 555 chip becomes LOW.
iv. As soon as the output of 555 get LOW means Q’ (bar) =1, then discharge
transistor becomes ON and short the capacitor C1 to the Ground. So the
capacitor C1 starts discharging to the ground through the Discharge PIN 7 and
resistor R2.
v. As capacitor voltage get down below the 2/3 Vcc, upper comparator output
becomes LOW, now SR Flip flop remains in the previous state as both the
comparators are LOW.
vi. While discharging, when capacitor voltage gets down below 1/3 Vcc, this
makes the Lower comparator output HIGH (upper comparator remain LOW)
and Sets the flip flop again and 555 output becomes HIGH.
vii. Discharge Transistor becomes OFF and again capacitor C1 starts charging
again.
Waveforms:
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This charging and discharging of capacitor continues and a rectangular oscillating

output wave for is generated. While capacitor is getting charge the output of 555 is
HIGH, and while capacitor is getting discharge output will be LOW. So this is
called Astable mode because none of the state is stable and 555 automatically
interchange its state from HIGH to LOW and LOW to HIGH, so it is also called Free
running Multivibrator.
Now the OUTPUT HIGH and OUTPUT LOW duration, is determined by the
Resistors R1 & R2 and capacitor C1.
Time High T1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1
Time Low T2 = 0.693 R2 C1
Time Period T = T1 + T2 = 0.693 (R1+2 R2) C1
T = 0.693 (R1+2 R2) C1
Frequency (f) = 1 /Time Period = 1 / 0.693 (R1 + 2 R2) C1
= 1.44 / (R1 + 2 R2) C1
Duty Cycle: Duty cycle is the ratio of time for which the output is HIGH to the total
time.
Duty cycle %: (Time HIGH/ Total time) x 100 = ( T1 / T ) x 100
= ( R1 + R2 ) x 100
( R1 + 2 R2 )
2) IC 555 as Monotable Multivibrator:
A Monostable Multivibrator, as the name implies, has only one stable state. When
a trigger input is applied, a pulse is produced at the output and returns back to the
stable state after a time interval. The duration of time for which the pulse is high will
depend on the timing circuit that comprises of a resistor (R1) and a capacitor (C1). It
is also called as One-shot Multivibrator.
Circuit Details: Circuit detail is as under:
i. Pin No. 4 (Reset) and Pin No. 8 (VCC) are connected to DC supply voltage
+VCC
ii. Pin No. 1 ( Ground ) is connected to ground terminal and Pin No. 5 is also
connected to ground through capacitor C2.
iii. Pin No. 3 is connected to Output load.
iv. Resistance R1 is connected between Pin No. 8 (VCC) and common point of (7
Discharge & 6 Threshold).
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v. Capacitor C1 is connected between common point (7 & 6) and Pin No. 1

(Ground).
vi. A Negative Trigger pulse less than 1/3 VCC should be given at Pin No. 2
(Trigger)
Operation:
i. Initially, Monostable Multivibrator is in its stable state (Output LOW) until it
is triggered.
ii. When a Negative Trigger is applied to the Trigger pin-2 of 555 Timer, output
of lower Comparator will become HIGH and output of upper Comparator will
be LOW, Since the Capacitor Voltage is Zero. SETs the Flip Flop and this
makes the output of the 5555 is HIGH.
iii. This makes the Discharge Transistor OFF, because Qbar, = 0 ( LOW) is
directly applied to base of discharge transistor. As the transistor is OFF,
capacitor C1 starts charging towards VCC through R1 and when it gets charged
to a voltage above than 1/3 Vcc, then Lower comparator output becomes
LOW (Upper comparator is also at LOW) and Flip flop output remains the
same as previous (555 output remains HIGH).
iv. Now when capacitor charging gets to voltage above than 2/3Vcc, then the
voltage of non-inverting end (Threshold PIN 6) becomes higher than the
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inverting end of the comparator. This makes Upper comparator output HIGH
and RESETs the Flip flop, output of 555 chip becomes LOW.
v. As soon as the output of 555 get LOW means Q’ (bar) =1, then discharge
transistor becomes ON and short the capacitor C1 to the Ground. So the
capacitor C1 starts discharging to the ground through the Discharge PIN 7.
vi. The circuit remains in its stable state (Output LOW) until next trigger occurs.
The duration of quasi stable state during which Monostable Multivibrator remain at
Logic HIGH level is determined by:

T = 1.1 R1 C1 Seconds
where R1 is in OHM and C1 is in Farads.

Waveforms:

So now it is observed that MONOSTABLE Multivibrator has only one

stable state and require a Negative pulse at PIN 2, for the transition to Quasi stable
state. Quasi stable state only remains for 1.1R1C1 seconds and then it automatically
switch back to stable state. Remember one thing.
While designing this circuit, that Trigger pulse at PIN 2 must be
shorter enough to the OUPUT pulse, so that the capacitor gets enough time to
charge and discharge.
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3) IC 555 as Bistable Multivibrator

A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states. The circuit stays in any one of the
two stable states. It continues in that state, unless an external trigger pulse is given.
This Multivibrator is also known as Flip-flop. This circuit is simply called as Binary.
The Bistable Multivibrator using IC 555 ( TIMER ) is one of the simplest
circuits. This bistable Multivibrator does not use any RC Timing Network to
produce an output waveform so no equations are required to calculate the time
period of the circuit.
Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Details: Circuit detail is as under:

i. Pin No. 8 (VCC) are connected to DC supply voltage +VCC
ii. Pin No. 1 ( Ground ) and Pin No. 6 (Threshold) are connected to ground
terminal and Pin No. 5 is also connected to ground through capacitor C 2.
iii. Pin No. 3 is connected to Output load.
iv. Resistance R1 is connected between Pin No. 8 (VCC) and Pin No.-2
(Trigger).
v. Resistance R2 is connected between Pin No. 8 (VCC) and Pin No.-4 (Reset).
vi. A Push Button ( Two way ) switch is connected between Pin No. -2 and Pin
No. 4 and then grounded.
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Operation:
i. Initially, Trigger PIN 2 and Reset PIN 4 input are kept HIGH using two Pull-up
resistors R1 and R2.
ii. Now when Push button Switch Set is pressed, Trigger PIN -2 goes Grounded
( < 1/3 VCC) and Lower comparator output becomes HIGH for a moment,
which SETs the flip flop and 555 output is HIGH.
iii. 555 remains in this state until the Reset input, because now both the
comparators are at LOW.
iv. Now when button Reset is pressed, it makes the Reset PIN LOW and Reset
the internal Flip flop and OUTPUT goes LOW.
So External Trigger (PIN - 2) Sets the Flip-Flop and output Goes HIGH and Reset
signal (PIN - 4) Resets the flip-flop and output Goes LOW.

When a LED is connected to output of Bistable Multivibrator as a Load. This LED

will be Switched ON ( glow ) when the button at Set position and when the button at
Reset position the LED will be switched OFF.
 Numerical -1 : A IC 555 ( TIMER ) is used as Astable Multivibratoe. If the
value of R1 = 10KΩ , R2 = 20KΩ and Capacitor C1 = 20 µF. as shown in figure:
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Find the TON , TOFF, Time Period ( T) , Duty Cycle , % Duty Cycle and Frequency
(f) of the signal generated by the Multivibrator.
Solution: Given R1 = 10KΩ , R2 = 20KΩ Capacitor C1 = 20 µF.
1) Time High (TON) T1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1
TON = 0.693 ( 10 x 103 + 20 x 103) 20 x 10-6
= 0.693 x 30 x 20 x 10+3-6
= 415.8 x 10-3 = 415.8 m Sec.
TON = = 415.8 m Sec
2) Time Low ( TOFF) T2 = 0.693 R2 C1
TOFF = 0.693 x 20 x103 x 20 x 10-6
= 277.2 x 10+3-6 = 277.2 m Sec
TOFF = 277.2 m Sec
3) Time Period T = T1 + T2 = TON + TOFF
T = 415.8 m Sec + 277.2 m Sec
T = 693 m Sec
4) Duty Cycle = TON / T = 415.8 / 693 = 0.6
Duty Cycle = 0.6
5) % Duty Cycle = 0.6 x100 = 60%
6) Frequency ( f) = 1 / T = 1 / 693 m Sec = 1.44 Hz.
f = 1.44 Hz
 Numerical -2 : A IC 555 ( TIMER ) is used as Astable Multivibratoe. If the
value of R1 = 50KΩ , R2 = 50KΩ and Capacitor C1 = 100 pF. as shown in figure:

Find the TON , TOFF, Time Period ( T) , Duty Cycle , % Duty Cycle and Frequency
(f) of the signal generated by the Multivibrator.
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Solution: Given R1 = 50KΩ , R2 = 50KΩ Capacitor C1 = 100 pF.

1) Time High (TON) T1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1
TON = 0.693 ( 50 x 103 + 50 x 103) 100 x 10-9
= 0.693 x 100 x 100 x 10+3-9
= 6930 x 10-6 = 6.93 m Sec.
TON = = 6.93 m Sec
2) Time Low ( TOFF) T2 = 0.693 R2 C1
TOFF = 0.693 x 50 x103 x 100 x 10-9
= 3465 x 10+3-9 = 3.465 m Sec
TOFF = 3.465 m Sec
3) Time Period T = T1 + T2 = TON + TOFF
T = 6.93 m Sec + 3.465 m Sec
T = 10.395 m Sec
4) Duty Cycle = TON / T = 6.93 / 10.395 = 0.67
Duty Cycle = 0.67
5) % Duty Cycle = 0.67 x100 = 67%
6) Frequency ( f) = 1 / T = 1 / 10.395 m Sec = 96.2 Hz.
f = 96. Hz
 Numerical -3 : A IC 555 ( TIMER ) is used as Monostable Multivibratoe. If the
value of R1 = 10KΩ and Capacitor C1 = 50 pF. and Power Supply given to the
Circuit VCC = +15 V as shown in figure:

Find the Pulse Width of the Output Pulse , Minimum Trigger Voltage and
Maximum Capacitor Voltage.
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Solution: Given : R1 = 10KΩ Capacitor C1 = 50 pF VCC = 15 V

1) Pulse Width ( Time Period ) T = 1.1 R1 C1 Seconds
T = 1.1 x 10 x 103 x 50 x 10-9
T = 550 x 10+3-9 = 0.55 m Sec
T = 0.55 m Sec
2) Minimum Triggering Voltage = 1/3 VCC = 15/3 =5 V
= 5 Volts
3) Maximum Capacitor Voltage = 2/3 VCC = 15 x 2 / 3 = 10 V
= 10 Volts

 Numerical -4 : A IC 555 ( TIMER ) is used as Monostable Multivibratoe. If the

value of R1 = 40KΩ and Capacitor C1 = 100 µF. and Power Supply given to the
Circuit VCC = +12 V as shown in figure:

Find the Pulse Width of the Output Pulse , Minimum Trigger Voltage and
Maximum Capacitor Voltage.
Solution: Given : R1 = 40KΩ Capacitor C1 = 100 µF VCC = 12 V
1) Pulse Width ( Time Period ) T = 1.1 R1 C1 Seconds
T = 1.1 x 40 x 103 x 100 x 10-6
T = 4400 x 10+3-6 = 4.4 Sec
T = 4.4 Sec
2) Minimum Triggering Voltage = 1/3 VCC = 12/3 =4 V
= 4 Volts
3) Maximum Capacitor Voltage = 2/3 VCC = 12 x 2 / 3 = 8 V
= 8 Volts
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FILL IN BLANKS:
1. ………………is a Electronics component which is used as switch.
2. The relay is example of ……………………. switch.
3. When transistor is used as switch, it operate in ………….region and Cutoff region.
of the output characteristics.
4. The Transistor is used as ………………..for Multivibrator circuit.
5. ……………….. Multivibrator does not require trigger signal.
6. Abstable Multivibrator is also known as …………….. Multivibrator.
7. ……………….. Multivibrator is a square wave generator on its own.
8. Monostable Multivibrator has ……………….. quasi stable state.
9. …………………. Multivibrator is also known as One Shot Multivibrator.
10. A circuit only one stable state is ……………… Multivibrator.
11. A bistable multivibrator has …………… stable states.
12. IC 555 is a ………… Pin Chip.
13. ……………. multivibrator has no stable state.
14. ……………….. Multivibratir is used as Memory.
15. In IC 555 Timer, Pin 4 is ………………. Pin.
16. In IC 555 Timer, Pin no. ………… is used as discharge Pin.
17. Multivibrator belongs to oscillator family is commonly called as ……………
Oscillator.
18. Astable Multivibrator has ………….. Quasi stable state.
19. In IC 555 Timer, Pin – 3 is …………… Pin.
20. In IC 555 Timer, VCC supply Pin No is ………… .
21. IC 555 as …………Multivibrator, the width of output pulse is equal to 1.1 RC.
22. In most of Electronics circuits, the clock pulse is provided by ………… Multivibrator.

Answers:
1) Transistor 2) Electromechanical 3) Saturation 4) Switch
5) Astable 6) Free running 7) Astable 8) One
9) Monostable 10) Monostable 11) Two 12) 8
13) Astable 14) Bistable 15) Reset 16) 7
17) Relaxation 18) Two 19) Output 20) 8
21) Monostable 22) Astable
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TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

1. The Transistor is used as switch for Multivibrator circuit.
2. Astable Multivibrator require a trigger signal.
3. Abstable Multivibrator is also known as One Shot Multivibrator.
4. Astable Multivibrator is a square wave generator on its own.
5. Monostable Multivibrator has two quasi stable state.
6. Monostable Multivibrator is also known as One Shot Multivibrator.
7. A circuit only one stable state is Monostable Multivibrator.
8. A bistable multivibrator has no stable stable state.
9. Multivibrator belongs to oscillator family is commonly called as Relaxation
Oscillator.
10. Astable Multivibrator has two stable state.
11. In IC 555 Timer, Pin – 3 is Reset Pin.
12. In IC 555 Timer, VCC supply Pin No is 6 .
13. IC 555 as Monostable Multivibrator, the width of output pulse is equal to 1.1 RC.
14. In most of Electronics circuits, the clock pulse is provided by Astable Multivibrator.
15. Relay is a Electronics component which is used as switch.
16. The Transistor is example of Electromechanical switch.
17. When transistor is used as switch, it operate in Saturation and Cutoff regions of the
output characteristics.
18. IC 555 is a 8 Pin Chip.
19. Astable Multivibrator does not require trigger signal
20. Astable multivibrator has one stable state.
21. Astable Multivibratir is used as Memory.
22. In IC 555 Timer, Pin 4 is Reset Pin.
23. In IC 555 Timer, Pin no. 7 is used as discharge Pin.
24. A circuit only one stable state is Astable Multivibrator.

Answers:
1) TRUE 2) FALSE 3) FALSE 4) TRUE 5) FALSE
6) TRUE 7) TRUE 8) FALSE 9) TRUE 10) FALSE
11) FALSE 12) FALSE 13) TRUE 14) TRUE 15) FALSE
16) FALSE 17) TRUE 18) TRUE 19) TRUE 20) FALSE
21) FALSE 22) TRUE 23) TRUE 24) FALSE
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
 An Operational Amplifiers are the Integrated Amplifier Circuits that having a
differential Input, direct coupled and very high gain amplifier. The output of the
Differential Amplifier is directly proportional to the difference of the signals applied
to the Input terminals of the Amplifier. Operational Amplifier, is also called as an
Op-Amp.

An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of Two

high impedance Inputs. One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input, marked with
a negative ( – ) sign,. The other input is called the Non-inverting Input, marked
with a positive ( + ) sign. A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers
output port VOUT.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OP-AMP:

 The OP-Amp is basically a differential amplifier i.e. it will amplify the voltage which is
differentially present between its input terminals. AS shown in block diagram, it
consists of the following four stages:
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

1. Input stage : The input stage is a dual-input, balanced output differential

Amplifier. The two input are inverting and non-inverting input terminals. This stage
provides most of the voltage gain of the OP-AMP and decides the input resistance
value Ri. It is a high gain Amplifier and output is directly coupled to the second
stage.
2. Intermediate stage :This is usually another differential Amplifier. It is driven by
the output of the input stage. This stage is a dual-input unbalanced output (single
ended output) differential amplifier.
3. Level shifting stage : Due to the direct coupling between the first two stages,
the input of level of shifting stage is an amplified signal with some non-zero dc level.
Level shifting stage is used to bring this dc level to zero volts with respect to ground.
4. Output Stage : This last stage is normally a complementary Push pull Amplifier.
It increases the power level of the signal also provides a low output resistance.
The operation amplifier has two differential inputs and one output. The output
is amplified by Op-Amp is given by:

Vout = A ( V2 – V1 )
Where Vout is Output of Op-Amp
V2 is Non Inverting Input
V1 is Inverting Input
A is open loop gain of Op-Amp.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:

1. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMMR): The common mode rejection

ratio is defined as the ratio of differential voltage gain of the Operational Amplifier to
its common mode gain.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMMR) = Differential mode gain ( Ad)

Common-mode gain ( Acm)

By using the condition of common mode rejection ratio, i.e. when both the input of
the Amplifier has same voltages, then the output of the amplifier should be zero
(Acm = 0) or the Amplifier should be rejecting the signal.
CMMR = Ad / Acm = Ad / 0 = Infinite

2. Slew Rate : It is defined as maximum rate of change of output voltage with

respect to time is known as Slew rate. It is expressed in Volt / mico second.

Slew Rate = dVo / dt Max.

The Slew Rate of an Ideal Operation Amplifier should be Infinity so that

output voltage changes simultaneously with the change in input voltage.

3. Output Offset Voltage: It is the voltage that appears at the output terminal of
an Op-amp when both the input terminals are grounded (no inputs are applied).
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Ideally the output offset voltage for an Op-amp should to be zero, but due to
mismatch in the transistor parameters of the differential amplifier stage of Op-amp
the output voltage might not be zero. In order to make the output offset voltage
zero, there has to be some voltage applied to either inverting or non-inverting
terminal.

4. Input Offset Voltage: In an Operation Amplifier, It is found that voltage exist

even when no input signal souce is connected to the input terminals. To make
output voltage zero, an external DC source is connected to the inputs of operational
Amplifier.
The input offset voltage is the defference between DC voltages applied at two
input terminals for making output zero.
Vio = V1 – V2

Where Vio is Input Offset Voltage

V1 is DC Voltage applied at the Non-Inverting terminal of Op-Amp
V2 is DC Voltage Applied to Inverting terminal of Op-Amp.

5. Power Supply Rejection Ratio :. Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) is the
ability of an amplifier to maintain its output voltage as its DC power-supply voltage is
varied.
PSRR = Change in DC Power Supply (VCC)
Change in Voltage (Vout)

The Power Supply Rejection ratio of an Op-Amp. Should very high and
Infinity for Ideal operational amplifier. It means, when DC Supply Voltage changes
then there should be no change in output voltage ( Change in offset error) .
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

6. Output offset current: It is the current that flows through the output terminal of
op-amp when both the input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) are precisely
grounded.

Ideally, this output offset current should be zero as inputs are grounded (or
both terminals are at same potential). But practically, there would be some current
appears (though very small in magnitude) to the output terminal. This current
produced at the output is due to the mismatch in the base currents of inverting and
non-inverting terminals.

7. Input offset current: The current applied at the input terminal ( Inverting or
Non-Inverting ) that nullifies ( making it Zero ) the effect of output offset current.

It is the current which is responsible for nullifies the output offset

current. It means that, an input current either at the inverting or non-inverting
terminal applied to cancel the output offset current (making it zero). If the output
offset voltage is positive, then the current at the inverting terminal is to applied and
vice-versa, so that the current reading at the output is zero.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

PIN Diagram of IC 741

1) Pin-4 & Pin-7 (Power Supply): Pin-7 is the Positive voltage supply terminal
and Pin-4 is the Negative voltage supply terminal. The 741 IC draws in power for its
operation from these two pins. The voltage between these two pins can be

anywhere between +/- 5V and +/-18V.

2) Pin-6 (Output): This is the output pin of IC 741. The voltage at this pin depends
on the signals at the input pins and the feedback mechanism used. If the output is
said to be high, it means that voltage at the output is equal to positive supply
voltage. Similarly, if the output is said to be low, it means that voltage at the output
is equal to negative supply voltage.
3) Pin-2 & Pin-3 (Input): These are input pins for the IC. Pin-2 is the inverting
input and Pin-3 is the non-inverting input. If the voltage at Pin-2 is greater than the
voltage at Pin-3, i.e., the voltage at inverting input is higher, the output signal stays
low. Similarly, if the voltage at Pin-3 is greater than the voltage at Pin-2, i.e., the
voltage at non-inverting input is high, the output goes high.
4) Pin-1 & Pin-5 (Offset Null): Because of high gain provided by 741 Op-Amp,
even slight differences in voltages at the inverting and non-inverting inputs, caused
due to irregularities in manufacturing process or external disturbances, can
influence the output. To nullify this effect, an offset voltage can be applied at pin-1
and pin-5, and is usually done using a potentiometer.
5) Pin-8 (N/C): This pin is not connected to any circuit inside 741 IC. It’s just a
dummy lead used to fill the void space in standard 8 pin packages.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Chararacteristics of Ideal and Practical Operational Amplifier:

Sr. Characteristics of Op-Amp.
No.
Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp
(Practical)
The Open Loop Voltage Gain The Open Loop Voltage Gain is very
1.
should be Infinity. high.
The Input Impedance should be The Input Impedance is very high.
2.
Infinity.

3. The Bandwidth should be Infinity. The Bandwidth is verge large.

The Common Mode Rejection ratio The Common Mode Rejection ratio
4.
(CMMR) should be Infinity. (CMMR) is very high.

5. The Slew rate should be Infinity. The Slew rate is very high.
The Power Supply Rejection ratio The Power Supply Rejection ratio is
6.
should be Infinity. very high.
The Output Impedance should be The Output Impedance is very less or
7.
Zero. minimum.
The Output Offset Voltage should The Output Offset Voltage is very less
8.
be Zero. or minimum.
The Input Offset Voltage should be The Input Offset is very less or
9.
Zero. minimum.
The Common Mode Gain should be The Common Mode Gain is very less
10.
Zero. or minimum.
Noise contribution should be Zero. Noise contribution is very less or
11.
minimum.

 Operational Amplifier Applications.

1) Operational Amplifiers are in most of the consumer and industrial electronic
systems.
2) Op-Amps as signal amplifiers like inverting, non-inverting, differential,
summing, etc.
3) Op-Amp are used to perform mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division.
4) Op-Amp can be used as AC as well as DC Amplifier.
5) Op-Amp are also used as differentiation and integration.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

6) Operational amplifiers can be used in construction of active filters, providing

high-pass, low-pass, band-pass, band-reject and delay functions.
7) The high input impedance and gain of an op-amp allow straightforward
calculation of element values, allows accurate implementation of any desired
filter topology with little concern for the loading effects of stages in the filter or
of subsequent stages.
8) An Operational Amplifier can, used as a comparator.
9) Op-amps are used in the construction of oscillators, like an Wein bridge
oscillator.
10) Op-amps are also used in non-linear circuits such as logarithmic and anti-
logarithmic amplifiers.
11) Op-amps are used in signal processing circuits such as Rectifiers, Clamping
circuits and Sample-and-Hold circuits.
12) It can be used as Analog to Digital Converter ( ADC ) and Digital to Analog
Converter ( DAC ).
Equivalent Circuit of Operational Amplifier
 The Operational Amplifier has two Inputs (Inverting V2 and Non-Inverting V1) and
one output VOut., which is amplification of difference of both inputs. The figure show
the equivalent circuit of an Operational Amplifier:
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Rin is the Input Impedance of the Operational amplifier and ROut is the thevenin
equivalent Resistance looking back into the output terminal of the Amplifier. The
Output voltage VOut is given as :
Vout = A ( V2 – V1 )
Where Vout is Output of Op-Amp
V2 is Non Inverting Input
V1 is Inverting Input
A is open loop gain of Op-Amp.
Voltage Transfer Characteristics of Operational Amplifier
 It is a graph plotted between differential input and output of the operational amplifier
assuming gain constant. The figure shows the transfer characteristics:

It is clear form above gragh, when differential input ( Vid = V2 - V1) is positive as
increases, the output voltage VO will also increases in the positive direction. When,
the ouput voltage reaches at saturation +Vsat , it will remains constant and equal to
+ VCC.
Similarly, when differential input ( Vid = V2 - V1 ) is negative as increases in
negative direction, the output voltage VO will also increases in the negative
direction. When, the ouput voltage reaches at saturation -Vsat , it will remains
constant and equal to -VEE.
Therefore, output voltage VO is directly proportion to the differential input (Vid
= V2 - V1) untill it reaches to saturation and once output saturates then it remains
constant.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

OPEN LOOP OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

 When there is no feedback applied to the Input of the Operational Amplifier from its
output, the circuit configuration is called Open Loop Operational Amplifier.
There are three type of Open Loop Operational Amplifier:
1) Differential Operational Amplifier
2) Inverting Operational Amplifier
3) Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier
The above classification is made based on the number of inputs used and the
terminal to which the input is applied. The op-amp amplifies both AC and DC input
signals. Thus, the input signals can be either AC or DC voltage.
1) Differential Operational Amplifier : In this configuration, the inputs are
applied to both the inverting and the non-inverting input terminals of the op-amp
and it amplifies the difference between the two input voltages.
Figure shows the circuit of Open-loop Differential Amplifier Configuration:

The input voltages are represented by Vi1 and Vi2. The source resistance Ri1
and Ri2 are negligibly small in comparison with the very high input resistance offered
by the Operational Amplifier, and thus the voltage drop across these source
resistances is assumed to be zero. The output voltage V 0 is given by
V0 = A ( Vi1 – Vi2 )
where A is the Open Loop Gain of Operational Amplifier. Thus the output
voltage is equal to amplification of the difference between the two input voltages.
So, this configuration is called a differential operational amplifier.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

2. Inverting Operational Amplifier: In this configuration the input signal is

applied to the inverting input terminal of the op-amp and the non-inverting input
terminal is connected to the ground.
Figure shows the circuit of Open – Loop Inverting Amplifier Configuration:

The output voltage is 1800 out of phase with respect to the input and hence,
the output voltage V0 is given by,

V0 = A ( 0 – Vi )
V0 = - A Vi

Where A is the Open Loop Gain of Operational Amplifier. Thus, in an

Inverting Amplifier, the Output Voltage is the amplification of Input Signal applied
at Inverting terminal and opposite in phase. So this configuration is call inverting
operational amplifier.

3. Non-inverting Amplifier: In this configuration the input signal is applied to the

Non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp and the Inverting input terminal is
connected to the ground.
The output voltage is in same phase with respect to the input and hence,
the output voltage V0 is given by,
V0 = A ( Vi – 0 )
V0 = A Vi
Figure shows the circuit of Open – Loop Non-Inverting Amplifier Configuration:
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Where A is the Open Loop Gain of Operational Amplifier. Thus, in an Non-Inverting

Amplifier, the output of voltage is the amplification of Input Signal applied at non-
inverting terminal and in same phase with input voltage. So this configuration is call
non-inverting operational amplifier.

 Limitations of Open Loop Operational Amplifier Configuration:

1) Due to the very high open – loop gain of the operational Amplifier, clipping of
the output waveform can occur when the output voltage exceeds the
saturation level of operational Amplifier.
2) The open – loop gain of the operational Amplifier is not a constant and it
varies with changing temperature and variations in power supply.
3) The bandwidth of most of the open- loop operational Amplifier is negligibly
small. This makes the open – loop configuration of operational Amplifier
unsuitable for AC signal applications. The open – loop bandwidth of the
widely used 741 IC is approximately 5Hz. But in almost all ac applications,
the bandwidth requirement is much larger than this.
For this reason, the open – loop operational amplifier are generally not used in
linear applications. However, the open – loop operational amplifier configurations
can use in certain non – linear applications such as Comparators, Square Wave
Generators and Astable Multivibrators.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

CLOSED – LOOP OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

 When, a fraction of output signal feedback to the Input of the Operational Amplifier
through a suitable feedback network, the circuit configuration is called Closed Loop
Operational Amplifier.
The op-amp can be effectively utilized in linear applications by providing a
feedback from the output to the input, through feedback network. If the signal
feedback is out of phase by 1800 with respect to the input, then the feedback is
referred to as negative feedback or degenerative feedback.

Conversely, if the feedback signal is in phase with that at the input, then the
feedback is referred to as positive feedback or regenerative feedback.

The most commonly used closed - loop amplifier configurations are:

1) Inverting Amplifier (Voltage Shunt Amplifier)
2) Non-Inverting Amplifier (Voltage - Series Amplifier)
1) Inverting Amplifier ( Voltage Shunt Amplifier) : In Inverting Closed Loop
Operational Amplifier, the input signal is applied at the Inverting input terminal of the
Op-Amp through input resistor Rin and Non-inverting to be grounded.
For reducing and controlling the overall gain of the amplifier by connecting a
suitable feedback resistor RF across the amplifier from the output terminal back to
the inverting input terminal. This feedback is known as Negative Feedback.

The Non-inverting input this is connected to a common ground or zero voltage

terminal as shown above. But as input impedance of Op-Amp is very high, the
inverting terminal and non inverting terminals are virtually at the same potential i. e.
the voltage at the inverting input being equal to that at the non-inverting terminal.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

As Input impedance is very high so No current flows into input

terminals of the Operational Amplifier and the Differential Input Voltage is Zero as
V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual Earth). So Current ( i ) flows through the resistor network as
shown:

The Closed-Loop Voltage Gain of an Inverting Amplifier is given as.

Gain AVf = - RF
Rin

Where AVf is Closed Loop Negative feedback Voltage Gain

RF is feedback resistor
Rin is input resistor
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

2) Non-Inverting Amplifier (Voltage - Series Amplifier): In Non-Inverting

Closed Loop Operational Amplifier, the input signal is applied at the Non-inverting
input terminal of the Op-Amp and Inverting to be grounded through input resistor
(Rin).
For reducing and controlling the overall gain of the amplifier by connecting a
suitable feedback resistor RF across the amplifier from the output terminal back to
the inverting input terminal. This is known Negative Feedback.

The Non-inverting input this is connected to Vin as shown above. But as the
input impedance of Op-Amp is very high, the inverting terminal and non inverting
terminals are virtually at the same potential i. e. the voltage at the inverting input
being equal to that at the non-inverting terminal.
As Input impedance is very high, so No current flows into input terminals of
the Operational Amplifier and the Differential Input Voltage is Vin as V1 = V2 =
Vin (Virtually equal). So Current ( i ) flows through the resistor network as shown :

Then using the formula to calculate the output voltage of a potential divider
network, we can calculate the closed-loop voltage gain ( AVF ) of the Non-inverting
Amplifier as follows:
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The Closed-Loop Voltage Gain of an Non-Inverting Amplifier is given as.

Gain AVf = 1 + RF
Rin

Where AVf is Closed Loop Negative feedback Voltage Gain

RF is feedback resistor
Rin is input resistor
 Numerical – 1 When an Operational Amplifier is connected in closed loop-
Inverting mode. If RF = 10 K Ω and Rin = 200 Ω. Find the Closed Loop Voltage
Gain (AVf ) and output voltage with feedback (VO') , when input voltage is
applied VIN = 50 mV.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Solution : Given RF = 10 K Ω Rin = 200 Ω VIN = 50 mV

i) Gain AVf = - RF = - 10,000 / 200 = - 50
Rin

AVf = - 50 (Negative Sign Indicate the opposite Phase of Output)

ii) VO' = AVf x VIN = - 50 x 50 mV = - 2.5 V

VO' = - 2.5 V (Negative Sign Indicate the opposite Phase of Output)

 Numerical – 2 When an Operational Amplifier is connected in closed loop-

Non – Inverting mode. If RF = 20 K Ω and Rin = 500 Ω. Find the Closed Loop
Voltage Gain (AVf ) and output voltage with feedback (VO') , when input voltage
is applied VIN = 200 mV.

Solution : Given RF = 20 K Ω Rin = 500 Ω VIN = 200 mV

i) Gain AVf = 1 + RF = 1 + 20,000 / 500 = 1 + 40 = 41
Rin

AVf = 41

ii) VO' = AVf x VIN = 41 x 200 mV = 8.2 V

VO' = 8.2 V
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APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1) Operational Amplifier as an Inverter : When an Operational Amplifier is
used as an inverter , its output will be inverted ( opposite ) from the signal applied to
its input terminal.
In Inverting Closed Loop Operational Amplifier, the input signal is applied at
the Inverting input terminal of the Op-Amp through input resistor Rin and Non-
inverting to be grounded.
For reducing and controlling the overall gain of the amplifier by connecting a
suitable feedback resistor RF across the amplifier from the output terminal back to
the inverting input terminal. This feedback is known as Negative Feedback.

The Non-inverting input this is connected to a common ground or zero voltage

terminal as shown above. But as input impedance of Op-Amp is very high, the
inverting terminal and non inverting terminals are virtually at the same potential i. e.
the voltage at the inverting input being equal to that at the non-inverting terminal.
As Input impedance is very high so No current flows into input terminals of the
Operational Amplifier and the Differential Input Voltage is Zero as V 1 = V2 =
0 (Virtual Earth). So Current ( i ) flows through the resistor network as shown :
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

When Rf = Rin = R

Then, the Output Voltage of an operational Amplifier as inverter is given as.

Vout = -R
Vin R

Vout = - Vin (Negative sign indicate opposite phase)

The output voltage of the operational amplifier is inverted from the input voltage.

2) Operational Amplifier as Scale Changer: When an Operational Amplifier

is used as a Scale Changer, its output will be multiple of the signal applied to its
input terminal.
The scale changer ( multiplier) circuit using an operational amplifier is an
Inverting Amplifier as shown below. In this circuit, the feedback resistor value (Rf =
n Rin) is multiple of input register Rin.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The Non-inverting input this is connected to a common ground or zero voltage

terminal as shown above. But as input impedance of Op-Amp is very high, the inverting
terminal and non inverting terminals are virtually at the same potential i. e. the voltage at
the inverting input being equal to that at the non-inverting terminal.
As Input impedance is very high so No current flows into input terminals
of the Operational Amplifier and the Differential Input Voltage is Zero as V 1 = V2 =
0 (Virtual Earth). So Current ( i ) flows through the resistor network as shown :
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

When Rf = n Rin

Then, the Output Voltage of an operational Amplifier as inverter is given as.

Vout = - n Rin
Vin Rin

Vout = - nVin (Negative sign indicate opposite phase)

The output voltage of the operational amplifier is multiple of the input voltage
applied at the Inverting terminal. In this way the scale of the input can be changer
by using operational amplifier

3) Operational Amplifier as Adder ( Summing Amplifier ) : When an

Operational Amplifier is used as an Adder ( Summing Amplifier ) , its output will be
the sum of the all signals applied to its input terminal.
If more input resistors are added to the input inverting terminal of the
operational amplifier of equal in value to the original input resistor (R in) and different
input voltages applied like V1, V2, V3, then the output voltage, ( Vout ) becomes
proportional to the sum of the input voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc.
The operational amplifier as a Summing Amplifier, or a “Voltage Adder”
circuit as shown below:

In this simple summing amplifier circuit, the output voltage, ( Vout ) becomes
proportional to the sum of the input voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc.
According to KCL ( Kirchhoff’s Current Law ) at point ‘X’ incoming current is
equal to out going current.
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IF = Vout
RF

The operational amplifier circuit that will amplify each individual input voltage
and produce an output voltage signal that is proportional to the algebraic “SUM” of
the three individual input voltages V1, V2 and V3.
If all resisters are same values Rin = RF = R
Vout = - ( V1 + V2 + V3)

The output of the operational amplifier is sum of all individual Inputs and (-)
sign indicates that output in opposite phase.

4) Operational Amplifier as Subtractor: When an Operational Amplifier is

used as an Subtractor, its output will be the difference of the signals applied to its
input terminals ( Non-Inverting and Inverting ).
We used till now, only one of the operational amplifiers inputs to connect to
the amplifier, using either the “inverting” or the “non-inverting” input terminal to
amplify a single input signal with the other input being connected to ground.

But as a standard operational amplifier has two inputs, inverting and no-
inverting, signals to both of these inputs can also connect at the same time
producing another common type of operational amplifier circuit called a Differential
Amplifier.

In Differential Amplifiers, one voltage signal is connected to one input

terminal and another voltage signal connected to the other input terminal of the
amplifier,the resultant output voltage will be proportional to the “Difference” between
the two input voltage signals of V1 and V2.
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Figure show Differential Amplifier (Subtractor Circuit ):

By using Superposition theorem, one input source to be grounded, when other

source is in use to solve for the output voltage Vout and vice versa. After getting
individual outputs and add both for final output.
i) Let Source V1 is present, then V2 = 0 ( Grounded ) , the operation
amplifier work as Inverting amplifier.
Vout1 = - RF x V1 = - R x V1 = - V1
Rin R

Vout1 = - V1
ii) Let Source V2present, then V1 = 0 ( Grounded), the operation
amplifier works as Non-Inverting Amplifier and input voltage at Non-
inverting terminal (Vb) is given as :
Vb = R x V2 = V2 ( voltage divider method at Vb)
R xR 2
The output voltage Vout2 = ( 1 + R ) x V2
R 2

Vout2 = V2

As per the superposition theorem, when both sources are present, the
output voltage is sum of both inputs as under:

Vout = Vout1 + Vout2 = - V1 + V2

Vout = V2 – V1
The output of the operational amplifier is difference of both inputs. Hence the
operational amplifier will works as Subtractor.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

5) Operational Amplifier as Differentiator : A circuit associated with

operational amplifier that gives an output which is differentiation of the signal
applied to its input terminals.
The operational amplifier circuit in differentiation mode will performs the
mathematical operation of Differentiation, that is it “produces a voltage output
which is directly proportional to the input voltage’s rate-of-change with respect to
time’’.
In Differentiation circuit, the reactance, Cin is connected to the input terminal
of the inverting amplifier while the resistor, Rƒ forms the negative feedback
element across the operational amplifier as normal as shown in figure:

By applying Kirchoff’s Current Law at Point X, As the input impedance of the

operational Amplifier very high and very small current flows in the operational
amplifier, then
Iin = If
Cin d ( Vin – V2 ) = V2 - Vout
dt Rf

V2 = V1 = 0 = Ground ( Virtual Grounded )

Cin d ( Vin – 0 ) = 0 - Vout

dt Rf

Cin d ( Vin) = - Vout

dt Rf

Rf . Cin d ( Vin) = - Vout

dt

Vout = - Rf . Cin d ( Vin)

dt
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The output of Differentiator circuit is derivate of the input signal applied at

the input terminals of the amplifier circuit. The negative sign indicate that output in
opposite phase.
Waveforms of Differntiator Circuit:

6) Operational Amplifier as Integrator : A circuit associated with operational

amplifier that gives an output which is integration of the signal applied to its input
terminals.
As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit
that performs the mathematical operation of Integration, that is, it produce the
output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator
produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage .
In Integration circuit, the reactance, Rin is connected to the
input terminal of the inverting amplifier as normal while the resistor, Cf forms the
negative feedback element across the operational amplifier as shown in figure:.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VII Page 26 of 28

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

By applying Kirchoff’s Current Law at Point X, As the input impedance of the

operational Amplifier very high and very small current flows in the operational
amplifier, then
Iin = If
( Vin – V2 ) = Cf d ( V2 – Vout )
Rin dt

V2 = V1 = 0 = Ground ( Virtual Grounded )

( Vin – 0 ) = Cf d ( 0 – Vout )
Rin dt

( Vin ) = Cf d (– Vout )
Rin dt

- Vin = d ( Vout )
Rin Cf dt

Integration on both sides

The output of Integrator circuit is integration of the input signal applied at

the input terminals of the amplifier circuit. The negative sign indicate that output in
opposite phase.
Waveforms of Integrator Circuit:
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VII Page 27 of 28

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

FILL IN BLANKS:
1. An ……..amplifier is a very high gain and wide bandwidth differential amplifier.
2. An operational amplifier has a ………..………. input impedance
3. Practically, the valve of CMRR of an Op-Amp should be………………….
4. The output signal of an op-amp is …….. out of phase with its input signal
connected to the inverting input terminal.
5. The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined by……………
6. Ideally, the value of the CMRR of Operational Amplifier should be………….
7. The ………..Operational Amplifier is the most widely used constant-gain amplifier
circuit.
8. If Operational Amplifier is in inverting mode, then input signal to be given at
…………..terminal.
9. Bandwidth of Ideal Operational Amplifier should be………………..
10. The feedback component of an integrator is a……………...
11. ……………..is the unit for the Slew Rate.
12. …………….operational amplifier connection is more widely used because it has
better frequency stability.
13. The slew rate of Operational Amplifier should be ………………
14. The Operational Amplifier has …………..number of Inputs.
15. The voltage gain of an inverting op-amp circuit is …………….the gain of a non-
inverting op-amp circuit using the same resistors.
16. The output offset voltage is determined by…………………...
17. The input to an ………………..Amplifier can be AC / DC signal.
18. The feedback component of an Differentiator is a……………
19. The ……….……..Impedance of Operational Amplifier is very low.
20. The Ideal Operational Amplifier should have ………..offset voltage.

Answers:
1) Operational 2) Very high 3) Very high 4) 180o
5) Ad / Ac 6) Infinity 7) Inverting 8) Inverting
9) Infinity 10) Capacitor 11) Volt./ msec 12) Inverting
13) Very high 14) Two 15) Smaller than 16) input offset voltage
17) Operational 18) Resistor 19) Output 20) Zero
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VII Page 28 of 28

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

1. Volt./ msec is the unit for the Slew Rate.
2. Non-Inverting amplifier connection is more widely used because it has better
frequency stability.
3. The slew rate of Operational Amplifier should be very low.
4. The Operational Amplifier has two number of Inputs.
5. The voltage gain of an inverting op-amp circuit is higher than the gain of a
non-inverting op-amp circuit using the same resistors.
6. An operational amplifier is a very high gain and wide bandwidth differential
amplifier.
7. Ideally, the value of the CMRR should be Zero.
8. The Inverting Operational Amplifier is the most widely used constant-gain
amplifier circuit.
9. If Operational Amplifier is in inverting mode, then input signal to be given at
Non-Inverting terminal.
10. Bandwidth of Ideal Operational Amplifier should be Infinity.
11. The feedback component of an integrator is a Resister.
12. An operational amplifier has a very low input impedance.
13. Practically, the valve of CMRR of an Op-Amp should be very high.
14. The output signal of an op-amp is 180o out of phase with its input signal
connected to the inverting input terminal.
15. The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined by Ad / Ac.
16. The output offset voltage is determined by CMRR.
17. The input to an Operational Amplifier can be AC / DC signal.
18. The feedback component of an Differentiator is a Resistor.
19. The output Impedance of Operational Amplifier is very low.
20. The Ideal Operational Amplifier should have Infinity offset voltage.

Answers:
1) TRUE 2) FALSE 3) FALSE 4) TRUE 5) FALSE
6) TRUE 7) FALSE 8) TRUE 9) FALSE 10) TRUE
11) FALSE 12) FALSE 13) TRUE 14) TRUE 15) TRUE
16) FALSE 17) TRUE 18) TRUE 19) TRUE 20) FALSE
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 1 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY :

 A DC Power Supply that maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of
fluctuations of AC mains supply or variations in load is called as Regulated Power
Supply.
Under ordinary power supply conditions, The voltage regulation is not good.
Changes in the load current cause the output voltage to change as well. Again ,The
variations in the input A. C. Voltage causes the output voltage to change as well .
In Practical situations, There are a lot of factors due to which a lot of variations
in AC line voltage that are not in our control. This causes the DC output voltage to
fluctuate. Most of the electronic circuits wouldn’t work properly on such output
voltage fluctuations. Hence we need a regulated dc power supply .
 Block Diagram: The Basic Building Blocks of a Regulated DC Power Supply is
shown in figure below:
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 2 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

 The regulated power supply is consist of the following main parts as described
below:
1. Step-Down Transformer
2. Rectifier
3. Filter
4. Voltage Regulator
5. Load
1. Step-Down Transformer : A Step Down Transformer will step down the
voltage from the AC mains to the required voltage level. The turn’s ratio of the
transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage value. The
Transformer consist of two winding. The Primary Winding is connected to AC
220 V supply and the required AC voltage is obtained from the Secondary
Winding. The output of the Transformer is given as an input to the rectifier
circuit.

2. Rectifier: Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out

the rectification process. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating
voltage ( AC ) or current into corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input to a
rectifier is AC whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating DC. Usually a full
wave center tapped rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both the half
cycles of the AC Supply (full wave rectification). Figure above circuit shows a full
wave bridge rectifier.
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

3. Filter: The rectified output voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage
having very high ripple content. The Filter circuit consist of Inductor and
Capacitor components as Capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type
filter, T filter. The Filter in the above circuit, a simple Capacitor is used. The Filter
Circuit is used to remove the ripples from the output of the rectifier and to
smooth it out. The DC output at the Filter Circuit is dependent upon the AC
supply mains and applied load. If any variation in these ( AC main supply and
Load ) gives the variations in output.

4. Voltage Regulator: The output voltage or current at the output of the filter
will change or fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due
to change in load current at the output of the regulated power supply or due to
other factors like temperature changes. This problem can be eliminated by using
a regulator. A regulator will maintain the output constant even when changes at
the input or any other changes occur.
Fixed and variable IC regulators or a Zener diode operated in the
Zener region can be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and
79XX are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output. waveform.

In the above Regulated Power Supply, Zener diode is used as Voltage

Regulator. As long as input voltage Vin is greater than Zener voltage VZ , the
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 4 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

Zener operates in the breakdown region and maintains constant voltage across
the load. The series limiting resistance RS limits the input current

5. Load: The Load is a device that will use this regulated power supply, when
connected as load to the supply.
LINE AND LOAD REGULATION:
 Line Regulation: Line Regulation is the ability of the power supply to maintain a
constant output voltage over changes in the input line voltage. It is expressed as
percent of change in the output voltage relative to the change in the input line
voltage.

Normally, the voltage main supply vary from 200 V to 230 V, depending upon
the time, the locality and some other factors. The output voltage / secondary voltage
is directly proportional the line voltage of the main supply.
Line Regulation = VHL - VLL x 100%
VLL

Where VHL = High Level of Line Voltage at the Load

VLL = Low Level of Line Voltage at the Load
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 5 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

Line Regulation is defined as the ratio of Change in load voltage from high level input
line voltage to low level input line voltage with respect to load voltage with low level
input voltage.
 Load Rgulation ( Voltage Regulation ) : Load regulation is the ability of the
power supply to maintain a constant output voltage despite changes in the load. A
good load regulation ensures that the power supply will deliver a required and stable
voltage to the circuit or system. Ideally the load regulation should be zero meaning
that the supply’s output voltage is independent of the load and remains the same
throughout.

When choosing a power supply, it is important to pay attention to the load

regulation as specified in the data sheets. The power supply should be able to
supply a constant and reliable power to within the specified load current range. The
load regulation is not a fixed number but rather presented as a percentage.

Where VNL is the load voltage at no load IL = 0

VFL is load voltage at full load when IL = IL max

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 6 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

The Load Regulation or Voltage regulation is defined as the ratio of change in

DC output voltage from No load to Full load of the power supply to Full load supply
voltage.
 Output Resistance (RTH): The load regulation depends on the output resistance
of the supply and a low resistance results into a low regulation as shown from the
relationship below.

Where RTH is the Output Resistance of the Power Supply

IFL the Full Load Current (at the minimum resistance)
RL(min) is the minimum Load Resistance.
A Power Supply with good load regulation is able to provide an output
voltage that does not change much with varying load current. The smaller the load
regulation, the stable and reliable is the power supply. Typical well-regulated power
supplies have load regulations of less than 1%, meaning that the output voltage will
change by a maximum of 1% over the supply’s load current range.
 Numerical -1 : Determine the regulation of the power supply , if its output
voltage changes from 30 V to 35 V with load to without load.
Solution : VNL = 35 V, VFL = 30 V
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 7 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

Load Regulation = Voltage Regulation = 35 – 30 x 100 % = 5 x 100%

30 30

Voltage Regulation = 16.67 %

 Numerical -2 : Determine the line regulation of the power supply , if its
output voltage changes from 200 V to 230 V from low level to high level.
Solution : VHL = 230 V, VLL = 200 V
Line Regulation = VHL - VLL x 100% = 230 - 200 x 100 %
VLL 200

Line Regulation = 30 x 100 / 200 = 15 %

CONCEPT OF FIXED VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING IC 78XX & 79XX
 Voltage Regulator: Voltage Regulator is a device which maintain output voltage
constant irrespective of change in input AC supply mains and change in load
conditions, is called Voltage regulator. The AC ripple voltage that is not removed by
the filters is also rejected by the voltage regulators.
 Voltage Regulators are also available in Integrated Circuits (IC) forms. These are
called as voltage regulator ICs.
 Types of Voltage Regulators: There are Two Types of voltage regulators −
1. Fixed Voltage Regulator
2. Adjustable Voltage Regulator
1. Fixed Voltage Regulator: A fixed voltage regulator is voltage regulator
which gives a fixed DC output voltage, which is either Positive or Negative. In
other words, Positive Fixed Voltage Regulators produce positive fixed DC
voltage values, While Negative Voltage Regulator produce negative fixed DC
voltage values.
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

78xx Voltage Regulator ICs produce positive fixed DC voltage values and 79xx
Voltage Regulator ICs produce negative fixed DC voltage values.
The following points are to be noted while working
with 78xx and 79xx Voltage Regulator ICs −
i. “xx” corresponds to a Two-digit number and represents the amount
(magnitude) of voltage that voltage regulator IC produces.
ii. Both 78xx and 79xx voltage regulator ICs have 3 pins each and the third
pin is used as the output pin.
iii. The purpose of the first and second pins of these two types of ICs is
different −
 The first and second pins of 78xx voltage regulator ICs are used for

connecting the input and ground respectively.

 The first and second pins of 79xx voltage regulator ICs are used for

connecting the ground and input respectively.

Examples
 7805 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of +5 Volts.

 7905 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of -5 Volts.

Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator : The following figure shows a Fixed

Positive Voltage Regulator, which gives fixed positive output voltage at the
output pin as per the desired value of voltage by IC.
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

In the above figure that shows a fixed positive voltage regulator, the input
capacitor Ci is used to prevent unwanted oscillations and the output capacitor,
C0 acts as a line filter to improve transient response.
Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 78XX Series:
Sr. No. IC No. Output Voltage VO Minimum Input Required VIN
1. 7805 +5 V +7.3 V
2. 7806 +6 V +8.3 V
3. 7808 +8 V +10.5 V
4. 7810 +10 V +12.5 V
5. 7812 +12 V +14.5 V
6. 7815 +15 V +17.7 V
7. 7818 +18 V +21.0 V
8. 7824 +24 V +27.1 V

Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator : The following figure shows a Fixed

Negative Voltage Regulator, which gives fixed negative output voltage at the
output pin as per the desired value of voltage by IC.

In the above figure that shows a fixed negative voltage regulator, the
input capacitor Ci is used to prevent unwanted oscillations and the output
capacitor, C0 acts as a line filter to improve transient response.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 10 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 79XX Series:

Sr. No. IC No. Output Voltage VO Minimum Input Required VIN
1. 7905 5 V  7.3 V
2. 7906 - 6 V - 8.3 V
3. 7908 8 V  10.5 V
4. 7910  10 V  12.5 V
5. 7912  12 V  14.5 V
6. 7915  15 V  17.7 V
7. 7918  18 V  21.0 V
8. 7924  24 V  27.1 V

2. Adjustable Voltage Regulator: An Adjustable voltage regulator is voltage

regulator which produces a DC output voltage, that can be adjusted to any other
value of certain voltage range. Hence, adjustable voltage regulator is also called
as a variable voltage regulator. The DC output voltage value of an adjustable
voltage regulator can be either positive or negative. In other words, Positive
Adjustable Voltage Regulators produce positive adjustable DC voltage values,
While Negative Voltage Regulator produce negative adjustable DC voltage
values.

ADJUSTABLE / VARIABLE VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING IC – 723

 IC-723 Voltage Regulator is commonly used for series voltage regulator
applications. It can be used as both positive and negative voltage regulator. It has
an ability to provide up to 150 mA of current to the load, but this can be increased
more than 10A by using Power. LM723* IC can also be used as a temperature
controller, current regulator or shunt regulator and it is available in both Dual-In-Line
and Metal Can packages. The input voltage ranges from 9.5 to 40V and it can
regulate voltage from 2V to 37V.
* The Prefix LM stands for linear monolithic, referring to the analog components
integrated on a single piece of silicon.
 Use of IC – 723 : The IC – 723 is a general purpose voltage regulator IC, which
can be used for making various types of regulated power supplies such as:
1. Positive Voltage Regulator
2. Negative Voltage Regulator
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

3. Switching Regulator
4. Fold back Current Limiter
 Main Features
1. The minimum voltage that can be achieved from IC 723 Regulator Circuit is
2 V, and the maximum is around 37 V.
2. The peak voltage that can handled by the IC is 50 V in pulsed form, and 40
V is the maximum continuous voltage limit.
3. The maximum output current from this IC is 150 mA which can be upgraded
to as high as 10 Amps through an external series pass transistor integration.
4. The maximum tolerable dissipation of this IC 500 mW, therefore it should be
mounted on a suitable heat-sink in order to allow optimal performance from
the device.
5. Being a linear regulator, the IC 723 needs an input supply that should be at
least 3 V higher than the desired output voltage, and the maximum
difference between the input and the output voltage should never be allowed
to exceed 37 V.
 PIN DIAGRAM OF IC – 723:
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 12 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

1. V+ and V- ( PIN -12, PIN - 7 ) : These are the supply voltage terminals of
the IC. V+ is the positive terminal and V- is the negative terminal. The
voltage difference between these terminals should be between 9.5V to 40V.
2. Non Inverting Input ( PIN – 5 ) : This is the non inverting input of the error
amplifier whose output is connected to the series pass transistor. We usually
give reference voltage or a portion of it to the non inverting input.
3. Inverting Input ( PIN – 4 ) : This is the inverting input of the error amplifier
whose output is connected to the series pass transistor. We usually give
output voltage or a portion of it to the inverting input. This makes the output
voltage constant.
4. Vref ( PIN – 6 ) : It is the reference voltage output of the IC. It is the output of
voltage reference amplifier. Its output voltage is about 7.15V.
5. VOut ( PIN – 10 ) : It is the output terminal of the IC. Usually output voltage
ranges from 2 to 37V. This pin can provide up to 150mA current.
6. Current Limit (PIN – 2) : It is the base input of the current limiter transistor.
This pin is used for current limiting or current fold back applications.
7. Current Sense ( PIN – 3 ) : This is the emitter of current limiting transistor.
This terminal is used with current limiting and current fold-back applications.
8. VC ( PIN – 11 ) : This is the collector input of the series pass transistor. It is
usually directly connected to the positive supply voltage if an external
transistor is not used.
9. Frequency Compensation ( PIN – 13 ) : This pin is used to connect
a capacitor which bypasses high frequency noises. It is the output of error
amplifier. The capacitor is connected between this pin and inverting input of
the error amplifier. The prescribed value of this capacitor varies for different
types of regulators.
10. VZ ( PIN – 9 ) : It is the anode of the zener diode whose cathode connected
to the output terminal. It is usually used for making negative regulators.
 Functional Diagram of IC 723
The Internal block diagram of the LM723 IC is shown below. This block diagram can
be explained by separating it into two blocks namely the error amplifier and the
reference voltage generator.
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

IC - 723 has Two Sections:

1. Reference Voltage Generator:- A Zener diode and a Reference
Amplifier producing a constant voltage of about 7 volts at Vref end. The zener
diode is being compelled to operate at fixed point (so that zener output voltage
is a fixed voltage) by a constant current Source.
2. An Error Amplifier:- The second section of IC-723 comprises of an error
amplifier, a series pass transistor Q1 and a current limiting transistor. The error
amplifier compares a sample of output voltage applied at Inverting input
terminal to the reference voltage VRef applied at the Non-Inverting input
terminal.
The conduction of the series pass transistor Q1 is controlled by the error signal.
Temperature compensated Zener diode, constant current source and
reference amplifier constitutes the reference element. In order to get a fixed voltage
from zener diode, the constant current source forces the zener to operate at a fixed
point. Output voltage is compared with this temperature compensated reference
potential of the order of 7 volts. For this VRef is connected to the non-inverting input
of the error amplifier.
This Error Amplifier is high gain differential amplifier. It’s inverting input is
connected to the either whole regulated output voltage or part of that from outside.
For later case a potential divider of two scaling resistors is used. Scaling resistors
help in getting multiplied reference voltage or scaled up reference voltage. Error
Amplifier controls the series pass transistor Q1, which acts as variable resistor. The
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

series pass transistor is a small power transistor having about 800 mW dissipation.
The unregulated power supply source (< 36V DC) is connected to collector of series
pass transistor.
Transistor Q2 acts as current limiter in case of short circuit condition. It
senses drop across lC placed in series with regulated output voltage externally.
The frequency compensation terminal controls the frequency response of the
error amplifier. The required roll-off is obtained by connecting a small capacitor of
100 pF between frequency compensation and inverting input terminals.
Both Non-Inverting and Inverting terminals of the error amplifier are available on
outside pins of IC 723. Due to this, device becomes versatile and flexible to use.
Only restriction is that internal reference voltage is 7 volts and therefore It can be
used for two different circuits for getting regulated outputs of below 7 volts and
above 7 volts.

SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY ( SMPS )

 A Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that converts Un-
regulated Power Supply into Regulated Power Supply by using switching devices
that are turned on and off at high frequencies, and storage components such as
inductors or capacitors to supply power when the switching device is in its non-
conduction state.
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

Switching Power Supplies have high efficiency and are widely used in a
variety of electronic equipment, including computers and other sensitive equipment
requiring stable and efficient power supply.

A Switched-Mode Power Supply is also known as a switch-mode power

supply or switching-mode power supply.

Block –Diagram Of SMPS

In Switch mode power supply, AC main supply is applied at the Input of the
Rectifier/ Filter circuit and rectified and filtered as high voltage DC. This DC voltage
applied at the switching circuit and switched at a huge rate of speed approximately
15 kHz to 50 kHz and fed to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The
step-down transformer decreases the voltage level. The output at the secondary
side of the transformer is again rectified and filtered at the second rectifier. This
gives regulated power supply at the output.
A sample of this output is sent back to the switch to control the output
voltage through PWM, which control the average value of the output voltage. The
Pulse Width signal given to the switch is inversely proportional to the output voltage.
The width or the ON time of the oscillator is controlled by the voltage feedback from
the secondary of the rectifier output and forms a closed loop regulator.
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

 Advantages:
1. Efficiency of SMPS is very high and about 68% to 90%.
2. SMPS has low levels of heat dissipation,
3. The circuit of SMPS is more compact.
4.

5. Regulated and reliable outputs regardless of variations in input supply voltage.

6. Small size and lighter.
7. Flexible technology: Switch mode power supply technology can be used to
provide high efficiency voltage conversions in voltage step up or "Boost"
applications or step down "Buck" applications.
8. High power density.
 Disadvantages:
1. Generates electromagnetic interference.
2. Complex circuit design.
3. Expensive compared to linear supplies.
FILL IN BLANKS:
1. In an Un-Regulated Power Supply, If input AC voltage increases, the output
voltage ……………..
2. In an Un-Regulated Power Supply, If load current increases, the output
voltage…………...
3. An Ideal Regulated Power Supply is one which has voltage regulation of ……. %.
4. A Zener diode utilizes ……………. characteristic for voltage regulation.
5. A Zener diode is used as a ………….. voltage regulating device.
6. The IC ………… regulator IC provides + 12 V.
7. The IC 7805 regulator IC provides ………. V.
8. The voltage regulation of a power supply having V NL = 50 V and VFL = 48 V. will be
……….. %.
9. The IC - 7912 regulator IC provides …….. V.
10. PIN No. 1 of IC 78XX is used for ………….
Answers:
1) Increases 2) Decrease 3) 0 4) Reverse
5) Shunt 6) 7812 7) + 5 8) 4.17
9) – 12 10) Input
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS UNIT – VIII Page 17 of 18

REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

FILL IN BLANKS:
11. If the value of full-load voltage is the same as the no-load voltage, the voltage
regulation will be ……… %.
12. A voltage regulator has a no-load output of 18 V and a full-load output of 17.3 V.
The percent load regulation is ……………. %.
13. ……………. can be defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a
given change in load current.
14. A IC 78XX series IC regulator have ……………. terminals.
15. The IC ………. regulator IC provides – 5 V.
16. Constant DC output voltage is obtained in …………… Power Supply.
17. PIN No. 2 of IC 79XX series is used for ………..
18. PIN No. 10 is used for ………….. of regulator IC 723.
19. PIN No. 5 of regular IC 723 is ……………… terminal.
20. SMPS stands for……………………… .
21. The …………… voltage regulator Series is 78XX.
22. The negative voltage regulator Series is ……………. .
23. A IC 79XX Series regulator IC have ……….. Pins.
24. IC 723 voltage regulator have ……….. Pins.
25. Input voltage regulator ICs should be ………….. than regulated output.
26. Efficiency of SMPS is very ……….as compared to linear regulated power supply.
27. The lower the regulation of the power supply, ………… is the power supply.
28. Ripple factor of a good regulated power supply should be ………..
29. % of change in output voltage for a given change in Load current is ………..
30. % of change in output voltage for a given change in input voltage is ………..

Answers:
11) 0 12) 4.05 13) Load regulation 14) Three
15) 7905 16) Regulated 17) Input 18) Output
19) Non-Inverting input 20) Switch Mode Power Supply
21) Positive 22) 79XX 23) Three 24) 14
25) Greater 26) High 27) Better 28) Very Low
29) Load Regulation 30) Line Regulation
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REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY

TRUE / FALSE STATEMENTS

1. The Positive Voltage Regulator Series is 78XX.
2. A 79XX Series regulator IC have four Pins.
3. IC 723 voltage regulator have 14 Pins.
4. Input voltage regulator ICs should be greater than regulated output.
5. If the value of full-load voltage is the same as the no-load voltage, the voltage
regulation will be 10 %.
6. Line regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a
given change in load current.
7. A 78XX series IC regulator have three terminals.
8. The 7905 regulator IC provides + 5 V
9. The negative voltage regulator Series is 78XX.
10. In an Un-Regulated Power Supply, If input AC voltage increases, the output
voltage also increases.
11. In an Un-Regulated Power Supply, If load current increases, the output voltage
also increases.
12. An Ideal Regulated Power Supply is one which has voltage regulation of 100 %.
13. A Zener diode utilizes reverse characteristic for voltage regulation.
14. A Zener diode is used as a shunt voltage regulating device.
15. The 7812 regulator IC provides + 12 V.
16. The 7905 regulator IC provides + 5V.
17. The 7912 regulator IC provides – 12 V.
18. PIN No. 1 of IC 78XX is used for Input.
19. Constant DC output voltage is obtained in Regulated Power Supply.
20. Efficiency of SMPS is very low as compared to linear regulated power supply.
21. Ripple factor of a good regulated power supply should be very high.
22. PIN No. 2 of IC 79XX series is used for Input.
Answers:
1) TRUE 2) FALSE 3) TRUE 4) TRUE 5) FALSE
6) FALSE 7) TRUE 8) FALSE 9) FALSE 10) TRUE
11) FALSE 12) FALSE 13) TRUE 14) TRUE 15) TRUE
16) FALSE 17) TRUE 18) TRUE 19) TRUE 20) FALSE
21) FALSE 22) TRUE
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 1 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 1
AIM : Plot the Frequency Response of Two Stage RC Coupled Amplifier and

Calculate the Bandwidth and Compare it with Single Stage Amplifier

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for Two Stage RC Coupled Amplifier ( ONE )
2. Signal Generator with Display of Frequency ( ONE )
3. Digital Voltmeters ( THREE )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE :
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect Signal Generator at the Input of the Circuit.
3. Connect Digital Voltmeter at Input, Output of First stage and Output of Second
Stage of the Circuit.
4. Switch ON the Power Supply.
5. Observe Output Voltages of both stages with reference to Input applied to the
circuit for different frequencies.
6. Write down Input and Output Voltages in the table for different frequencies.
7. Calculate the Voltage Gain for both stages at all frequencies.
8. Draw the frequency response between Voltage Gain and frequency on the
Logarithm graph paper and Calculate the bandwidth for both stages.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 2 of 34

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Input Voltage Output Voltage Voltage Gain Output Voltage Voltage Gain
Frequency
No. Vi VO1 AV1 = VO1 / Vi VO2 AV2 = VO2 / Vi
1. 100 Hz 500 mV

2. 200 Hz 500 mV

3. 400 Hz 500 mV

4. 600 Hz 500 mV

5. 800 Hz 500 mV

6. 1 KHz 500 mV

7. 4 KHz 500 mV

8. 8 KHz 500 mV

9. 12 KHz 500 mV

10. 16 KHz 500 mV

11. 20 KHz 500 mV

12. 24 KHz 500 mV

Graph:

Result :
1. Bandwidth for Single Stage amplifier:
i. Lower Cut off Frequency ( FL ) = …… Hz
ii. Higher Cut off Frequency ( FH ) = ……. KHz
iii. Bandwidth ( B. W. ) = FH - FL = ……. KHz
2. Bandwidth for Double Stage amplifier:
i. Lower Cut off Frequency ( FL ) = …… Hz
ii. Higher Cut off Frequency ( FH ) = ……. KHz
iii. Bandwidth ( B. W. ) = FH - FL = ……. KHz
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 3 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 2
AIM : To measure the Gain of Push-Pull Amplifier at 1KHz.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for Push Pull Amplifier ( ONE )
2. Signal Generator with Display of Frequency ( ONE )
3. Digital Voltmeters ( TWO )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE :
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect Signal Generator at the Input of the Circuit.
3. Connect Digital Voltmeter at the Input and Output of the Circuit.
4. Switch ON the Power Supply.
5. Observe Input Voltage and Output Voltages for 1 KHz frequency.
6. Write down Input and Output Voltages for the above frequency in the table.
7. Calculate the Voltage Gain of the Push Pull Amplifier for 1KHz frequency.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 4 of 34

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Input Voltage Output Voltage Voltage Gain

Sr. No. Frequency
Vi VO AV = VO / Vi
1. 1 KHZ 500 mV

Result : The Gain of Push-Pull Amplifier at 1 KHz = …………

ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 5 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 3
AIM : To measure the Voltage Gain of Emitter Follower Circuit and Plot its

Frequency Response.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for Emitter Follower Circuit ( ONE )
2. Signal Generator with Display of Frequency ( ONE )
3. Digital Voltmeters ( TWO )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE :
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect Signal Generator at the Input of the Circuit.
3. Connect Digital Voltmeter at the Input and Output of the Circuit.
4. Switch ON the Power Supply.
5. Observe Input Voltage and Output Voltages for different frequencies.
6. Write down Input and Output Voltages in the table for different frequencies.
7. Calculate the Voltage Gain at the all frequencies.
8. Draw the frequency response between Voltage Gain and frequency on the
Logarithm graph paper.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 6 of 34

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Input Voltage Output Voltage Voltage Gain

No.
Frequency
VIN VOUT AV = VOUT / VIN
1. 1 KHz 2 V

2. 4 KHz 2 V

3. 8 KHz 2 V

4. 12 KHz 2 V

5. 16 KHz 2 V

6. 20 KHz 2 V

Graph:

Result :
1. Voltage Gain of Emitter Follower Amplifier:
Actual Gain = 1
Calculated Gain = …………
Error in Gain = …………..

2. Frequency Response of Emitter Follower Amplifier circuit is plotted on the Graph

paper .
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 7 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 4 ( A )
AIM : To Plot Output Wave form of Hartley Oscillator and measure its frequency.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for Hartley Oscillator ( ONE )
2. CRO ( ONE )
3. CRO Probe / Lead ( ONE )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect CRO at Output of the Circuit through CRO Lead.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Observe Output waveforms on the CRO with amplitude and time period of the
signal.
5. Plot output wave form of the oscillator on Graph Paper and measure its
Amplitude & time period and calculate frequency of the signal.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 8 of 34

Waveform:

Result :
1. Output Wave form of Hartley Oscillator are observed on CRO and plotted on
Graph paper and Time Period of the signal measured.
2. Measurements :
i. Amplitude of Signal (V) = ……………V / mV
ii. Time Period of Signal ( T ) = ……………. m Sec.
iii. Frequency of Signal ( 1 / T ) = ……………. KHz
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 9 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 4 ( B )
AIM : To Plot Output Wave form of Colpitts Oscillator and measure its frequency.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for Colpitts Oscillator ( ONE )
2. CRO ( ONE )
3. CRO Probe / Lead ( ONE )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect CRO at Output of the Circuit through CRO Lead.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Observe Output waveforms on the CRO with amplitude and time period of the
signal.
5. Plot output wave form of the oscillator on Graph Paper and measure its
Amplitude & time period and calculate frequency of the signal.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 10 of 34

Waveform:

Result :

1. Output Wave form of Colpitts Oscillator are observed on CRO and plotted on Graph
paper and Time Period of the signal measured.
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude of Signal (V) = …………….V / mV
ii. Time Period of Signal ( T ) = ……………. m Sec.
iii. Frequency of Signal ( 1 / T ) = ……………. KHz
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 11 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 5 ( A )
AIM : To Plot Output Wave form of RC Phase Shift Oscillator and measure its

frequency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for RC Phase Shift Oscillator ( ONE )
2. CRO ( ONE )
3. CRO Probe / Lead ( ONE )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect CRO at Output of the Circuit through CRO Lead.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Observe Output waveforms on the CRO with amplitude and time period of the
signal.
5. Plot output wave form of the oscillator on Graph Paper and measure its
Amplitude & Time Period and calculate Frequency of the signal.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 12 of 34

Waveform:

Result :
1. Output Wave form of RC Phase Shift Oscillator are observed on CRO and plotted
on Graph paper and Time Period of the signal measured.
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude of Signal (V) = …………….V / m Sec
ii. Time Period of Signal ( T ) = ……………. m Sec.
iii. Frequency of Signal ( 1 / T ) = ……………. KHz
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 13 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 5 ( B )
AIM : To Plot Output Wave form of RC Wein Bridge Oscillator and measure its
frequency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for RC Wein Bridge Oscillator ( ONE )
2. CRO ( ONE )
3. CRO Probe / Lead ( ONE )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect CRO at Output of the Circuit through CRO lead.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Observe Output waveforms on the CRO with amplitude and time period of the
signal.
5. Plot output wave form of the oscillator on Graph Paper and measure its
Amplitude & time period and calculate frequency of the signal.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 14 of 34

Waveform:

Result :

1. Output Wave form of RC Wein Bridge Oscillator are observed on CRO and plotted
on Graph paper and Time Period of the signal measured.
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude of Signal (V) = …………….V / m Sec
ii. Time Period of Signal ( T ) = ……………. m Sec.
iii. Frequency of Signal ( 1 / T ) = ……………. KHz
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 15 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 6
AIM : Use of IC 555 as Monostable Multivibrator and Observe the Output for
different values of RC.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for IC - 555 as Monostable Multivibrator ( ONE )
2. CRO ( Dual channel ) ( ONE )
3. CRO Probes / Leads ( TWO )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect one channel of CRO at Output of the Circuit and other channel at the
Capacitor C1 through CRO Probes.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply and provide Negative Trigger Pulse at PIN No.-2.
4. Observe waveforms across Output and Capacitor C1 on CRO with amplitude
and ON time period of the signals.
5. Plot Output wave form of the Monostable Multivibrator on Graph Paper and
measure its Amplitude and ON time period of the signal.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 16 of 34

Waveform:

Result :
1. Output Waveform and Capacitor C1 Waveform of IC – 555 as Monostable
Multivibrator are observed on CRO and plotted on Graph paper and ON Time
Period of the signal measured.
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude of Voltage Signal at Capacitor C1 ( VC1 ) = …………….V / m Sec
ii. Amplitude of Voltage Signal at Output ( VOUT ) = …………….V / m Sec
iii. ON Time Period of Signal ( TON ) = ……………. m Sec.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 17 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 7
AIM : Use of IC 555 as Astable Multivibrator and Observe the Output Waveform at
different duty cycles.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1. Experimental Study Board for IC - 555 as Astable Multivibrator ( ONE )
2. CRO ( Dual channel ) ( ONE )
3. CRO Probes / Leads ( TWO )
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect one channel of CRO at Output of the Circuit and other channel at the
Capacitor C1 through CRO Probes / Leads.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Observe waveforms across Output and Capacitor C 1 on CRO with amplitude
and time period of the signals.
5. Plot Waveforms of Output and Capacitor C1 of the astable Multivibrator on
Graph Paper and measure its Amplitude and time period of the signal.
6. Calculate duty cycle of the output signal.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 18 of 34

Waveform:

Result :

1. Output Waveform and Capacitor C1 Waveform of IC – 555 as Monostable

Multivibrator are observed on CRO and plotted on Graph paper and measured
Voltage across Capacitor ( VC1), Output Voltage ( VOUT ), ON Time Period ( TON ) ,
OFF Time Period ( TOFF ) and Total Time Period ( T ) of the signals.
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude of Voltage Signal at Capacitor C1 ( VC1 ) = …………….V / m Sec
ii. Amplitude of Voltage Signal at Output ( VOUT ) = …………….V / m Sec
iii. ON Time Period of Signal ( TON ) = ……………. m Sec.
iv. OFF Time Period of Signal ( T OFF ) = ……………. m Sec
v. Total Time Period of Signal ( T ) = ……………. m Sec
3. Calculation: Duty cycle % = ON Time Period ( TON ) x 100 = ………….. %
Time Period ( T )
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 19 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 8 ( I )
AIM : To Use of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as Inverter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Op-Amplifier as Inverter ( ONE )
2) Signal Generator ( ONE )
3) CRO ( Dual channel ) ( ONE )
4) CRO Probes / Leads ( THREE )
5) Connecting Wires
6) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect Signal Generator at Input terminals of the Circuit through Leads.
3. Connect one channel (Channel - 1) of CRO at Input terminal and other
channel (Channel – 2 ) of CRO at output of the circuit through CRO Leads.
4. Switch ON the Power Supply.
5. Observe Input and output waveforms on CRO with amplitude and time period
of the signals.
6. Plot Waveforms of Input and Output of Op-Amplifier as Inverter on Graph
Paper and measure its Amplitude and time period of the signal.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 20 of 34

Waveform:

Result :

1. Input and Output Waveform of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as Inverter observed on CRO

and plotted on Graph paper and measured Amplitude & Time Period of Input and
Output Signal.
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude of Input Signal = ……………. V
ii. Amplitude of Output Signal = ……………. V
iii. Time Period = ……………… m Sec
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 21 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 8 ( II )
AIM : To Use of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as ADDER.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Op-Amplifier as ADDER ( ONE )
2) Signal Generators with Display ( TWO )
2) Digital Voltmeter ( ONE )
3) Probes / Leads ( TWO )
4) Connecting Wires
5) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect Signal Generator - 1 at Input terminal V1 and Signal Generator - 2 at
terminal V2 of the Circuit through Leads.
3. Connect Digital Voltmeter at output of the circuit through connecting wires.
4. Switch ON the Power Supply.
5. Observe Input Voltages on the display of Signal Generators and output
Voltage on Digital Voltmeter.
6. Note down Inputs and Output Voltage Signals of Op-Amplifier as adder.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 22 of 34

Result :

1. Inputs and Output Voltages of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as ADDER are observed and
noted
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude Input Signal ( V1 ) = ……………. V
ii. Amplitude of Input Signal ( V2 ) = ………… ..… V
iii. Amplitude of Output Signal ( VO ) = V1 + V2 = …………….. V
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 23 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 8 ( III )

AIM : To Use of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as Subtractor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Op-Amplifier as Subractor ( ONE )
2) Signal Generators with Display ( TWO )
6) Digital Voltmeter ( ONE )
7) Probes / Leads ( TWO )
8) Connecting Wires
9) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect Signal Generator - 1 at Input terminal V1 and Signal Generator - 2 at
terminal V2 of the Circuit through Leads.
3. Connect Digital Voltmeter at output of the circuit through connecting wires.
4. Switch ON the Power Supply.
5. Observe Input Voltages on the display of Signal Generator and output Voltage
on Digital Voltmeter.
6. Note down Inputs and Output Voltage Signals of Op-Amplifier as Subractor.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 24 of 34

Result :

1. Inputs and Output Voltages of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as Subtractor are observed

and noted
2. Measurements:
i. Amplitude of Input Signal ( V1 ) = ……………. V
ii. Amplitude of Input Signal ( V2 ) = ……………… V
iii. Amplitude of Output Signal ( VO ) = V1 - V2 = …………….. V
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 25 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 8 ( IV )
AIM : To Use of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as Integrator.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Op-Amplifier as Integrator ( ONE )
2) Signal Generator ( ONE )
3) CRO ( Dual channel ) ( ONE )
4) CRO Probes / Leads ( THREE )
5) Connecting Wires
6) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect Signal Generator at Input terminals of the Circuit through Leads.
3. Connect one Channel (Channel - 1) of CRO at Input terminals and other
Channel (Channel – 2 ) of CRO at output of the circuit through CRO Leads.
4. Switch ON the Power Supply.
5. Observe Input and output waveforms on CRO with amplitude and time period
of the signals.
6. Plot Waveforms of Input and Output of Op-Amplifier as Integrator on Graph
Paper and measure Amplitude and time period of the both Input and Output
signals.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 26 of 34

Waveform:

Result :
1. Input and Output Waveform of IC 741 ( Op-Amplifier ) as Integrator are observed on
CRO and plotted on Graph paper and measured Amplitude & Time Period of both
Input and Output Signals.
2. Measurements:
1) Input Signal
i. Amplitude = ……………. V
ii. Time Period ( T ) = ……………… m Sec
iii. ON Time Period ( TON ) = ……………… m Sec
iv. OFF Time Period ( TOFF ) = ……………… m Sec
2) Output Signal
i. Amplitude = ……………. V
ii. Time Period = ……………… m Sec
iii. Charging Period ( TCharge ) = ……………… m Sec
iv. Discharging Period ( TDischarge ) = ……………… m Sec
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 27 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 9 ( A )
AIM : To Realize Positive Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power Supply using three
terminal Voltage Regulator IC – 7805.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Fixed Voltage Regulator using IC -7805 ( ONE )
2) Digital Voltmeters ( TWO )
3) Connecting Wires
4) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect one Digital Voltmeter at Input terminal ( VIN ) and other Digital
Voltmeter at output terminals ( VOUT ) of the circuit through Leads / connecting
wires.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Varies Input Voltage and observe input and output voltages on Digital
Voltmeters.
5. Note down Output Voltage ( VOUT ) with respect to Input Voltage ( VIN ) in the
Table.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 28 of 34

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Input Voltage Output Voltage
Sr. No.
VIN VOUT
1. 0V 0V

2. +2V +2V

3. +4V +4V

4. +6V +5V

5. +8V +5V

6. + 10 V +5V

7. + 12 V +5V

8. + 14 V +5V

9. + 16 V +5V

10. + 18 V +5V

Result : Positive Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power Supply using three terminal
Voltage Regulator IC – 7805 Realized.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 29 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 9 ( B )
AIM : To Realize Positive Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power Supply using three
terminal Voltage Regulator IC – 7812.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Fixed Voltage Regulator using IC -7812 ( ONE )
2) Digital Voltmeters ( TWO )
3) Connecting Wires
4) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect one Digital Voltmeter at Input terminal ( VIN ) and other Digital
Voltmeter at output terminals ( VOUT ) of the circuit through Leads / connecting
wires.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Varies Input Voltage and observe input and output voltages on Digital
Voltmeters.
5. Note down Output Voltage ( VOUT ) with respect to Input Voltage ( VIN ) in the
Table.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 30 of 34

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Input Voltage Output Voltage
Sr. No.
VIN VOUT
1. 0 V 0 V

2. +4 V +4 V

3. +8 V +8 V

4. + 12 V + 12 V

5. + 16 V + 12 V

6. + 20 V + 12 V

7. + 24 V + 12 V

8. + 28 V + 12 V

9. + 32 V + 12 V

10. + 35 V + 12 V

Result : Positive Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power Supply using three terminal
Voltage Regulator IC – 7812 Realized.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 31 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 9 ( C )
AIM : To Realize Negative Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power Supply using three
terminal Voltage Regulator IC – 7905.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Fixed Voltage Regulator using IC -7905 ( ONE )
2) Digital Voltmeters ( TWO )
3) Connecting Wires
4) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect one Digital Voltmeter at Input terminal ( VIN ) and other Digital
Voltmeter at output terminals ( VOUT ) of the circuit through Leads / connecting
wires.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Varies Input Voltage and observe input and output voltages on Digital
Voltmeters.
5. Note down Output Voltage ( VOUT ) with respect to Input Voltage ( VIN ) in the
Table.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 32 of 34

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Input Voltage Output Voltage
Sr. No.
VIN VOUT
1. 0V 0V

2. -2V -2V

3. -4V -4V

4. -6V -5V

5. -8V -5V

6. - 10 V -5V

7. - 12 V -5V

8. - 14 V -5V

9. - 16 V -5V

10. - 18 V -5V

Result : Negative Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power Supply using three terminal
Voltage Regulator IC – 7905 Realized.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 33 of 34

EXPERIMENT NO. – 9 ( Extra )

AIM : To Realize Dual ( Positive & Negative ) Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power
Supply using three terminal Voltage Regulator ICs – 7812 & 7912.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
1) Experimental Study Board for Dual Fixed Voltage Regulator using
ICs – 7812 & 7912 ( ONE )
2) Digital Voltmeters ( TWO )
3) Connecting Wires
4) Power Supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Circuit as Shown in Circuit Diagram.
2. Connect one Digital Voltmeter at Input terminal ( +VIN ) and other Digital
Voltmeter at output terminals ( +VOUT ) of the circuit through Leads /
connecting wires.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply.
4. Varies Input Voltage and observe input and output voltages on Digital
Voltmeters.
5. Note down Output Voltage ( + VOUT ) with respect to Input Voltage ( + VIN ) in
the Table.
6. Now, Connect one Digital Voltmeter at Input terminal ( -VIN ) and other Digital
Voltmeter at output terminals ( -VOUT ) of the circuit through Leads / connecting
wires and repeat the same process ( Point No. 5 & 6 ) as in Positive Regulator.
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS PRACTICALs Page 34 of 34

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Input Voltage Output Voltage Input Voltage Output Voltage
Sr. No.
+ VIN + VOUT - VIN - VOUT
1. 0 V 0 V 0 V 0 V

2. +4 V +4 V -4 V -4 V

3. +8 V +8 V -8 V -8 V

4. + 12 V + 12 V - 12 V - 12 V

5. + 16 V + 12 V - 16 V - 12 V

6. + 20 V + 12 V - 20 V - 12 V

7. + 24 V + 12 V - 24 V - 12 V

8. + 28 V + 12 V - 28 V - 12 V

9. + 32 V + 12 V - 32 V - 12 V

10. + 35 V + 12 V - 35 V - 12 V

Result : Dual ( Positive & Negative ) Fixed Voltage DC Regulated Power Supply using
three terminal Voltage Regulator ICs – 7812 & 7912 Realized.