Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

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Case Report

Influences of key factors on river water quality in urban and rural areas:
A review
Nguyen Tuan Anh a, b, Le Duy Can c, Nguyen Thi Nhan d, Britta Schmalz e, Tran Le Luu d, *
a
Doctoral Training Program in Sustainable Urban Development, Vietnamese German University, Viet Nam
b
Nong Lam University of Ho Chi Minh City, Gia Lai Campus, Viet Nam
c
Department of Mechatronics and Sensor Systems Technology, Vietnamese German University, Vanh Dai 4, Quarter 4, Thoi Hoa Ward, Ben Cat, Binh Duong Province,
Viet Nam
d
Master Program in Water Technology, Reuse, and Management, Vietnamese German University, Vanh Dai 4, Quarter 4, Thoi Hoa Ward, Ben Cat, Binh Duong Province,
Viet Nam
e
Chair of Engineering Hydrology and Water Management, Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water quality in rivers is deteriorating in urban and rural areas due to natural and anthropogenic factors. Un­
River water quality derstanding how changes and factors affect river water quality is crucial for managing water quality in river
Water pollution basins. This review focuses on analyzing key factors affecting water quality, and the temporal and spatial var­
River basin
iations of water quality in rivers flowing in rural and urban areas. Natural processes such as weathering of rocks,
Urban areas
Rural areas
evapotranspiration, atmospheric deposition, climate change, and natural disasters cause changes in the quality of
river water. Anthropogenic factors could stem from industrial effluents, domestic activities, and agricultural
activities such as the application of fertilizers, manures, pesticides, animal husbandry activities, irrigation
practices, deforestation, and aquaculture. The seasonal variations in river water quality are discussed, and land
use or cover could affect water quality parameters in a negative or positive way. In addition to traditional
contaminants such as biodegradable organic matter, heavy metals, and pathogens, emerging and persistent
pollutants such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), and phamaceutic active compounds
(PhACs) has been found in many rivers, which could pose a threat to human and animal health. The comparison
of key factors and parameters in urban and rural areas is also clarified, which provides authorities and policy­
makers with a deep understanding and supports decision-making in sustainable water management.

1. Introduction been promoted to meet the needs of population growth, which can
release wastewater and emissions into the environment [5,6]. Pollutants
In the context of urbanization, emerging environmental problems from wastewater or emissions could result in deteriorating river water
could have impacts on all aspects of daily life. Water pollution is a quality. Climate conditions (temperature and precipitation) vary ac­
common issue in many parts of the world [1]. Since surface water is one cording to locations or seasons, which leads to spatio-temporal varia­
of the main sources of water supply for the population, maintaining tions in river water quality [7,8]. In addition, extreme weather events
surface water quality is crucial for daily use in every household. River such as droughts and floods affect the discharge or dilution capacity of
water sources could be influenced by natural factors and human activ­ streams, and the amount of substances reaching rivers [9,10]. Catch­
ities [2]. Land use patterns could have a positive or negative impact on ment conditions and transport processes could affect the delivery of
physicochemical water quality parameters. Land clearing, livestock pollutants to surface water. In particular, runoff formation depends on
waste, and farming activities can release sediment, nutrients, organic its topographic setting and the intensity of rainfall, which could intro­
matter, heavy metals, and pathogens through runoff or irrigation [3,4]. duce these pollutants to water bodies. Waterbody conditions charac­
Population growth and rapid urbanization have put more pressure on terized by stream flow and water exchange also have an impact on water
ecosystems as well as the aquatic environment. Industrial activities have quality [2]. Landscape characteristics were found to significantly affect

* Corresponding author
E-mail address: [email protected] (T.L. Luu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100424
Received 20 May 2023; Received in revised form 18 July 2023; Accepted 19 July 2023
Available online 21 July 2023
2666-0164/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

water quality in catchments, and three key processes can include the impacts on the variations in river water quality through different
presence of pollution sources, the mobilization of constituents from pathways [8,26–28]. Rural areas are often characterized by low density
these sources, and their delivery to surface water. The pollution sources residential areas, a high percentage of forest land or vegetation cover,
can be present in the catchment or external sources. Mobilization of and the predominant presence of agricultural activities. These factors
constituents could occur in the presence of low-energy processes such as have negative or positive influences on river water [29–31]. However,
desorption and mineralization, high-energy processes such as erosion most of the research has focused on the investigation of some factors or
and landslides, and some instream processes (e.g., organic matter decay, selected parameters. It is necessary to provide an overview of key factors
or nutrient cycling). These processes help these constituents detach from affecting river water and their differences between urban and rural
sources, while delivery is the movement of constituents from sources to rivers.
surface water through surface, subsurface flows, or drainage systems The common approach to assessing water quality is to compare with
[11] (see Fig. 1). the levels of the guideline standards or a single factor assessment. The
Traditional pollutants such as organic matter, heavy metals, and standard for surface water quality is often used for comparing the
pathogens can stem from domestic or industrial waste and wastewater. analytical results of each river water quality parameter. This approach is
These substances can be released through direct discharge, runoff, or convenient and easy to do, but it provides conservative evaluation re­
irrigation [12]. Notably, recent studies have found the occurrence of sults [32]. The water quality index (WQI) has been used to convert a lot
emerging pollutants (EPs) in the water environment thanks to the of water quality data into single values that illustrate and classify water
advancement of detection technologies. EPs can be classified into the quality in rivers [33–35]. However, this method can only assess the
prominent classes of pharmaceuticals and personal care products status of river water quality, the sources or factors affecting can not be
(PPCPs), plasticizers, surfactants, fire retardants, nanomaterials, and identified. In recent years, statistical methods such as correlation anal­
pesticides [13]. For instance, the levels of pharmaceuticals, personal ysis (Pearson or Spearman), factor analysis (FA), principal component
care products, and steroid hormones were detected due to the release of analysis (PCA), and cluster analysis (CA) have been employed for
treated wastewater effluents in rivers [14,15]. Some emerging and assessing, interpreting water quality datasets, and identifying pollution
persistent organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sources or factors [36,37]. While CA can categorize the monitoring sites
(PAHs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls based on the differences or similarities of parameters, PCA/FA can be
(PCBs), and perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were applied to determine the most meaningful parameters in principal
also found in river water, and the discharge of waste or wastewater from components, which support the identification of potential pollution
industrial and agricultural activities in river basins was the main source sources [7,8,38]. In recent years, machine learning algorithms such as
of these pollutants [16–18]. The potential negative effect of EPs on artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine (SVM), deci­
ecosystems has been confirmed in previous studies. sion tree (DT), naive Bayes, k-nearest neighbor (KNN), random forest
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which are EP classes, include (RF), and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) have been applied for
PCBs, bisphenol A, pharmaceutical products, pesticides, phthalates, analyzing complex water quality datasets to acquire information from
polybrominated compounds, alkylphenol ethoxylates, and alkylphenols. possible patterns [39]. Machine learning has been applied for recog­
EDCs can affect the endocrine systems of living organisms and stimulate nizing the most significant paramters and idenfying the main pollution
or inhibit hormone production and metabolism [19–21]. In addition, the sources in the case studies [40,41]. Therefore, it is necessary for dis­
accumulation of OCPs and other pesticides was associated with an cussing these application in assessing the variations, identifying key
increased risk of human cancer, diabetes, genotoxicity, and mental and factors or pollution sources to river water.
psychomotor development [22,23]. However, the monitoring programs In previous studies, key factors affecting river water quality have
of river water mainly focus on traditional contaminants because there is been identified, such as land use or land cover [26,29,42], urbanization
a lack of published health guidelines, and existing facilities for detecting [6,43,44], catchment characteristics [31,45], climate conditions, and
and treating emerging pollutants (EPs) [24]. The current challenges are atmospheric deposition [10,17,46]. However, there is no study on the
related to the limitations of detection and treatment systems [25], so overview analysis of key factors affecting river water quality and the
identifying factors and transport processes is important for preventing differences in pollution sources or factors between urban and rural
these substances from entering river water. rivers. What key factors are affecting river water quality in urban and
Urban areas have some characteristics, such as high-density resi­ rural areas, and are there any differences in key factors and parameters
dential areas, rapid growth of population, production activities in in­ in the variations in river water quality? Therefore, this review focuses on
dustrial zones, and a high percentage of impervious areas. The results analyzing the influences of key factors and parameters on the water
from the previous studies found that these characteristics have negative quality of urban and rural rivers through the current methods of water
quality assessment. In addition, the occurrences and origins of emerging
and persistent pollutants in rivers are also discussed in this study. Un­
derstanding how changes and key factors affect river water quality is
crucial for managing water quality and controlling pollutants in river
basins.

2. Significant problems of water quality in river basin

2.1. The occurrence of emerging and persistent organic pollutants in rivers

The Stockholm Convention published a list of persistent organic

pollutants, including pesticides (aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDT, chlor­
dane, heptachlor, mirex, and toxaphene), industrial chemicals (PCBs
and hexachlorobenzene), and unintended manufacturing by-products
∑
(PAHs, dioxins, and furans). The OCPs concentrations were found
to range from 2 ng/L to 245 ng/L and 12–154 ng/L in the Bramaputra
and Hooghly rivers in India, respectively [17]. However, lower levels of
∑
OCPs were detected in rivers in Jiuxi Valley, China, with concentra­
Fig. 1. Factors and pollution sources affecting river water quality. tions of 4.07 ng/L– 30.1 ng/L [30]. Similarly, the OCP levels ranged

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N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

from 0.45 to 6.98 ng/L in the Volturno River, Southern Italy [47]. The were found in other rivers, such as the Himalayan watershed (4.7–10.38
past usage in agricultural areas and atmospheric deposition were the mg/L) [31], the Maotiao River Basin, China (7.2–8.1 mg/L) [29], the
main sources of OCPs in these case studies. In addition, the occurrence of Shuangji River, China (7.57–8.85 mg/L) [56], Setikhola Watershed,
∑
PCBs was found with a 19 PCBs level of 39–161 ng/L in the Brama­ Nepal (4.7–10.38 mg/L) [31], and the Siriri River Basin, Brazil
putra River and 57–233 ng/L in the Hooghly River, India [17]. Another (5.21–7.27 mg/L) [7]. The high concentrations of DO were explained by
study in the Volturno River, Italy found the presence of PCBs at levels of the factor of basin characteristics such as high elevation regions, steeper
2.28–10 ng/L. Atmospheric deposition and industrial activities (elec­ slope, and cooler temperature that result in higher turbulence [31]. In
tronic wastes, port activities, combusted coal, and industrial wastes) addition, the characteristics of buffer zone and less effects from urban
were linked to releasing PCBs into the Bramaputra and Hooghly rivers areas were also confirmed the important determinants contributing to
[17,47]. In case of PAHs, both natural sources such as forest fires and the high levels of DO in some rivers [7,31]. The conductivity of river
volcanic eruptions and human activities such as the incomplete com­ water acts as a measure of anions’ availability, including alkali, chlo­
bustion of organic matter can produce them [48]. For instance, the rides, sulfides, and carbonate compounds. As the water temperature
levels of PAHs were detected in Diep rivers, South Africa, at levels of increases, conductivity tends to rise. Input water (runoff) exposed to
0–72.38 μ g/L, and pyrogenic sources (e.g., the combustion of fossil fuel more soil surface washes more ions, leading to a higher level of con­
or coal, waste incinerators) and petrogenic sources (crude oil and pe­ ductivity [31]. In addition, natural erosion and sediment transport
troleum products) can release the concentrations of PAHs in river water processes lead total suspended solids (TSS) to accumulate in river water;
[16]. In contrast, very low concentrations of PAHs were found in the a waterbody with higher TSS levels may be contaminated by either
Euphrates River, Iraq, with levels of 646–992 ng/L, and the pollution of natural or human activities [55]. TSS levels are often detected at higher
these compounds originated mainly from petroleum product combus­ levels in rainy seasons because of the occurrence of runoff during rain
tion [48]. The main sources of emerging pollutants are often linked to events [57]. For instance, the TSS levels were 3.9–139 mg/L in Pucang
anthropogenic activities such as domestic, industrial, and agricultural River, Indonesia [58]. In the dry season, domestic and industrial
activities. The detection of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and per­ wastewater could be the major cause for the elevated levels of TSS. In
fluorooctanoate (PFOA) in river water was confirmed at levels of 1.2–4.4 another case study in Burío River, Costa Rica, TSS levels ranged from
ng/L and 10–42 ng/L in Japan [49], and the levels of FPASs were 129 to 392 mg/L [8]. High levels of TSS can affect the performance in
1.3–15.9 ng/L in the Ganges River, India [50]. The higher levels of PFOS bacteriological removal and the increase in chemical consumption in
and PFOA were found in river water in Spain, with concentrations of drinking water treatment plants [59].
1.1–11,120 ng/L and 4.2–130 ng/L, respectively [18]. Industrial and
municipal waste, and atmospheric deposition may be important sources 2.2.2. Nutrients and organic pollution
contributing to the concentrations of PFASs. The study in four Spanish Nutrients and organic matter originate from natural and human ac­
Rivers found the presence of PhAC concentrations. Llobregat and Ebro tivities. However, anthropogenic activities such as wastewater discharge
rivers were the most polluted in PhACs with corresponding total con­ from urban areas and intensive farming are the main sources that could
centrations of 13.022 μ g/L and 12.028 μ g/L. The figures for Gua­ cause organic pollution in the surface water [60]. The high levels of
dalquivir and Júcar were lower, with levels of 1.702 μ g/L and 0.759 μ biological oxygen demand (BOD5) were detected in different river ba­
g/L, respectively. The population and livestock were found to be linked sins. Particularly, the levels of BOD5, total nitrogen (TN), and total
to the concentrations of PhACs [51]. phosphorus (TP) were 2.0–9.0, 0.95–8.47, 0.01–0.3 mg/L in the Maotiao
Due to their toxicity, high environmental persistence, widespread River Basin, China, respectively. The findings concluded that water
emissions, and bioaccumulation, EPs and POPs have the potential to quality was poor in the summer drought season, and improved in the
harm ecosystems and human beings. For example, organochlorine pes­ rainy season thanks to runoff dilution [29]. Another case study in the
ticides (OCPs), which are chlorinated hydrocarbon derivatives, are Geum River in South Korea confirmed that the eutrophic state occurred
widely used in both the chemical and agricultural sectors. High lip­ in downstream areas during the summer season due to the high level of
ophilicity, bioaccumulation, and lengthy half-lives of these pesticides nutrients. The concentrations of TP, TN, BOD5 and chemical oxygen
raise the risk of contamination of air, water, and soil even after extensive demand (COD) were detected at 18.4–85.5 mg/L and 1.48–3.87 mg/L,
use [52]. In addition, Expose to these substances has major conse­ 0.76–7, and 3–18 mg/L, respectively. Intensive agricultural and built-up
quences, including a number of chronic illnesses that cause disorders areas were determined to be the main sources of nutrients and organic
and sickness (cancer, diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease). Many pollution, especially in downstream areas [55]. In Galing River,
aquatic species are most affected in terms of reproduction, development, Malaysia, the high average levels of COD (29.6 mg/L), TP (2.63 mg/L),
and behavior [53]. Although emerging and persistent organic pollutants total inorganic nitrogen (4.12 mg/L) and low DO average concentration
were found in river basins, there are no standards or monitoring pro­ (3.04 mg/L) were found in river water due to untreated or partially
grams for controlling these substances in many countries. Therefore, treated sewage [27]. Moreover, the study estimated that about 2.5
understanding key factors affecting and pollution sources helps prevent million people would be affected by organic pollution in 2050. Un­
these chemicals from reaching river water. treated wastewater from urban areas and livestock farming were found
to be the main sources of releasing organic pollutants into rivers around
2.2. The concentration of traditional pollutants in rivers the world [12].

2.2.1. Physical characteristics in river water 2.2.3. Heavy metal pollution

The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in river water depend on various Heavy metals may be released into the aquatic environment as a
factors such as turbulence, temperature, salinity, and altitude. The DO result of human activities such as the discharge of wastewater from
concentration of 4 mg/L or more was found to be suitable for aquatic factories, agriculture, and settlement. In addition, heavy metals from
ecosystems [31,54]. The low level of DO could be due to the high con­ natural sources (leaching and weathering) could enter the environment,
centration of organic contaminants from discharging untreated waste­ but these sources are often less important [54,61]. Untreated industrial
water in urban areas in Galing River, Malaysia (2.10–4.02 mg/L) [27]. wastewater and household sewage are the main contributors to heavy
Additionally, the low levels of DO often occur in the dry season due to metal pollution. Wastewater from industries such as metal industries,
climate effects [55]. With the higher temperatures in the summer sea­ paints, pigment, varnishes, pulp and paper, tannery, distillery, rubber,
son, microbial activity is enhanced to degrade organic matter in river thermal power plants, steel plants, and mining industries could intro­
water. As a result, microorganisms will consume more oxygen, which duce heavy metals to water bodies, including zinc (Zn), arsenic (As),
leads to a decline in DO concentration [8]. In contrast, High levels of DO copper (Cu), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), and

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N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

chromium (Cr) [62]. Table 1 shows the concentrations of most heavy Table 1
metals present in river water, but the levels were sometimes above the The pollution levels of some parameters in river water.
guideline values [29,63–65]. For instance, the study in Aji-Chay River, Parameters Concentration (mg/L) WHO (mg/ References
Iran, detected high levels of As, Cr, As, and other heavy metals that could L)
be the result of the weathering of volcanic formations, and industrial TSS 3.9–139 50 [58]
discharges. The content of As, Cr, and Pb were 0.0008–0.046 mg/L, 129–392 [8]
0.005–0.175 mg/L, and 0.021–0.075 mg/L, which exceed the guideline DO 7.2–8.1 4–6 [29]
values of WHO [64]. The high metal concentrations can be traced back 4.7–10.38 [31]
7.57–8.85 [56]
to wastewater discharged by mining activities. Drainage water and 4.59–5.98; 3.95–6.24; [27]
wastewater from mining regions caused a dramatic increase in heavy 2.10–4.02
metal levels in the Voghji River basin in Armenia. As a result, river water 5.21–7.27 [7]
was sharply worsening with the elevated concentrations of heavy metals BOD5 2.0–9.0 4 [29]
∼ 0.76 – 7 [55]
such as, Cu, Cd, and Pb [65]. These substances can leach into surface
2.3–27.1 [58]
water or groundwater, be absorbed by plants, and form semi-permanent 0.9–172.0 [8]
bonds with soil constituents like clay or organic matter that later have an Total N 0.95–8.47 – [29]
impact on human health. After entering waterbodies, heavy metals can 1.48–3.87 [55]
be harmful to aquatic organisms, and accumulate in the sediment [65]. 1.45–2.76 [7]
Total P 0.01–0.3 [29]
Although the levels of heavy metals are increasing in river water due to
–
0.0184–0.0855 [55]
anthropogenic activities, but the levels of some heavy metals are above 0.1–0.38 [56]
the limits of WHO in many case studies as shown Table 1. 0.042–1.781 [8]
0.03–0.12 [7]
COD ~3–18 10 [55]
2.2.4. Microbial pollution
8.83–32.08 [56]
Pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, or parasites, may originate in 5.75–17.5; 13.5–31.8; [27]
humans and animals. Microbial hazards can be introduced into water 7.50–54.0
bodies from human feces, agricultural activities, wildlife, and from using Fe 0.0069–1.87 0.3 [63]
water for recreational activities [2]. Pathogens may enter rivers from 0.038–0.076 [65]
As 0.00022–0.00238 0.01 [29]
different sources, but identifying their pathways and origins is difficult.
0.0016–0.0030 [56]
They could originate from point sources (sanitary sewer flows and 0.0008–0.046 [64]
wastewater treatment plant effluents) or non-point sources (livestock 0.000616–0.00459 [65]
and agricultural activities) [66]. In general, pathogenic organisms exist Cr 0–0.00978 0.05 [29]
0.010–0.020 [56]
in all ecosystems, but microbiological contamination with fecal bacteria
0.0054–0.012 [63]
from anthropogenic activities is considered a crucial problem in rivers. 0.005–0.175 [64]
Escherichia coli (E. coli) and fecal coliforms (FCs) are monitored in 0.000297–0.00103 [65]
standards, and these parameters are considered indicators of fecal Cu 0.0008–0.00487 2.0 [29]
pollution [2]. For instance, the study conducted in the main river of 0.03–0.07 [56]
0.005–0.0323 [63]
Ecuador detected very high levels of E. coli and total coliform with a
0.005–0.058 [64]
range of 5 x 103–2.5 x 104 CFU/100 ml and 2.13 x 104–6.38 x 104 0.00128–0.0825 [65]
MPN/100ml. This is due to the discharge of untreated waste and Hg 0.11 x 10− 3 – 0.18 x 10− 3 0.006 [56]
wastewater from dense urban areas. Geographical locations and Pb 0.07 x 10− 3 – 0.24 x 10− 3 0.01 [29]
0.021–0.075 [64]
ambient temperatures may contribute to the growth of bacteria in sur­
0.039 x 10− 3 – 0.522 x 10− 3
[65]
face waterways [67]. Coliform bateria occurred at a lower level of Σ 11 OCPs 2x10− 6 - 245x10− 6; – [17]
0.014–920 MPN/100ml in Pucang River, Indonesia, this is due to do­ 12x 10− 6 - 154x 10− 6
mestic wastewater from residential areas, industrial and agricultural Σ 13 OCPs 4.07 x 10− 6 – 30.1 x 10− 6 [30]
activities [58]. These figure are above the guideline values of WHO, Σ 16 OCPs 0.45 x 10− 6 - 6.98 x 10− 6 [47]
PCBs 39x 10− 6 - 161 x 10− 6 [17]
which could pose a threat to human health through drinking water
–
2.28 x 10− 6 – 10 x 10− 6 [47]
without proper treatment. E. coli pathotypes are responsible for PAHs 0–72.38 x 10− 3 – [16]
numerous illnesses among the population in developing nations. Con­ Σ 16 PAHs 464 x 10− 6 - 992 x 10− 6 [48]
sumption of contaminated food and water has been linked to the spread PFOA 10 x10− 6 – 42 x10− 6 – [49]
4.2 x10− 6 – 130 x10− 6 [18]
of certain E. coli pathotypes [67]. –
PFOS 1.2 x10− 6 – 4.4 x10− 6 [49]
1.1 x10− 6 – 11.12 x10− 3 [18]
3. The factors affecting river water quality FPASs 1.3 x10− 6 –15.9 x10− 6 [50]
Σ 76 PhACs 13.022 x 10− 3 [51]a
3.1. Some common approaches to assessing surface water quality 12.028 x 10− 3 [51]b
1.702 x 10− 3 [51]c
0.759 x 10− 3 [51]d
The common approach to assessing water quality is to compare with Σ 9 PhACs ND - 2.64 x 10− 3 [68]
the levels of the guideline standards or a single factor assessment. The Σ 40 PhACs 0.17–19.1 x 10− 3 [69]
standard for surface water quality is often used for comparing the Coliform (MPN/ 0.014–920 0 [58]
100ml) 2.13 x 104–6.38 x 104 [67]
analytical results of each river water quality parameter. This approach is
E.Coli 5 x 103–2.5 x 104 0 [67]
easy to do and convenient, but it provides conservative evaluation re­ CFU/100ml
sults [32]. The water quality index (WQI) can be used to convert a lot of
ND: None detection; PhACs: pharmaceutically active compounds.
water quality data into single values that illustrate and classify water
[7] Siriri River basin – Brazil [8]; Burío River – Costa Rica [16]; Diep River –
quality in rivers. This method can assess the pollution levels of different
South Africa [17]; Brahmaputra and Hooghly rivers – India [18]; Llobregat River
sections of urban and rural rivers [33–35]. In recent years, statistical – Spain [27]; Kuantan, Belat, and Galing rivers – Malaysia [29]; Maotiao River
multivariate analysis methods such as correlation analysis (Pearson or Basin – China [30]; Rivers in Jiuxi Valley, China [31]; Setikhola watershed –
Spearman), Multivariable linear regression, factor analysis (FA), PCA, Nepal [47]; Volturno River – Southern Italy [48]; Euphrates River – Iraq [49];
and CA have been employed for the assessment of variations and the

4
N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

Rivers – Osaka – Japan [50]; Ganges River – India [55]; Geum River – Korea 56,75]. By applying CA, the sampling sites in rivers were clustered based
[56]; Shuangji River – China [58]; Pucang river – Indonesia [64]; Aji-Chay River on their physico-chemical characteristics, and the clusters often have
– Iran [65]; Voghji River – Armenia [63]; Four rivers in Mokopan – Limpopo similarity in land use patterns or/and spatial distribution (upper, middle
Province – South Africa [67] 12 main rivers – Ecuador [51];a Llobregat River – and bottom of catchments), or/and the presence of point pollution
Spain [51];b Ebro River – Spain [51];c Guadalquivir River – Spain [51];d Júcar
sources. The results are often linked to land use types and the population
River – Spain [68]; Yamuna River – India [69]; Pearl River – China.
levels of sampling locations [8,75,81]. PCA can be used to decrease the
number of variables and explain the same amount of variance with fewer
interpretation of water quality datasets [36,37]. Moreover, machine variables (principal components). PCA aims to clarify the correlation
learning (ML) algorithms such as artificial neural network (ANN), sup­ between the observations regarding the unmeasured underlying com­
port vector machine (SVM), decision tree (DT), naive Bayes, k-nearest ponents. The primary factors that affect water quality in river basins
neighbor (KNN), and random forest (RF) are used for analyzing complex were determined. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (>0.5) and Barlett’s sphe­
water quality datasets to acquire information from possible patterns ricity tests (p < 0.05) were used to determine whether the data were
[39]. However, the application of ML to analyzing key factors affecting appropriate before running the PCA [8,56]. PCA was used to identify the
river water quality is still limited. key parameters and pollution sources affecting the variation in river
Water quality index. The concept of the Water Quality Index (WQI) water quality. The key parameters in each principle components (PC)
was proposed by Horton (1965) [70]. Brown et al. (1970) applied the help predict pollution sources and factors [7,8]. For example, the results
Delphi technique to generate the water quality index for the US National from PCA were found strong positive loadings on EC, TDS, and strong
Sanitation Fund (NSF – WQI) [71]. However, this approach is not negative loading on DO in PC1 (26% of the total variance). This
objective because of the consultation of a panel of experts for rating component was affected by most of agriculture activities, which mainly
parameters. Many indexes, such as the Oregon Water Quality Index contribute to the increases in the levels of EC and TDS and decreased in
(OWQI), British Columbia Water Quality Index (BCWQI), and Canadian DO levels. While nitrate and nitrogen had strong positive loadings in
Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index PC2 (20% of the total variance) that can be associated with the nutrient
(CCMEWQI) were developed to improve the final calculation of WQI parcel of water pollution (domestic sewage and fertilizers). The results
[72–74]. In recent studies, principle component analysis has been used from another study showed that COD, TP, Cu and volatile phenols have
to find significant parameters and weights that are input into the final strong positive loadings in the first PC (29% of the total variance). These
calculation of the water quality index. In fact, PCA helps objectively results and spatial distribution characteristics revealed that emissions
define the relative weights for each water quality parameter, resulting in can be related to the presence of industrial activities (paper
more reliable results [75,76]. In addition, the index of biodegradability manufacturing, coking, chemical products manufacturing, and metal
was generated by dividing BOD5 by COD. The BOD5/COD ratio of 0.4 products).
indicated a high degree of degradability; 0.2–0.4 showed a low level of Application of machine learning or/and remote sensing in water
degradability; and 0.2 revealed a low degree of degradability [55,77]. quality assessment. In machine learning, a subfield of artificial intelli­
This high index can show more degradable matter in the river, but not gence, algorithms are applied to analyze complex datasets and search for
clarifying sources or factors affecting [55]. Heavy metal Pollution In­ possible patterns in order to acquire new information. In contrast to
dexes (HPI and modified-HPI) are used to assess water quality based on conventional models, machine learning models can efficiently solve
the concentration of heavy metals by calculating the weighted arith­ more complex nonlinear issues. Supervised and unsupervised learning
metic sum of water quality parameters. Also, the Heavy metal Evalua­ are two main classes of machine learning technologies. Using labeled
tion Index (HEI) is used to explain the levels of heavy metals and trace training datasets, supervised learning derives predictive functions, while
elements with regard to water quality. The HEI index is divided into unsupervised learning is typically used to deal with unlabeled data and
three categories: low heavy metal (<10), moderate heavy metal recognize patterns based on unlabeled training datasets. Supervised
(10–20), and high heavy metal (>20) [63,78]. However, This approach learning algorithms such as linear regression, artificial neural network
can not identify the pollution sources or factors affecting water quality, (ANN), support vector machine (SVM), decision tree (DT), naive Bayes,
and its results only illustrate the pollution levels of river water. k-nearest neighbor (KNN), and random forest (RF). For example, the
Statistical analysis. Statistical methods such as Pearson’s or Spear­ study applied the Bayesian network and ANN to estimate the optimum
man’s correlation, MLR, CA, and PCA has been applied to interpret population ranges of each watershed from the probability distribution
complex water quality datasets in many studies [75,79,80]. To illustrate table of the population node. The findings showed that TC, and BOD had
the degree of dependence of one variable on the others, Pearson’s or a strong positive correlation with the population, while DO was nega­
Spearman’s correlation analysis is often employed. Water quality pa­ tively correlated with the population [39].
rameters are evaluated for correlation depending on the coefficient The combination of multiple methods has proven to be effective in
values. The correlation coefficient values range from +1 to − 1, a zero identifying factors and pollution soucres. The remote sensing method
value means no correlation, +1 and − 1 values show a perfect relation­ has been used for image classification, which can provide percentages or
ship at a significant level of p < 0.05. Correlation coefficient values of r areas of land use types. Those results are often input data in correlation
> 0.7 have strong correlations, whereas r values between 0.5 and 0.7 are analysis [82] and multiple linear regression analysis [26]. Moreover,
defined as having moderate levels of correlation. In recent studies, this some machine learning algorithms can be applied to image classifica­
technique has been applied to analyze the degree of correlations be­ tion. For instance, the systematic remote sensing monitoring method
tween water quality parameters in a negative or positive way [8,34,55, and Mixed Kernel ELM with Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO-M­
75]. Multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis has been applied to create K-ELM) were applied to analyze the spatio-temporal variation rules of
simple MLR models, which can identify some important factors affecting non-point sources surrounding the drinking water source area in the
water quality paramters. For instance, a simple MLR model has been Huangpu River, Shanghai. The findings illustrated that COD was the
generated based on water quality variables and land use variables. predominant non-point source pollutant, while TP contributed the least
Therefore, MLR models for parameters have established based on in the study area. The continuously increasing areas of building land
important land use types [26]. CA is applied to classify the objects into were the main source of COD emissions in the period 1989–2019 [41].
clusters based on their similarity or difference. The Euclidean distance
indicates if two samples are comparable; the “distance” can be defined
3.2. Land-use, land cover and land management
as the “difference” between the two values. The sum of the squares of the
analysis of variance is used to calculate the distance between two
Land use and water quality. Previous research has revealed that land
groups, and then a dendrogram is generated to illustrate clustering [8,
use is one of the dominant factors determining variations in water

5
N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

quality [3,42,83]. Increased urban and industrial land can be linked to analysis, and remote sensing to evaluate landscape influences on water
decreased infiltration, increased runoff, and the transport of contami­ quality in buffer zones. At the buffer scale, the results concluded that
nants from the catchment to waterbodies. This could lead to the dete­ landscape factors in the buffer zone significantly affect the water quality
rioration of water quality in rivers [26]. The concentration of pollutants variation, and landscape in the 100-m buffer zones has the most sig­
in river water was influenced by a number of human activities that are nificant impact on river water quality. While agricultural land and
linked to urban land, including the discharge of domestic and industrial grassland in buffer zone had a significant and positive correlation with
sewage, the application of fertilizers and pesticides, surface runoff, and TN, and NO−3 , forest land was negatively correlated with water quality
other non-point pollution sources [26]. By analyzing the correlation indicators [85]. Similarly, the study in the Guadalupe Dam Watershed,
between land use types and water quality parameters, the results Mexico, also revealed that forest land in buffer zones had a positive
showed that residential land had a positive relationship with the nutri­ impact on the protection of water quality [84]. Recent studies showed
ents (NO−3 N, and PO−4 P), suspended solids, and organic pollutants the importance of a buffer zone along the river, which could improve
(BOD5, and COD) in the Medlock River, Uniter Kingdom [28]. This is river water quality [84,90]. Therefore, measures such as rehabilitation
consistent with the results of the study in the Mitidja Watershed in and protection of the buffer zone should be considered when imple­
Algeria. Settlement land had a positive correlation with the parameters menting river water management actions. A summary of previous
BOD5, COD, NH4–N, PO−4 P, and SS, and the regression analysis showed studies demonstrated that agricultural land and built-up land are the
that settlement land can be a good predictor for these water quality leading causes of the degradation of water quality, while vegetation
parameters. In the case of industrial land, the study in Hooghly River, cover, forestland, and grassland may improve water quality in river
India, illustrated that industrial and port activities along the river were basins [7,8,91].
responsible for the elevated concentration of PCBs [17]. The sampling Urbanization and water quality. Population growth and rapid ur­
site in the industrial zone had much higher levels of PAHs than the banization have affected many aspects of life [1]. To meet the demand of
figures in the other two sites [16]. population growth, the combustion of fossil fuels in industrial activities
Agricultural activities can be linked to the amount of nutrients, or the demand for crude oil and petroleum products has been increasing,
pesticide residues, and other organic pollutants entering rivers through which are the main sources of PAHs entering waterbodies [16]. The use
surface runoff or irrigation, leading to the deterioration of water quality. of household chemicals, carpets, degradation products, fire-fighting
The results from the analysis of Spearman Rank correlation showed that foams, and sewage sludge disposal could release PFASs into the envi­
intesification activities on agricultural land have a strong positive cor­ ronment, which could reach the waterbodies under favorable conditions
relation with nitrate and phosphorus concentrations and bacterial co­ [18]. When assessing the impact of urbanization on river water quality,
liforms [42]. This is consistent with the results from PCA in the case Kim et al. (2016) applied a simple linear regression to analyze the re­
study of the Opak Sub-Watershed, Indonesia. The levels of nitrate, nitrit, lationships between the percentages of impervious areas and water
amonia, and DO were significantly correlated with cultivation and quality parameters. The percentage of impervious area was positively
livestock activities on agricultural land in the third and fifth principal correlated with some physical and chemical parameters such as BOD5,
components. Nitrate and phosphate could be released from the appli­ COD, TOC, and TP [44]. The results from the correlation analysis
cation of fertilizers through runoff or irrigation, causing an increase in showed that the increase in population has a significant impact on water
nutrients [83]. However, the relationship between agricultural activities quality parameters. The population had a positive correlation with the
and water quality can be uncertain due to the simultaneous impact of five parameters (BOD5, COD, fecal coliforms, toxicity, and TSS) in Alto
urban land, agricultural land, forest land, and other types of land use on the Atoyac Basin, Puebla, Mexico. The explanation suggested that pop­
each of the water quality parameters [26]. In general, agriculture ac­ ulation growth resulted in a higher demand for the production and
tivities are still a major source of water contamination, which was consumption of goods and services. As a result, a higher amount of waste
confirmed in previous studies [7,8,26]. With the selection of water and wastewater could be generated, leading to disturbance of the
sampling sites with different land-use characteristics, the study showed ecosystem as well as the aquatic environment [6]. The nutrients (TN, TP,
that organic and biological contaminants are associated with agricul­ NH4–N and PO4–P) and microbial load (fecal maker, pathogen) in highly
tural activities and urban sewage, which predominate in the Siriri River urbanized areas were found to be much higher than those in medium
watershed in Brazil. By analyzing PCA, the agricultural activities in PC1 and low urbanized areas [43]. Similarly, another study in Suzhou,
components can explain 26% of the variance of the river water quality in China, revealed that water quality was worst in high urban areas, fol­
the catchment. PC1 had significant positive loadings on EC and TDS and lowed by medium urban areas and rural areas [92].
a strong negative loading on DO. Additionally, strong positive loadings
were determined on NO−3 and TN, while there was a moderate negative 3.3. Climate condition and atmospheric deposition
loading on temperature, explained by the PC2 component (made up 20%
of the total variance), which can be related to domestic waste and the Seasonal variation in water quality. Seasonal variation in precipita­
application of fertilizers on crops [7]. At the buffer scale, agricultural tion, runoff, and undergound flow could directly affect river flow,
land had a positive correlation with the levels of DO and conductivity in resulting in a change in pollutant concentrations in river water. In a
Setikhola, Nepal [31]. Lastly, the occurrence of OCPs and other pesticide certain climate condition, temperatures could be higher in the dry sea­
residues has been found to be linked agricultural land. However, the son than in the rainy season, and water flow is low, leading to less
case studies have not analyzed the correlation between land use types disturbance and dilution. By comparing the analytical results during
and pesticide residues [17,30,87]. different seasons, the seasonal variations in river water quality can be
In the case of forest land, most studies suggest that its importance lies explained. For instance, with the presence of wastewater discharge from
in reducing soil erosion and intercepting solid contaminants. Therefore, residential areas, agricultural and industrial activities, the concentra­
the enhancement of forest protection and afforestation is important for tions of TN, TP, TS, and BOD5 in the dry season were higher. In addition,
improving water quality in river basins [88,89]. The case study in the the levels of DO and turbidity were higher due to high dilution in the wet
Medlock River, United Kingdom, showed that urban green and wood­ season [7,8]. Through analyzing ANOVA and the Turkey test, the find­
land had a positive correlation with DO levels and a negative correlation ings showed that the mean concentrations of COD, TSS, and TP were
with nutrients and conductivity through the analysis of the correlation higher during the summer than in other seasons due to the high flow of
between land use areas and water quality values [28]. Similarly, forest river water, while the figure for BOD5 was higher during the spring due
landcover positively correlated with the levels of DO in the Setikhola to the low flow of river water. In addition, the results from regression
watershed, Central Nepal [31]. In addition, the case study in Chao and models illustrated that TSS is a good predictor for river water quality. TN
Bai Rivers in China applied multiple linear regression, redundancy and TP levels are determinants of the levels of algal chlorophyll-a in the

6
N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

Geum River. The river water quality was poor to very poor in the containing phosphorus, nitrogen, and salts can reach waterbodies, and
summer (rainny season) [55]. Remote sensing and statistical analysis these processes depend on the drainage capacity of the soils [11].
(Spearman correlation and simple linear regression analysis) have been Phosphorus concentration is strongly correlated to soil texture, and
used to clarify land use types and parameters. Another study showed clayey soils, for example, have high erodibility [103]. Sedimentary and
that the levels of nutrients (TN, TP, NO3–N, and NH4–N) were higher in igneous rocks are major sources of phosphorus, released through
the rainy season, and these levels changed significantly according to the weathering and hydrological transport [45].
season. Built-up areas had a more significant correlation with NO3–N Topographic setting significantly affects the mechanism of pollutants
concentration in the rainy season than in the dry season because of the transport to waterbodies, and determines how runoff flows into surface
increased non-point pollution sources from surface runoff instead of water or infiltrates into subsurface or groundwater [2]. The character­
only point sources in the dry season. The findings also indicated a high istics of a waterbody could also impact the transport and attenuation of
correlation between river flow and nitrate concentrations [82]. In pollutants within a catchment. Stream flow moves in one or more
addition, these phenomena could be enhanced by favorable terrain and channels with different widths and depths. This process is affected by
geology conditions (steeper slope, well-drain soil, and low vegetation factors such as topography, geology, the magnitude of streamflows,
cover) for surface runoff reaching rivers [11,45,82]. climatic factors, and groundwater discharge [2]. The study of Liu et al.
Climate change, extreme weather events and water quality. The (2021) used the factors of natural catchment characteristics (topography
main problems facing water management in river basins include water and geology) and anthropogenic factors (land use) to model their im­
pollution, the effects of climate change, and water shortages. Climate pacts on water quality. The results from the multi-model inference
change can significantly affect runoff and river basin sediment loads. showed that catchment elevation significantly affects NH4 and dissolved
Recent studies on the effects of climate change on water quality have organic nitrogen with a negative correlation, while dissolved organic
emphasized nutrient loads and sediment transport [93–96]. Based on phosphorus is negatively correlated to slope [45]. Moreover, the pres­
data collected during droughts (1976, 1991 and 2003), simple linear ence of lakes, wetlands, and dams could result in lower concentrations of
regression was used to establish the relationship between DO levels and sediments, nutrients, and salts downstream of rivers, which could be
the temperature of river water, and the levels of dicharge and chlorine related to low levels of phosphorus in the case study [103].
during the period of 2001–2005. The results showed that a reduction in
DO levels was related to the increase in temperature, and an increase in 4. Key factors affecting river water quality in urban and rural
chlorine concentrations depended on the levels of decreasing discharge areas
[97]. Similarly, increased temperatures in some European rivers could
lead to decreased DO concentrations and pH [97,98]. Droughts could The expansion of residential and industrial land is a popular trend in
also affect water quality because of high water temperatures, long urban areas, and this phenomenon has considerable impacts on envi­
residence times, and high nutrient concentrations, which facilitate the ronmental aspects. In the case of land use fators, the study in Medlock
development of algae blooms. Increased nutrient levels during droughts River, Great Manchester, United Kingdom, revealed that DO levels had a
may be related to a decrease in the dilution capacity of waterbodies negative relationship with residental, and industrial land, and a positive
[10]. Floods can affect the increase in flow volume, which could bring relationship with urban green and woodland. Nutrient concentrations
excessive organic or inorganic matter and sedimentation to river water (PO4–P and NO3–N) correlated negatively with urban green areas and
during this period. By applying WQI calculation and Pearson correla­ positively with impervious areas [28]. Similarly, while DO levels
tion, the study in Muar River, Malaysia, during the flood events indi­ decreased, BOD5 and TP concentrations increased due to wastewater
cated that high levels of suspended solids cause an increase in NO3–N discharges from residential areas and industrial zones (urban land) in
levels and a decline in pH values, resulting in a deterioration in river the middle of the river basin Burío River in Costa Rica [8]. The decrease
water quality [99]. In general, climate-related variables such as water in DO levels was due to microbial activity that can degrade organic
temperature and (extreme) river flows can influence surface water matter in river water [8,92]. Another study of water pollution levels in
quality [97]. Land-use change should be carefully planned and three rivers in Malaysia showed that the water quality of the Galing river
controlled because of its potential impact on river water quality. For in urban areas was the worst due to poor wastewater treatment, with the
instance, new developments must not be approved in flood-prone areas highest average levels of COD, TP, and total inorganic nitrogen (TIN)
that can increase the risk of flooding [99]. During drought periods, point [27]. Urbanization processes have been found to significantly affect the
sources should be controlled due to low flow and high temperatures, aquatic environment. Urbanization factors such as impervious areas and
which cause seveve deterioration of river water quality [98]. dense population density or population growth are often analyzed to
Atmospheric deposition. Nutrients, heavy metals, and persistent find relationships with river water quality parameters. For example,
organic pollutants in the atmosphere entering surface water could be population growth was considered the main determinant of the deteri­
transported through wet and dry deposition [11,100]. Atmospheric oration of river water quality in the Atoyac River in Puebla, Mexico [6].
precipitation is one of the main pathways for delivering pesticides, PCBs, The aquatic environment is often disturbed by receiving waste and
and other persistent organic pollutants, and higher rainfall may facili­ wastewater from domestic and industrial lands. Urban areas with the
tate the process by which these substances are transported from the presence of industrial activities (petroleum refinery companies and
atmosphere to waterbodies [17,30]. Through this mechanism, air incomplete combustion) were found to be related to the occurrence of
pollution can have a considerable influence on the quality of river water. PAHs in river water [16,86]. High levels of PCB were detected in river
In particular, some heavy metals (Pb and Cd) could reach surface water sections flowing through industrial zones because of the combustion of
through atmospheric deposition in Czechia [101]. Another case study in coal and industrial waste [17]. The occurrence of emerging pollutants
the Ganga River, India, the nutrients and heavy metals in surface runoff such as PFASs, and PhACs has been confirmed in recent years. For
that act as a means of pollutant transport to rivers, strongly correlate instance, anthropogenic direct sources such as waste water and leaching
with these concentrations in atmospheric deposition input [102]. from poorly disposed solid waste could be the main sources of PFAS
[50]. PhACs were found in the Yamuna River, India, because treated and
3.4. Catchment geology, topography and hydrology partially untreated domestic and industrial effluents entered river water
[68]. In general, Table 2 shows that land use/cover (urban and indus­
The amounts of nutrient and salt sources in catchments are influ­ trial land) often have negative impacts on water quality parameters such
enced by the chemical properties of the soils and rocks. The mobilization as COD, BOD5, TN, TP, and microbiological parameters in urban rivers.
of constituents in catchments may be impacted by soil and rock erod­ This means that the increase in urban and industrial land often results in
ibility, and soil sorption capacity. Surface and subsurface runoff increases in these pollutant concentrations. Noticably, emerging and

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N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

Table 2
The correlation between land-use/Land cover and water quality parameters.
Parameters Forest/wood land Urban green/vegetation Residential or urban areas Industrial/commercial areas Agriculture land References

DO + + – [28]
+ – – [26]
+ + [31]
Conductivity – – + + [28]
+ [31]
– + [84]
NO−3 N – + [28]
– + + [26]
+ [85]
– + [84]
PO−4 P – + [28]
– + + [26]
TSS + [28]
– + + [26]
– + [84]
COD – + + [26]
+ + [27]
+ + [6]
BOD5 – + + [26]
+ + [6]
PAHs + [16]
[86]
PCBs + [17]
OCPs +
OCPs – + [30]
Pesticidesa + [87]

(− ): Negative correlation/relationship; (+): Positive correlation/relationship.

a
Cadusafos, Butachlor, Pendimethalin, Fenpropimorph, Malathion, Pyrimethanil.

persistent organic pollutants such as PAHs, PCBs, PFASs, and PhACs water that were higher in autumn (dry season) than in spring (wet
have been detected in many urban rivers due to waste and wastewater season) due to the effect of high dilution [30]. Similarly, the study in
from domestic and industrial activities. Thamirabarani River, India, found that the main source of OCPs was
In rural areas, land use types such as agricultural land, forest land, farmland runoff from the extensive cultivation of tea and rubber plan­
and vegetation cover are often dominant, which has been confirmed to tations in the hilly terrain region [107].
affect the variations in river water quality in previous research [29,31, Table 3 shows the key factors that could affect water quality pa­
104,105]. The case study in the Maotiao River Basin, China, illustrated rameters in urban and rural areas. Identifying key factors depends on the
that The levels of river water quality gradually decreased from upstream characteristics of each case study, such as climate regions, catchment
to downstream. The negative relationship between water quality and characteristics, and land use/cover. In general, land use or cover is one
forest land indicated that river water quality was significantly influ­ of the key factors that defines the levels of river water quality in urban
enced by topography, landscapes, and soil thickness. Heavy metals, TN, and rural areas. Since each land use type has some characteristics that
TP, and BOD5 were key parameters in the variations in river water are related to some pollution sources affecting river water. In urban
quality [29]. Similarly, land use factors were the main determinants of areas, factors related to urbanization (impervious areas and population
river water quality in Kuantan, Malaysia. The levels of NO−3 in the growth), and land use (residential and industrial land) are the de­
Kuantan River in rural areas were higher than those of Galing River in terminants of the dynamics of river water quality. Point sources (do­
urban areas due to domestic wastewater. Since high levels of DO facil­ mestic and industrial wastewater) are often found to be the main cause
itated microorganisms and nitrification reactions, which decomposed of river water pollution. However, land use (agriculture land), catch­
organic compounds into NH3 and NH+ 4 , and then NH4 was oxidized into
+
ment geology, topology, and hydrology, and climate conditions (sea­
NO3 via the nitrification process [27]. In Burío River, Costa Rica, agri­
−
sonal variations) significantly affect river water quality in rural areas.
culture activities are dominant in the upstream, which could release
nitrate content through runoff or irrigation containing the residues of 5. Conclusion
fertilizers. The levels of turbidity, TS, TP, and BOD in upstream areas
were lower than those in the middle and downstream of the river (urban Identifying the key factors and pollution sources of deteriorating
areas) [8]. The study in the Siriri River basin, Brasil, indicated that river water quality is essential for managing river basins towards sus­
agriculture land, and catchment topology (slope), and hydrology (in the tainable water management. Natural and anthropogenic factors are
wet period) are key factors that significantly affect river water quality affecting river water quality, and pollution levels are becoming severely
[7]. At the buffer scale, forest land has a positive correlation to DO, in many river basins around the world. This could have negative impacts
while agriculture land has a significant positive correlation with con­ on animal, human, and ecosystem health. Land use (residential and in­
ductivity and DO levels. In addition, catchment characteristics (steeper dustrial land) and urbanization factors (population growth and imper­
slope, cooler water temperature, and forest land) greatly contribute to meable areas) are the key factors significantly affecting river water in
higher turbulence instream, leading to an increase in DO levels, while urban areas, while agriculture land, forest land or vegetation, climate
the levels of conductivity were higher in bigger tributaries than in conditions, and catchment conditions (geology, topography, and hy­
smaller ones due to receiving more ions from bedrock and soil surface drology) are the key determinants of river water quality in rural rivers.
[31]. Notably, pesticides residues have been found in river water, which Noticeably, the concentrations of some emerging and persistent organic
could pose a threat to human and animal health [106]. For instance, the pollutants such as OCPs, PCBs, PAHs, and PFASs were detected in river
past or current local use of pesticides on agricultural land in Juixi Valley, water and treated water, so it is necessary to introduce regulations and
China, was found to be the main source of OCP concentrations in river monitoring programs in rivers. In addition, key factors affecting the

8
N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

Table 3
Possible main sources and affected water quality parameters in urban and rural area.
Rivers Rural areas/low density of residential areas Urban areas References

Sections of River Key factors/sources Parameters Sections of River Key factors Parameters
basin basin

Maotiao River Basin – Upstream - Land use (Agriculture N, P, BOD5, Middle-stream - Land use (urban land None or minor [29]
China and forest land) heavy metals far from the river) impact
- Climate condition - Climate condition
(rainny season) (dry season).
- Catchment geology
and topography.
Setikhola watershed – Upstream Land use (Agricultural DO,EC Downstream None or minor impact None or minor [31]
Nepal and Forest land) (Dense urban land with impact
Catchment geology and a small area)
topography (slope, soil
and rock types).
- Climate condition
- Catchment hydrology
(Lakes)
Kuantan river, Belat Upstream and Land use (Forest land) DO, Nitrate Galing river Land use (residential COD, TP, [27]
river, and Galing middle-stream of Downstream of land) NH4–N.
river – Malaysia Kuantan and Belat Kuantan and Belat Urbanization
rivers river (Centralized sewer
system, Household
wastewater)
Burío River, Costa Rica Upstream Land use (Agriculture Nitrate Middle and Land use (Residential DO,BOD5,TP, [8]
land) Downstream and industrial land) TSS,Faecal
Coliform
Siriri River basin, Brazil Upstream and Land use (Agriculture TN Downstream Land use (Residential DO, TN,TP, [7]
Middle-stream and Forest land) and Agriculture land) Coliform,
Catchment topology Climate condition Turbidity
(Slope) (seasonal variation)
Climate condition
(seasonal variation)
Alto Atoyac Basin in Whole basin Urbanization BOD5, COD, [6]
Puebla, Mexico (population growth) and TSS
Sabarmati River, Upstream Land use (vegetation and DO, BOD, Downtream Land use/cover DO, BOD5, [92]
Gujarat, India forest land) COD, (Residential and COD, Coliform
Coliform industrial land)
Jiuxi Valley – China Land use (Agriculure OCPs [30]
land)
Thamirabarani river – Upstream Land use (Agriculture OCPs [107]
India land)
Catchment topology
(Slope)
Medlock River – Great Whole basin Land use DO, PO4–P, [28]
Manchester – UK Urbanization NO3–N, SS
(imperious areas)
Ganges River – India Whole basin Land use (residential PFASs (PFHxA, [50]
and industrial land) PFHpA, PFOA)
Urbanization
(population density)
Yamuna River – India Middle and Land use (residential PhACs [68]
downstrem and indutrial land)
Brahmaputra and Downstream Land use (Industrial PCBs [17]
Hooghly rivers – land)
India Atmospheric deposition
Diep River in South Downstream Land use (Industrial PAHs [16]
Africa land)
Atmospheric deposition

occurrence and transport of emerging and persistent organic pollutants Declaration of competing interest
should be further studied to help prevent these substances from entering
river water. This review provides an overview of key factors, sources, The Authors have no interests to declare. There are no conflicts of
and parameters affecting water quality and the differences between interest associated with this publication and there has been no signifi­
urban and rural areas. This helps managers and policymakers make wise cant financial support for this work that could have influenced its
decisions in river basin management. outcome.

Human and animal rights and informed consent Data availability

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal Data will be made available on request.
subjects performed by any of the authors.

9
N.T. Anh et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 8 (2023) 100424

Acknowledgments animals, Environ. Res. 203 (2022), 111906, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

envres.2021.111906.
[21] N.Z. Arman, S. Salmiati, A. Aris, M.R. Salim, T.H. Nazifa, M.S. Muhamad,
This research is funded by Vietnam Ministry of Education and M. Marpongahtun, A review on emerging pollutants in the water environment:
Training (MOET) under grant number B2022-VGU-02. existences, health effects and treatment processes, Water 13 (2021) 3258,
https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223258.
[22] R.C. Souza, R.B. Portella, P.V.N.B. Almeida, C.O. Pinto, P. Gubert, J.D. Santos Da
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