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Final Exam Notes

Geology For Engineers I (University of Wollongong)

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EESC252; Geology for Engineers Final Exam Prep

Week 1
Introduction
What is Geology?
 Study of the Earth
 Composition, structure, formation, history (theoretical geology)
 What is under your feet?
 Minerals, energy, water, environment, engineering (practical geology)
Maps
SCALE
The spatial relationship between the map and the object it represents.
Representative Fraction (RF) shows the map unit to object unit ratio.
Eg. 1 / 1,000,000 means 1 map unit represents 1,000,000 object units.
1 : 250,000 means 1 map unit represents 250,000 object units.
1 cm : 100 m means 1 map unit represents 10,000 object units.
Scale Bar or linear scale shows a bar of object distances represented as a graphic. Usually the bar
shows a zero point with fine graduations to the left and coarse graduations to the right. Different types
of object units may be shown on separate scale bars, laid parallel to one another.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
 Latitude – Lat lies flat
 Longitude – pole to pole Surface distance between parallels of latitude is constant
 Surface distance between meridians of longitude varies from the poles (0) to the equator
(maximum separation)
OUTCROPS
 Outcrops = surface exposures of rocks
 Extent of outcrop dependent on many factors, such as relief, depth of weathering, vegetation
cover
 Outcrops critical to maps
 Maps based on distribution of rocks and sediment
STRIKE, DIP AND DIP DIRECTION
Strike is the direction of a horizontal line drawn on a dipping plane
• Strike/dip/dip direction 027°/87°NW
• Strike is the direction of a horizontal line drawn on a
dipping plane (2 choices – RH rule 1 choice). Always
written as a 3 digit number eg. 015° NOT 15 ° - avoids
confusion with Dip which is always between 0-90° and
thus a 2 digit number.

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• Dip is the inclination of a dipping plane measured, from the horizontal, in a vertical plane
perpendicular to strike
• Dip direction is the direction at right angles to strike to which the plane descends (i.e. dips)
• RH rule, dip to the right of strike bearing – e.g. 045° and not 225° for dip/strike symbol to
right
BED THICKNESS

STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN
Layers are originally horizontal
Superposition = younger layers overlie older layers
Column shows the order of rock layers

TOPOGRAPHY
• Contour lines join points of equal height
• Spacing of contours is related to the gradient of the slope

Week 2
Plate Tectonics
EARTH’S OUTERMOST LAYERS
The most dynamic portion of the Earth
 Atmosphere (Thin gaseous envelope surrounding Earth)
 Hydrosphere (Water layer dominated by the oceans)
 Biosphere (All living things on the planet)
 Lithosphere (Rocky outer shell)
EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Compositional Layers
• Outermost compositional layer
• Definite change in composition at the base of the crust
• Crust may be divided into 2 types

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• Continental crust
• Thicker than oceanic crust - up to 75 km
• Less dense - 2.7 g/cm3
• Strongly deformed
• Much older - may be billions of years old
• Oceanic crust
• Thinner than continental crust - about 8 km
• More dense - 3.0 g/cm3
• Comparatively undeformed
• Much younger - < 200 million years old
• Composed of basalt
PLATE TECTON
1. The theory of continental drift was proposed in the early 1900s and was supported by a
variety of geologic evidence. Without knowledge of the nature of the oceanic crust, however,
a complete theory of Earth's dynamics could not have been developed.
2. A major breakthrough in the development of the plate tectonics theory occurred in the early
1960s when the topography of the ocean floors was mapped and magnetic and seismic
characteristics of the oceanic crust were determined.
3. Most tectonic activity occurs along plate boundaries. Divergent plate boundaries are zones
where the plates split and spread apart. Convergent plate boundaries are zones where plates
collide. Transform fault boundaries are zones where plates slide horizontally past each other.
4. The direction of the relative motion of plates is indicated by (a) the trend of the oceanic ridge
and associated transform faults, (b) seismic data, (c) magnetic stripes on the seafloor, and (d)
the ages of chains of volcanic islands and seamounts. The motion of a plate can be described
in terms of rotation around a pole.
5. Heat flow from the core and the mantle (generated by radioactivity) is probably the
fundamental cause of Earth's internal convection.
6. The major forces acting on plates are (a) slab-pull, (b) ridge-push, (c) basal drag, and (d)
friction along transform faults and in subduction zones. The most important forces that make
the plates move are probably slab-pull and ridge push.

Week 3 – Week 6 in PDF

Week 7
Geophysics
PROPAGATION OF SEISMIC WAVES
P-wave: displacement direction is parallel to propagation direction
• P waves are primary, compressional waves (push-pull), fastest waves – first detected by
seismographs
S-wave: displacement is traverse to propagation direction
• S waves are secondary, shear (transverse), slower, cannot be transmitted through a fluid (e.g.
outer core)

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Seismic velocities depend on the elastic properties (linear relationship between stress and strain up to
yielding) and densities of materials.
 P and S waves propagate faster through more rigid materials
 P waves propagate faster through less compressible materials
 P and S waves propagate more slowly through denser materials
Also depends on:
 Mineralogy
 Porosity (including fractures)
 Pore fluid
 Cementation
MAGNETIC SURVEYING
 Magnetic anomalies are due to magnetised rocks (contain magnetite)
 Maps of the total magnetic intensity show faults, intrusions, rock types
 Mapping the ocean floor – telling the age of rocks

Earthquakes
Focus = place where earthquake takes place (or hypocentre)
Epicentre = place on Earth’s surface above focus
FAULT INITIATION
 Tectonic forces add stress to unbroken rocks.
 The rock deforms slightly (elastic strain).
 Continued stress will cause growth of cracks.
 Eventually, cracks grow to the point of failure.
 When the rock breaks, elastic strain transforms into brittle deformation, releasing
earthquake energy.
 Termed elastic rebound theory
FAULT MOTION
 Faults move in jumps.
 Once motion starts, it quickly stops due to friction.
 Eventually, strain will buildup again causing failure.
 This behavior is termed stick – slip behavior.
o Stick – Friction prevents motion.
o Slip – Friction briefly overwhelmed by motion.
 When rocks break, stored elastic strain is released.
 This energy radiates outward from the hypocenter.
 The energy, as waves, generates vibrations.
 The vibrations cause motion, as when a bell is rung.
 Large earthquakes are often…
o preceded by foreshocks, and…
 Smaller quakes.
 May signal larger event.
o followed by aftershocks.
 Smaller quakes.
 Indicate readjustment

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SEISMIC WAVES
 Body Waves – Pass through Earth’s interior.
o Compressional or Primary (P) waves
 Push-pull (compress and expand) motion. Up and down motion
 Travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
 Fastest.
o Shear or Secondary (S) waves
 “Shaking" motion. Back and forth motion
 Travel only through solids; not liquids.
 Slower.
 Surface Waves – Travel along Earth’s surface.
o Love waves – s waves intersecting the surface.
 Move back and forth like a writhing snake.
o Rayleigh waves – p waves intersecting the surface.
 Move like ripples on a pond.
 These waves are the slowest and most destructive.
EARTHQUAKE SIZE
 Two means of describing earthquake size
o Intensity
o Magnitude
 Mercalli Intensity Scale
o Intensity – The degree of shaking based on damage.
o Roman numerals assigned to different levels of damage.
o Damage occurs in zones.
o Damage diminishes in intensity with distance.
 Moment Magnitude:
o amount of “work” done by the earthquake (time and amplitude)
o Maximum amplitude of ground motion from a seismogram.
o Value is normalized for seismograph distance.
 Magnitude scales are logarithmic
o Increases of 1 unit = 10 fold increase in ground motion.
o Moment magnitude scale based on the original "Richter" magnitude scale
 Largest earthquake magnitude: 9.6
o Larger earthquakes fewer than smaller ones

EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
1. P-Waves
2. S-Waves
3. L Waves
4. R Waves
Severity of shaking and damage depends on…
 Magnitude (energy) of the earthquake. More = more.
 Distance from the hypocenter.
 Intensity and duration of the vibrations.
 The nature of the subsurface material.
o Bedrock transmits waves quickly = less damage

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o Sediments bounce waves = amplified damage

 Wave frequency and resonance.
Liquefaction
 Water saturated sediments become liquefied when shaken.
o High fluid pore pressures force grains apart.
o This reduces friction and they move as a slurry.
 Sand will become “quicksand.”
 Clay will become “quickclay.”
 Liquefied sediments flow.
o Injected as sand dikes.
o Erupt as sand volcanoes.
o Preserve distorted layering.

TSUNAMI VS WINDWAVES
Wind waves
 Influence the upper ~100 m.
 Have wavelengths of several 10s to 100s of meters.
 Wave height and wavelength related to windspeed.
 Wave velocity maximum several 10s of kph.
 Waves break in shallow water and expend all stored energy.
Tsunami waves
 Influence the entire water depth (avg. 2½ miles).
 Have wavelengths of several 10s to 100s of kilometers.
 Wave height and wavelength unaffected by windspeed.
 Wave velocity maximum several 100s of kph.
 Waves come ashore as a raised plateau of water that pours onto the land.

 Tsunamis race at jetliner speed across the deep ocean.

 Tsunami waves may be imperceptible in the deep ocean.
o Low wave height (amplitude).
o Long wavelength (frequency).
 As water shallows…
o Waves slow from frictional drag.
o Waves grow in height.
 Waves may reach 10-15 m.

Week 8
Weathering
Weathering = process of change of rocks and minerals at the Earth’s surface (ongoing)
Breakdown of rock at or near the Earth’s surface converts rock into soil properties
Two Types:
• Physical break up of rock into smaller particles
• Chemical alteration of rock to produce new minerals

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PHYSICAL WEATHERING
• Freeze & Thaw
o water expands on freezing
o may wedge rock apart
• Frost shattering
o water expands 9% on freezing and produces talus (angular gravel-size fragments)
• Exfoliation: peeling rock
o Onion skin like peeling of sheets of granite from removal of overburden and release
o Creates domes over time
• Expansion-contraction in rocks due to heating-cooling cycles
• Salt encrustation = honeycomb weathering,
Surface area effects, larger surface areas from physical weathering (positive feedback) increase
potential for chemical attack
Greatest effects on corners, then edges then flat surfaces
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
• Dissolution of minerals due to water
• Hydrolysis; breakdown by water
• Oxidation
o Common in rocks with mafic minerals, even rocks with small amounts of iron
undergo oxidation
o Oxidation of sulfide minerals  Acid leachates

Weathering for igneous minerals differs for different minerals and is the reverse of Bowen’s reaction
series
REGOLITH AND EXPLORATION
• Regolith is the residual weathered profile together with transported overburden that overlies
bedrock
• Regolith is the dominant sample medium in Australia
because the landscape is old. Regolith-landform relationships
must be understood to design a successful exploration
program and to interpret the data successfully
Regolith Profile
• Gravelly soil
• Laterite - pisoliths
• Mottled zone - nodules of Fe-oxide
• Pedoturbation front
• Upper saprolite - bleached clay zone, vague textural
remnants
• Lower saprolite - undisplaced mineral relics completely
pseudomorphed by iron oxides and clay
• Saprock - peripheral pseudomorph of Fe-oxides and clay
• Weathering front - base of groundwater
• Fresh rock - basement

Mountains and Downslope Movement

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MASS MOVEMENT
• Mass movement is the downslope movement of rock, soil, debris, snow and ice by gravity.
• Mass movements are a type of natural hazard.
o Natural feature of the environment.
o Can cause damage to living things and buildings.
• These hazards sometimes produce catastrophic losses.
• Mass movements are important to the rock cycle.
o Initial step in sediment transportation.
o Significant agent of landscape change.
• All slopes are unstable; they are constantly changing.
• Natural movement is often accelerated by humans.
MASS WASTING TYPES
Classified based upon 4 factors.
• Type of material (rock, regolith, snow or ice).
• Rate of movement (fast, intermediate or slow).
• Nature of moving mass (cloud, slurry or distinct blocks).
• Surroundings (subaerial or submarine).
Creep
• Slow downhill movement of regolith.
o Due to expansion and contraction.
 Wetting and drying.
 Freezing and thawing.
• Grains are moved…
o Perpendicular to slope upon expansion.
o Vertically by gravity upon contraction.
• Creep results in tilting of trees, gravestones and walls.
Solifluction – Slow downhill movement of tundra soils.
• During summer, the upper layer of permafrost melts.
• The non-frozen layer slowly flows over the frozen soil.
• This process generates hillsides with solifluction lobes.
Rock Glaciers – Mixtures of rock fragments and ice.
• Rock addition exceeds the accumulation of ice.
• Flow downhill slowly.
• Behave like glacial systems.
Slumping - Sliding of regolith as coherent blocks.
• Slippage occurs along a spoon-shaped “failure surface.”
• Occur on a variety of scales: meters to kilometers across.
• Move from mm/day to 10s of m/minute.
• Display distinctive features.
o Steep upslope head scarp where moving land detaches.
o Bulging toe at the base where moving material piles up.

Mudflows and Debris Flows – Water-rich movement.

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• Mudflow – A slurry of water and fine sediment.

• Debris flow – A mudflow with many large rocks.
Lahar – A special type of mud or debris flow.
• Occurs on the flanks of a volcano. Consists of…
o Volcanic ash from recent or ongoing eruptions.
o Water from heavy rains or melted glacial ice.

Landslides – Movement down a non-vertical slope.

• Rock slide – Slide consisting of rock only.
• Debris slide – Slide mostly made of regolith.
• Movement is sudden and potentially deadly.
• Movement occurs on a failure surface.
• Slide debris may often ride on a cushion of trapped air.
o Increases velocity to 300 km/hr.
o Reduces friction.

Avalanches – Turbulent clouds of debris and air.

• Snow avalanche – Oversteepened snow that detaches.
• Debris avalanche – Consists of rock and dust fragments.
• Advancing on air, avalanches move up to 250 km/hr.
• Avalanches destroy stationary objects (trees, buildings).
• Avalanches recur in defined chutes.
Rockfalls and debris falls – Material moves vertically.
• Blocks of bedrock or regolith detach and fall vertically.
• Motion is very rapid.
• When blocks impact, they fragment and continue moving.
o This can trigger debris avalanches.
o Debris can move across a valley floor and up the far slope.
• Talus blocks pile up at the base of the slope.
Submarine mass movements – Occur underwater.
• Often preserved due to subsequent burial.
• Three types recognized based on degree of disintegration.
o Submarine slumps – Coherent blocks break and slip.
o Submarine debris flows – Moving material breaks apart.
• Turbidity currents – Sediment moves as a turbulent cloud
• Gigantic submarine slope failures are preserved off of many coasts.
• These are much larger than land-based slope failures.
• Mass movements of this type are important in shaping adjacent land.
• Movement events must create catastrophic tsunamis.

Week 8
Rivers
STREAMFLOW
• Streams – Ribbons of water that flow down channels.
• Runoff – Water in motion over the land surface.

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• Stream runoff is crucial for humans.

o Drinking water.
o Transportation.
o Waste disposal.
o Recreation.
o Commerce.
o Irrigation.
o Energy.

DRAINAGE NETWORKS
• Drainage networks often form geometric patterns.
• These patterns reflect underlying geology.
• Common drainage patterns.
o Dendritic – Branching, “treelike” due to uniform material.
o Radial – From a point uplift (mesa, volcano, etc.)
• Common drainage patterns.
o Rectangular – Controlled by jointed rocks.
o Trellis – Alternating resistant and weak rocks.

PERMENENT STREAMS
• Water flows all year.
• At or below the water table.
• Humid or temperate.
o Sufficient rainfall.
o Lower evaporation.
• Discharge changes.
EPHEMERAL STREAMS
• Do not flow all year.
• Above the water table.
• Dry climates.
o Low rainfall.
o High evaporation.
• Flow during flash floods

Coasts
TIDES/ TIDAL WAVES
 Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hrs
 Moon orbits Earth every 27.3 days
 Earth orbits Sun every year
 Combined gravitational pull of Moon, Sun & Earth
 Occur twice a day – high tide is the crest of the wave, low tide is the trough. Wavelength of
100’s km’s.
 Like normal waves they can be amplified in shallow water due to A) Shoaling across the
shallow continental shelf (1-3m) and sometimes even breaking as a tidal bore, B)
Convergence of 2 tidal waves from different directions, C) Wave resonance

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COASTAL FLOODING
 Tsunami – related to earthquakes, submarine landslides, volcanic activity
 Storm surges – cyclones, storms, wind low air pressure, tides (Spring tides), rainfall
WAVES
 Most shoreline processes are influenced by wave action
o Waves transmit energy
o Wind generated waves dominate
o Orientation of waves to shoreline close to parallel
 Wave Motion
o Motion is clockwise rotation in direction of wave movement
o In shallow water waves steepen and break to form translational waves that surge
forward
 Breakers
o Waves produce little or no forward motion of water in deep water
o Waves break as wave base drags bottom generally at 0.05 x wavelength
o Wave crest moves forward of base
o Wave breaks & swash washes up the beach face, backwash flow down
 Wave Refraction
o Waves are bent as a portion slows
 Waves drag on the bottom & slow
 Shoreline is uneven, some deeper areas
 Wave is bent, becomes parallel to shore
 Wave energy is:
 concentrated on headlands
 dissipated in bays
 Wave Diffraction
o When waves pass through a small passage they are bent (diffracted) through the other
side
TSUNAMIS
 Earthquake generated (along submarine faults)
 Greater period with whole ocean layer involved (i.e. shallow water wave)
 Sea has low wave heights (60 cm), but near-shore wave heights over 30 m
 Tsunami is a Japanese word with the English translation, "harbor wave."
COASTAL PROCESSES
 Wind, waves, currents and tides are the dominant processes that sculpt and build the
coastlines we see today.
 Coasts are dynamic, diverse and high energy environments which makes them attractive areas
to live and visit.
 They also bear the brunt of extreme events such as storms, cyclones, tsunami’s which can
drastically alter coastline morphology within hours or days
 Therefore, it is extremely important to understand the physical processes that have formed
and shaped our coasts
ARID ENVIRONMENTS
 Lack of vegetation means that water has more erosive effects in arid regions
 Secondary role, deflation = removal of fines

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 Loess is wind-deposited silt, it is cohesive, holds water

Week 10
Mineral Resources of Australia
Minerals from the crust that are used by civilization.
 Minerals are present in almost everything we use.
 They are utterly necessary for modern industrial society.
Two major categories.
 Metallic. Eg gold, silver, copper, lead
 Non-metallic. Eg sand and gravel, gypsum
Mineral resources form by geologic processes.
 Occurrences are predictable.
 Formation is usually very slow.
Minerals are effectively non-renewable resources
WHAT IS A METAL?
 Opaque, shiny, smooth, conductive solids.
 Metal properties from metallic chemical bonds.
o Delocalized electrons move from atom to atom easily.
o Electron fluidity permits electrical conductivity.
 Properties due to crystal structure and bonding.
o Metals may be extremely hard (titanium) or soft (copper.)
o Ductile – Able to be drawn into thin wires.
o Malleable – Able to be pounded into thin sheets.
 Three categories
o Native – naturally occur in pure form (very rare)
o Precious – rare and economically important
o Base- commonly used in industry

SMELTING
 Releases metals from the mineral.
o Different minerals require…
 Different smelting techniques.
 Different temperatures.
o Non-metallic waste is called slag.
 Steel – iron smelted with carbon.
 Alloys are metal blends.
o Bronze – Copper and tin.
o Brass – Copper and zinc.

WHAT IS AN ORE?
 Rock with a concentration of metal-rich minerals.
o Present in enough abundance to be economic to mine.

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o Metal must be readily extracted from the mineral.

o There are many different ore minerals.
 Ores form via geological processes – Endogenic or Exogenic
 Endogenic – beneath the surface of the Earth (magmatic, metamorphic, hydrothermal)
 Exogenic – on the surface of the Earth
o Magmatic activity.
o Hydrothermal alteration.
o Secondary enrichment.
o Sedimentary processes.
o Weathering processes.
o Hydraulic sorting
 Ore Formation
o Geologic processes generate mineral resources.
 A dominant control is exerted by plate tectonics.
 Tectonic effects are overprinted by the hydrologic cycle.
o Ore formation requires large amounts of time.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS

 No two ore deposits are the same! However, they can be divided into broad classes eg
syngenetic (BIF) vs epigenetic (vein)
 Syngenetic – same time as rock formation
 Epigenetic – after initial rock formation
ENDOGENIC
(Syngenetic Magmatic Ore Formation)
 Endogenic; formed or occurring beneath the surface of the earth
 Magmatic deposits.
o Sulfide minerals crystallize early and sink in magma – Liquid immiscibility
o Form massive sulfide ores at the bottom of chamber.
o Sulfides include…
 Pyrite.
 Chalcopyrite.
 Bornite.
 Galena.
 Sedimentary deposits.
o Banded iron formations (BIFs).
 Layered specular hematite (Fe2O3) and red chert (jasper).
 Found globally 2.5 to 2 Ga with O2 buildup in atmosphere.
o Manganese (MnO2 to rich) nodules.
 Rich in trace elements, these grow slowly on the sea floor
 Placer deposits – Concentrated by flowing water.
o In high-velocity water…
 Low-density minerals are suspended and washed away.
 High-density grains are concentrated by settling out.
o Important for gold, tin, and iron.
o Best preserved in fossil stream sediments.

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(Epigenetic Ore Formation)

 Hydrothermal deposits.
o Minerals deposited by hot, chemically active fluids.
o Common in rocks heated by plutonic intrusions.
o Often crystallize in rock fractures as vein deposits.
 Vein deposits tend to be relatively small with small tonnages but may be very high grade.
 Common metals include gold, silver, mercury, uranium; in many cases they are related to
volcanic activity (island arcs) or small intrusions such as dykes.
 Commonly the ore body consists of numerous veins (fracture fillings) associated with quartz;
the country rocks surrounding the veins are altered by the hot fluids forming minerals such as
quartz, calcite, clay minerals and feldspars.
 Black smokers - Occur along all mid ocean ridges.
o Seawater in cracked hot crust is heated, picking up metals.
o Water cycles back to the cold ocean, metals crystallize out.
 Secondary-enrichment deposits.
o Groundwater leaches and oxidizes primary sulfide ores.
o Adding O2, OH, and CO2, some secondary ores are prized.
 Malachite.
 Azurite.
 Turquoise.
 Residual mineral deposits.
o Form via extreme (tropical) chemical weathering.
o Intense weathering strips almost everything out of soil.
o Residual lateritic soil is enriched in Fe and Al oxides.
 Bauxite – Primary ore of aluminum.
MINERAL EXPLORATION
 Ores are located by evidence of metal enrichment.
o Color – Enrichment often discolors rock and soil.
o Geophysical surveys – Magnetism, gravity, radioactivity.
o Geochemical surveys – Ore can be found by chemical analyses of water, stream
sediment, soil, and biota.

MINERAL PRODUCTION
 Open-pit mines – Large excavations open to the air.
 Less expensive and dangerous than tunnel mines.
 Usually require ore within 100 m of the land surface.
 Underground mines - Ore obtained by tunneling.
o Tunnels are linked to a vertical shaft (an adit).
o Ore is removed by drilling and blasting.
o Excavated ore is hauled to the surface for processing.
o Expensive and dangerous.

NON-METALLIC RESOURCES
 Materials that lack metals are used by humans.
o Dimension stone – Rock slabs used as building material.
o Crushed stone – Material for roads, asphalt and concrete.

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o Cement – Mixture of heated limestone, quartz and clay.

 Non-metallic minerals commonly used in homes.
o Calcite – Base material of cement (concrete).
o Clay minerals – Used for bricks, pottery, dishware.
o Gypsum – Most common material in wallboard or plaster.
o Quartz – Used to make window glass.
 U.S. per capita non-metallic mineral use is huge.
GLOBAL MINERAL NEEDS
 Mineral resources are non-renewable.
o They form as the result of geologic processes.
o These processes are too slow to generate new deposits.
 Mineral resources are not evenly distributed.
o Some countries are mineral rich; some are mineral poor.
o This is a particular issue for strategic mineral resources.
 Metals needed for highly specialized applications.
 National security and defense.
 Aerospace.
 Continued use of scarce minerals will require…
o Discovery of new sources.
o Increase in price to make hard-to-get reserves profitable.
o Increased efficiency and conservation.
o Substitution.
o Recycling.
o Doing without.

Engineering Sites
Subsidence is the downwards movement of a building’s foundation, caused by loss of support of the
site beneath the foundations, independent of the building load;
 downward movement is usually associated with volumetric changes in the subsoil
 occurs as a direct result of an external factor
Settlement is movement within a structure due to the distribution or redistribution of loading and
stresses within the various elements of construction
• directly related to loading of the soil due to construction
SUBSIDENCE
1. Tectonic and Eustatic Processes
2. Bearing capacity of soil/rock
a) consolidation of soils
b) collapsing soils
c) liquefaction of soils
3. Extraction of fluids
a) groundwater
b) oil
4. Collapse into open cavities
a) natural cavities
b) mine workings

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Week 11
Groundwater
Groundwater is a component of the hydrologic cycle.
 Hydrologic cycle processes;
o Evaporation.
o Transpiration.
o Precipitation.
o Infiltration.
o Runoff.

UNDERGROUND RESERVOIR
 Some precipitation enters the subsurface via infiltration.
 Soil properties and vegetation govern infiltration rate.
 Infiltrated water adds to soil moisture and groundwater.
o Soil moisture wets the soil.
o Some is wicked up by roots; some is evaporated.
 Some infiltrated water percolates to a deeper level.
 It is added to water that fills subsurface void spaces.
PORSOSITY
 Groundwater resides in subsurface pore spaces.
 Pores are open spaces within any sediment or rock.
 The total volume of open space is termed porosity.
 Geologic materials exhibit a wide range of porosities.
 Two categories of porosity.
o Primary porosity – Originally formed with the material.
 Voids in sediment.
 Vesicles in basalt.
 Open reef framework.
o Primary porosity may decrease.
 With burial compaction
 With cementation.
o Crystalline (Ig/Met) rocks have very little primary porosity.
o Secondary porosity – Developed after rock formation.
 Fracturing.
 Faulting.
 Dissolution.
PERMEABILITY
 The ease of water flow due to pore interconnectedness.
 High permeability material allows water to flow readily.
 Water flows slowly through low permeability material.
 Many large and straight flow paths enhance permeability.

Aquifer – Sediment or rock that transmits water easily.

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Aquitard – Sediment or rock that hinders water flow.

 Aquifers and aquitards are commonly interlayered.
Unconfined – An aquifer that intersects the surface.
 In contact with the atmosphere.
 Easily contaminated.
Confined – An aquifer beneath an aquitard.
 Isolated from the surface.
 Less susceptible to pollution.

THE WATER TABLE

 The water table is a subsurface boundary.

 Above the water table, pores are mostly filled with air.
o This is called the vadose (or, unsaturated) zone.
 Below the water table, pores are filled with water.
o This is called the phreatic (or, saturated) zone.
 The capillary fringe separates the two zones.
o Formed of moisture wicked upward above the water table
 The depth to the water table is variable.
o In humid settings, the water table is close to the surface.
o In arid settings, it may be 10s to 100s of meters down.
 Perennial surface water exposes the water table.
o Streams.
o Lakes and ponds.
o Wetlands.
 The water table is the top of the zone of saturation.
 Water table position changes with rainfall.
o During seasonally rainy periods, the water table rises.
o During prolonged droughts, the water table falls.
 Ponds dry up if the water table falls below the bottom.
WATER TABLE TOPOGRAPHY
 The water table is not flat; it is a sloping surface.
 The water table is a subdued replica of the topography.
o The water table is high where the land is high.
o The water table is low where the land is low.
 Water flows from higher elevations to lower elevations.
 Topography is useful for estimating groundwater flow.
PERCHED WATER TABLES
 Discontinuous aquitards may exist in the subsurface.
 These arrest downward infiltration to the water table.
 These aquitards form perched water tables.
o Overlie unsaturated material.
o Represent a “false” water table.

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o More easily dewatered.

GROUNDWATER FLOW
 Groundwater flows under the influence of gravity.
 This flow is very slow compared to surface water.
 Flow in the unsaturated zone is straight downward.
 In the saturated zone, flow is more complicated.
o Governed by gravity and pressure.
 Hydraulic head, potential energy driving flow, is due to…
o Elevation above sea-level.
o Pressure exerted by weight of overlying water.
 Flow is determined by measuring hydraulic head.
o Flow always moves from high to low hydraulic head.
o Thus water table highs flow to water table lows.
 Flow paths, however, are not straight lines.
o Flow follows a curved, concave-up path.
o Water can flow upwards moving to lower hydraulic head.
 Groundwater infiltrates through recharge areas.
o Flow is directed downward.
o Commonly found in topographic uplands.
 Groundwater exits the subsurface from discharge areas.
o Flow is directed upward.
o Usually observed in topographic lows.
 Groundwater flow occurs on a variety of scales.
o Local – Shallow flow over short times and distances.
o Intermediate – Flow of moderate depth, time and distance.
o Regional – Deep, long distance, long-duration flow.
 Groundwater movement is slow relative to surface water.
o It must percolate through pore openings.
o Flow is further slowed by friction and electrostatic forces.
o Typical rates of flow.
o Groundwater 0.00002 km / hour
 Groundwater flow rate is governed by several factors.
o Permeability of the porous material.
 High permeability increases the rate of groundwater flow.
 Low permeability decreases it.
o The hydraulic gradient – Spatial change in hydraulic head.
 The head change over a horizontal distance, and...
 The driving force for groundwater flow.
 Steeper – Faster flow.
 Less steep – Slower.
TAPPING GROUNDWATER
 Human use requires that groundwater be captured.
o Wells – Holes excavated or drilled to obtain water.
o Springs – Natural groundwater outlets.
 There are many types of wells and springs.
 Wells are holes drilled or dug into the saturated zone.
o Water is recovered by lifting or pumping.

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o Water flows from the aquifer into the well.

o Drawdown occurs if removal exceeds flow to the well.
 With drawdown, the water table near the well drops.
 Water table decline forms a cone of depression.
o A downward pointed conical shaped surface.
o Steepest near the well; flattens with distance.
o The cone may expand outward with continued pumping.
 Drawdown from multiple wells in an area is additive.
 Cones of depression often interfere.
o A small well creates a small cone.
o A large well creates a large cone.
o One may dewater the other.
 Competing uses often conflict.
 Artesian wells tap confined, tilted aquifers.
o Upland recharge pressurizes the aquifer.
o Water rises in artesian wells to the potentiometric surface.
 Analogue of the water table for a confined aquifer.
 Determined by hydraulic head elevation in recharge area.
o A well casing below this surface will flow without pumping.
 Water distribution systems mimic artesian aquifers.
o Water is pumped to an elevated storage tank.
o This elevation creates an artificial potentiometric surface.
o Pressure drives water through the
o distribution system.
 Springs are locations of natural groundwater discharge
 Springs result from varied geologic features.
o Where the water table intersects the land surface.
o At the contact between high and low permeability layers.
o Where water-bearing fractures intersect the surface.
o Where a fault juxtaposes permeability contrasts.
o Leakage of a confined aquifer along a joint or fracture.
o Exposure of a perching layer at the surface.

Tunnels and Dams

TUNNELS
 Ease of extraction (bedrock, unconsolidated)
 Arching – support of immediate roof only
 Stand-up time – time for roof to collapse
 Strength of rocks, need for support of weak rocks
 Groundwater, drainage requirements
 Temperature in deep tunnels, gases, ventilation
 Overbreak = excavation beyond perimeter, steeply dipping strata, faults, folds, dykes,
loosely compacted material
 Secondary stress (> 150 m) swelling in shales, rock bursts

PROBLEMS WITH DAMS

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 Failure of dam wall, collapse of reservoir sides

 Induced seismicity
 Leakage along aquifers
 Sedimentation (water displaced by sediment)
Dams and Reservoirs
 Leakage from the reservoir
 through permeable soils
 through rock aquifers - mainly sandstone and
limestone
 through faults and joints
SUMMARY
 Tunnels and dams require detailed analysis of local geology
 Standup time = time taken for roof collapse of a tunnel
 Overbreak in tunnels = excess removed inadvertently beyond perimeter
 Groundwater, rock strength, zones of weakness, surficial aspects (e.g. landslides)
 Dams – collapse is catastrophic
 Seepage, landslides, faults, joints

Week 12
Energy and Mineral Resources
SOURCES OF ENERGY
 There are five fundamental sources of energy:
o Nuclear fusion in the Sun.
o The pull of gravity.
o Nuclear fission reactions.
o Energy in the interior of the Earth.
o Energy stored in chemical bonds.
 Energy directly from Sun’s nuclear fusion reactor.
o Heat and light radiate outward from the Sun.
o A tiny portion of the solar output strikes Earth.
o Direct solar energy can be used by humans.
 Conversion into electricity by photovoltaic cells.
 Conversion into heat.
o Controlled fusion is currently beyond human technology.
 Solar energy stored via photosynthesis.
o Chlorophyll stores solar energy in H-C bonds.
 Water and carbon dioxide react to form sugar and oxygen.
 6CO2 + 12H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
o H-C bonds release stored energy when broken (oxidized).
 Organic respiration (breakdown of food by organisms).
 Rapid thermal oxidation (combustion).
 Solar energy stored in fossil fuels.
o Oil, natural gas, and coal derive from living organisms.
o These materials store energy in preserved H-C bonds.
 Created by photosynthesis, solar energy from the past.
 Thus, oil, gas, and coal represent ‘fossilized sunshine’.

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 Energy directly from gravity.

o Gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth causes tides.
o Tidal flow can be harnessed to drive turbines.
 Energy involving both solar energy and gravity.
o Solar radiation heats air and evaporates water.
o Gravity…
 Causes cooler air to sink and condense water vapor.
 Pulls condensed water back to earth where it flows downhill.
o Energy can be extracted from flowing wind and water.
 Energy from chemical reactions.
o Energy stored in chemical bonds drives reactions.
o When bonds are broken, this energy may be used.
 Exothermic reactions produce heat.
 Some also produce light and usable energy.
 Energy from nuclear fission.
o Certain radioactive atoms can be fragmented.
o This process, called fission, yields tremendous energy.
o Fission energy is used to run nuclear power plants.
 Energy from Earth’s internal heat.
o Earth’s internal (geothermal) energy has two sources.
 Residual heat from planet formation.
 Heat from radioactivity.
o Geothermal energy drives tectonic plates.
o Heat lost through the crust can be harnessed.

OIL AND GAS

 Industrial society depends on oil and natural gas.
 Oil and gas are hydrocarbons.
o Complex organic molecules.
o Made of hydrogen and carbon.
o From once-living creatures.
 Many hydrocarbon types.
o Found as complex mixtures.
o Pure compounds are separated by refining.
 Oil and gas hail from plankton and marine algae.
HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS
COAL AND FORMATION
 Vegetation accumulates in an oxygen-free setting.
 Absence of oxygen prevents organic matter decay.
o Marine deltas.
o Tropical coastal wetlands.
 Sea-level rise and fall buries wetland deposits.
 Peat is buried several km in a subsiding basin.
 Burial compaction squeezes out water.
 At depth, heat alters the plant material.
o H, N, and S are expelled as gases; C content increases.
o At 70% carbon, this solid material becomes coal.

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 Coal formation requires heat and pressure.

 Compaction and decay turns plant debris into peat.
o Approximately 50% carbon.
o Readily cut out of a wetland deposit.
 Classification based on the carbon content.
 Peat 50% carbon
 Lignite 70% carbon
 Bituminous 85% carbon
 Anthracite 95% carbon
o Anthracite forms by metamorphism in an orogenic belt.
o Higher-rank coal yields more energy when burned.

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