Catholic High School

Level 2 Lower Secondary Science

Topic 4: Chemical Bonding

Learning Outcomes
Students should be able to:
(a) describe the formation of ions by electron loss/gain and that these ions usually have the
electronic configuration of a noble gas.
(b) describe the relationship between group number and the ionic charge of an element.
(c) describe, including the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams, the formation of ionic bonds
between metals and non-metals, e.g. NaCl; MgCl2.
(d) deduce the formulae of simple compounds from the relative numbers of atoms present
and vice versa.
(e) deduce the formulae of ionic compounds from the charges on the ions present and vice
versa (including polyatomic ions).
(f) state that ionic materials contain a giant lattice in which the ions are held by electrostatic
attraction, e.g. NaCl (students will not be required to draw diagrams of ionic lattices).
(g) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of ionic compounds to their
lattice structure.
(h) describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sharing of a pair of electrons and that the
atoms in the molecules usually have the electronic configuration of a noble gas.
(i) describe, using ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams, the formation of covalent bonds between non-
metallic elements, e.g. H2; O2; H2O; CH4; CO2.
(j) deduce the formulae of common covalent compounds from the naming and vice versa.
(k) deduce the arrangement of electrons in other covalent molecules.
(l) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of covalent substances to their
structure and bonding.

1 The Noble Gases Structure

 All noble gases (except helium) have 8 valence (outermost) electrons. These
gases have very stable electronic configuration, as evidenced by their general
lack of reactivity.

Fig. 1.1 Electronic configuration of helium, neon, argon and krypton

 noble gas electronic configuration
helium, He 2 duplet configuration
neon, Ne 2.8
argon, Ar 2.8.8 octet configuration
krypton, Kr 2.8.18.8
Note: The third shell can only hold a maximum of 8 electrons for the first 20 elements.

 In nature, there is a tendency for atoms to lose, gain or share electrons until they
form a stable electronic configuration of a noble gas (duplet or octet).
 Most atoms desire to have eight valence electrons (octet).
 The tendency for atoms to react until there are eight valence electrons is known
as the “octet rule”. The octet rule is used as a guideline to deduce the electronic
configuration of ions in a compound.
 An exception to this rule applies to atoms with only one electron shell. They
require only 2 valence electrons (duplet) for stability.

2 Ions
An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has an electrical charge, e.g. H+, Na+, Ca2+,
Fe2+, Fe3+, Cl–, O2-, N3-, NH4+, SO42–, CO32–, NO3–
 Ions are formed when an atom or a group of atoms loses or gains electrons.

Table 1.1 Examples of types of ions

cation anion
(positively charged ion) (negatively charged ion)
monatomic ion
H+, Na+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ Cl–, O2–, N3–
(contains a single atom)
polyatomic ion
NH4+ SO42–, CO32–, NO3–
(contains a group of atoms)

 The electrical charge of an ion is the net electrical charges of all protons and
electrons in an atom or group of atoms.

ion

positive (cation) negative (anion)

no. of p > no. of e no. of p < no. of e

to achieve this, atoms to achieve this, atoms

lose e gain e

Fig. 1.2 Flow chart showing formation of different types of ions

2.1 Formation of positive ions (cations)

 Atoms of metals tend to form cations by losing their valence electron(s) to

attain the noble gas configuration.

Fig. 1.3 Formation of sodium cation, Na+

 Most of the metallic atoms have 1 to 3 valence electrons.

 It is easier to lose 1 to 3 valence electrons as compared to gaining 5 to 7 electrons
to attain the noble gas electronic configuration.
 The positive charge arises because there are now more protons than electrons.

atom no. no. electronic how to obtain no. of overall formula

of p of e configuration noble gas e left charge of ion
configuration formed
lithium 3 3 2.1 loses 1 e 2 32 = +1 Li+
beryllium 4 4 2.2 loses 2 e 2 42 = +2 Be2+
1110 =
sodium 11 11 2.8.1 loses 1 e 10 Na+
+1
2018 =
calcium 20 20 2.8.8.2 loses 2 e 18 Ca2+
+2
1310 =
aluminium 13 13 2.8.3 loses 3 e 10 Al3+
+3

2.2 Formation of negative ions (anions)

 Atoms of non-metals tend to form anions by gaining valence electron(s) to

attain the noble gas configuration.

gas
Fig. 1.4 Formation of oxide ion, O2-
 Most of the non-metallic atoms have 4 to 7 valence electrons.
 It is easier to gain 1 to 3 electrons as compared to losing 5 to 7 valence electrons
to attain the noble gas configuration.
 Non-metallic atoms with 4 valence electrons tend to share electrons and
undergo covalent bonding. (will be discussed later)
 The negative charge arises because there are now more electrons than
protons.

atom no. no. electronic how to obtain final overall formula

of p of e configuration noble gas no. of charge of ion
configuration e formed
nitrogen 7 7 2.5 gains 3 e 10 –3 N3–
oxygen 8 8 2.6 gains 2 e 10 –2 O2–
fluorine 9 9 2.7 gains 1 e 10 –1 F–
sulfur 16 16 2.8.6 gains 2 e 18 –2 S2–
chlorine 17 17 2.8.7 gains 1 e 18 –1 Cl–

 Try it out #1! 

1. Draw the ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram of the following ions.

a) magnesium ion b) lithium ion

c) calcium ion d) aluminium ion

 e) chloride ion f) nitride ion

g) sulfide ion h) fluoride ion

Legend:  represents an electron of the original atom, X represents an electron of another atom

2. Which ion has the correct number of electrons, neutrons and protons shown?

ion electrons neutrons protons

34 2-
A 16S
16 20 14
25 2+
B Mg 10 13 12
12
2 +
C 1H
1 1 1
19 -
D 9F 8 10 9

3. Which does not have the same number of electrons as an atom of argon?

A S2– B Cl–
C Ca2+ D Al3+

4. Which particle has a different number of electron shells from the others?

A Al3+ B O2–
C Cl– D Ne

5. Three elements, X, Y and Z, have consecutive increasing atomic numbers. If element Y is a noble
gas, what will be the symbol for the ions formed by elements X and Z in their compounds?

A X– and Z+ B X2– and Z2+

C X+ and Z– D X2+ and Z2–
 6. The table shows information about ions Q and R.

protons neutrons electrons

Q 16 18 18

R 17 18 18

What are Q and R?

A positive ions of the same element

B positive ions of different elements
C negative ions of the same element
D negative ions of different elements

3 Relationship between Group number and ionic charge

 The ionic charge of an ion is dependent on the number of valence electrons its atom
contains.
 Elements in the same Group have the same number of valence electrons. Hence,
they form ions of the same charges and have similar chemical properties.

group number 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
This is because
chemical
number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 reactions only
valence or involve the
electrons 8 valence
charge on the +1 +2 +3 NA –3 –2 –1 NA electrons!
ion

 Elements in different groups form different type of ions:

type of ion charge

group examples explanation
formed of ion
The elements in Groups 1, 2 and 13
1 +1 Na+, K+
 are metals;
 their atoms tend to lose electrons to form
2 positive +2 Mg2+, Ca2+ positive ions. The charge of the ion is the
same as the group number of the
13 +3 Al3+ element.
tend to form The elements in Groups 14 and 15
14 covalent NA CH4  their atoms share electrons to form
compounds covalent bonds.
 some Group 15 elements such as
15 negative –3 PCl5 / N3– nitrogen form negative ions.
 The elements in Group 15, 16 and 17:
16 –2 2–
O ,S 2–  are non-metals;
 their atoms tend to gain electrons to form
negative ions.
17 –1 F–, Cl– *These elements can also share electrons
when bonded with non-metals.
The elements in Group 18:
tend to be  their atoms have stable electronic
18 NA NA
monatomic structure;
 do not usually form compounds.

4 Ionic Bonding
Definition:

An ionic bond is defined as the strong electrostatic forces of attraction

between the positively charged ion (cation) and negatively charged ion
(anion).

How do atoms react to form ionic compounds?

 In general, ionic compounds are formed between metals and non-metals by

the transfer of electrons from atoms of metals to atoms of non-metals.

o This is because atoms of metals tend to have 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons. They

lose electrons to atoms of non-metals which mostly have 5, 6 or 7 valence
electrons and tend to gain electrons.

 The reacting atoms gain or lose electrons in order to achieve stability, i.e.
attain a noble gas electronic configuration.

Example 1: How would a sodium atom form a bond with a chlorine atom?

Step 1: Consider the electronic configuration of both atoms.

Na: 2.8.1 Cl: 2.8.7

Step 2: Consider how each atom would achieve a noble gas electronic configuration.
For sodium, Na, it needs to lose one electron:

Fig. 1.5 Sodium atom losing 1 electron to become a sodium ion

In doing so, it becomes an ion with a charge of +1, as there are now 11 protons and
10 electrons.

For chlorine, Cl, it needs to gain one electron:

Fig. 1.6 Chlorine atom gaining 1 electron to become chloride ion

In doing so, it becomes an ion with a charge of –1, as there are now 17 protons and 18
electrons.

Step 3: Consider the ratio of cation and anion needed to form one electrically neutral
compound.

Since one sodium atom needs to lose one electron and one chlorine atom needs to gain
one electron, one sodium atom can bond with one chlorine atom in a ratio of 1:1.

Fig. 1.7 Sodium atom losing 1 electron to chlorine atom to form sodium ion and chloride ion
Step 4: Represent the ionic bonding in sodium chloride through a ‘dot-and-cross’
diagram.
Legend:
electron of sodium
electron of chlorine

Remember to
include a legend.

Fig. 1.8 ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram of sodium chloride

Example 2: How does a magnesium atom form a bond with a chlorine atom?

Step 1: Consider the electronic configuration of both atoms.

Mg: 2.8.2 Cl: 2.8.7

Step 2: Consider how each atom would achieve a noble gas electronic configuration.

For magnesium, Mg, it needs to lose two electrons.

For chlorine, Cl, it needs to gain one electron.

Step 3: Consider the ratio of cation and anion needed to form one electrically neutral
compound.

Step 4: Represent the ionic bonding in magnesium chloride through a ‘dot-and-cross’

diagram.

(student to draw)

2+ –

Mg
2 Cl

Legend:  represents an electron of Mg, X represents an electron of Cl

  Try it out #2! 
1. Draw the ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram for the following ionic compounds, showing only valence
electrons.

Step 1: Consider the electronic configuration of both atoms.

Step 2: Consider how each atom would achieve a noble gas electronic configuration. [Note: atoms with
only one electron shell will have 2 valence electrons / duplet]
Step 3: Consider the ratio of cation and anion needed to form an electrically neutral compound.
Step 4: Represent the ionic bonding through a ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram, providing a legend to show how
electrons have been transferred.

a) Lithium fluoride

Legend:  represents an electron of Li, X represents an electron of F

b) Magnesium oxide

Legend:  represents an electron of Mg, X represents an electron of O

c) Sodium oxide

Legend:  represents an electron of Na, X represents an electron of O

d) Potassium nitride

Legend:  represents an electron of K, X represents an electron of N

e) Calcium fluoride

Legend:  represents an electron of Ca, X represents an electron of F

f) Aluminium oxide

Legend:  represents an electron of Al, X represents an electron of O

5 Chemical formulae of ionic compounds (introduced in Topic 3)

5.1 Deducing the Charges of Ions

1) The formula of some ions can be deduced from the Periodic Table.

E.g. A magnesium atom has 2 valence electrons. It loses 2 electrons to form a cation
(positive ion) and thus the formula of the magnesium ion is Mg2+.
E.g. An oxygen atom has 6 valence electrons. It gains 2 electrons to form an anion
(negative ion) and thus the formula of the oxide ion is O2–.

2) The table below summarises the charges of the ions formed by the elements in the
various groups of the Periodic Table.

group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
charge –3 –2 –1
+1 +2 +3
of ion NA (non- (non- (non- NA
(metal) (metal) (metal)
formed metal) metal) metal)

3) The table below shows the formulae of common transition metal ions that cannot be
deduced from the Periodic Table.

ion charge
copper(II) Cu2+ +2
iron(II) Fe2+ +2
iron(III) Fe3+ +3

4) A polyatomic ion is a charged particle that contains more than one atom.

polyatomic ion charge

hydroxide OH– –1
nitrate NO3– –1
sulfate SO42– –2
carbonate CO32– –2
ammonium NH4+ +1

Question: What do we understand about the charge of this OH– ion?

The overall charge of the whole particle is –1. The charge does not belong to the H atom
alone but the entire OH ion.
5.2 Working out formulae of ionic compounds (criss-cross method)

In any given chemical compound, the elements always combine in the same proportion
with each other. Thus, chemists use chemical symbols and numbers to efficiently and
elegantly represent the ratio of constituent elements present in an ionic compound.

1) All units in the chemical formula are electrically neutral. Hence, all positive charges
must balance out the negative charges in an ionic compound.

Consider the ionic compound, calcium chloride.

The ions present are Ca2+ and Cl–.
Here, the Ca2+ ion has two positive charges, but the Cl– ion has only one negative charge.
Therefore, there must be two Cl– ions to balance out the two positive charges.
The chemical formula of calcium chloride will be CaCl2.

2) To deduce the formula of an ionic compound, we can do it in the following order:

(i) Write down the ions with the charges, e.g. Xm+Yn–
(ii) Move the values m and n diagonally (but without the charges). The chemical
formula of the ionic compound is hence XnYm.

Example 1: Write the formula of potassium sulfate.

Formula of potassium and sulfate ions: K+, SO42–

K+ SO42–
Note!
Polyatomic ions have their charge belonging to the
entire ion e.g. −2 belongs to SO42–.
2 1

Formula of potassium sulfate: K2SO4

Example 2: Write the formula of calcium hydroxide.

Formula of calcium and hydroxide ions: Ca2+, OH–

Ca2+ OH– Note!

Brackets are only used if there is more than 1 polyatomic ion in
the formula. E.g. There is a bracket for hydroxide in Ca(OH)2 but
1 2 no brackets for potassium or sulfate in K2SO4.

Formula of calcium hydroxide: Ca(OH)2

Example 3: Write the formula of magnesium oxide.

Formula of magnesium and oxide ions: Mg2+, O2–

Mg2+ O2– Note!
Formula of magnesium oxide is MgO,
not Mg2O2 (you need to simplify the ratio to its lowest
2 2 terms).

Formula of magnesium oxide: MgO

 Try it out #3! 

1. Write the formula of the following ionic compounds involving simple ions. The first two have been done
for you.

name of compound positive ion negative ion formula of compound

lithium chloride Li+ Cl– LiCl

barium chloride Ba2+ Cl– BaCl2

sodium fluoride

magnesium sulfide

aluminium oxide

potassium oxide

copper(II) chloride

iron(III) oxide

2. Write the formula of the following ionic compounds involving polyatomic ions.

name of compound positive ion negative ion formula of compound

potassium sulfate

magnesium nitrate

calcium carbonate

copper(II) hydroxide

ammonium sulfate
6 Covalent Bonding

Definition:

A covalent bond is defined as the electrostatic forces of attraction between the

shared electrons and the two positively charged nuclei of the atoms.

How do atoms react to form covalent bonds?

 Atoms of non-metals share electrons to form a molecule.
 This is because atoms of non-metals tend to have 4 to 8 valence electrons
(exceptions are hydrogen and helium). They tend to share electrons to achieve a
noble gas electronic configuration in the molecule.

Example 1:
How does a hydrogen atom bond with another hydrogen atom?

Step 1: Consider the electronic configuration of a hydrogen atom.

H: 1

Step 2: Consider how each atom would achieve a noble gas electronic configuration
(duplet in this case since there is only one electron shell).

If both hydrogen atoms were to share their electron, both atoms would have 2 valence
electrons attaining a noble gas electronic configuration:

Legend:
H H H H  and x are electrons of hydrogen

Both atoms now have a duplet

electronic configuration (1st shell: 2).
Fig. 1.9 Two hydrogen atoms share electrons to form a hydrogen molecule

Table 1.2 ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram of a hydrogen molecule

‘dot-and-cross’ diagram full structural molecular
formula1 formula2

H H H–H H2

1
Full structural formula of a molecule shows clearly how all atoms are joined to each other via displaying
all covalent bonds. The atoms are drawn apart and are joined by lines. Each bond is made up of a pair of
electrons. Each line represents a single covalent bond. A double line represents a double covalent bond
(4 electrons involved). A triple line represents a triple covalent bond (6 electrons involved).
2
Molecular formula shows the exact number of each atom of element present in the molecule.
Example 2:
Why is a water molecule formed from hydrogen and oxygen H2O and not HO?

Step 1: Consider the electronic configuration of a hydrogen atom and an oxygen atom.

H: 1 O: 2.6
Step 2: If only 1 hydrogen atom shared its electron with an oxygen atom, the resulting
diagram would be:

Legend:
H O  electron of hydrogen
x electron of oxygen

Fig. 1.10 ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram of HO molecule

This substance would be unstable as the oxygen atom only has 7 valence electrons.

However, if 2 hydrogen atoms combine chemically with 1 oxygen atom, the oxygen atom
would have achieved a stable octet and the two hydrogen atoms would have achieved
stable duplet configuration.

Legend:
H O  electron of hydrogen
x electron of oxygen

Fig. 1.11 ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram of H2O molecule

Table 1.3 ‘Dot-and-cross’ diagram of a water molecule

‘dot-and-cross’ diagram full structural molecular formula
formula

O
H–O–H H2O
H H
Example 3:
How is an oxygen molecule formed? (student to draw)

‘dot-and-cross’ diagram full structural formula molecular formula

O O O=O O2

 Try it out #4! 

1. Complete the table.

substance ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram full structural formula

(show only valence electrons)
chlorine gas Legend:  electron of Cl and x electron of Cl
(Cl2)

Cl Cl

nitrogen gas Legend:  electron of N and x electron of N

(N2)

N N
 ammonia Legend:  electron of N and x electron of H
(NH3)

N
H H

methane Legend:  electron of C and x electron of H

(CH4)

H C H

carbon dioxide Legend:  electron of O and x electron of C

Molecular formula:

…………………
O
O C

phosphorus Legend:  electron of Cl and x electron of P

trichloride
Molecular formula:

………………… Cl P Cl

Cl
 substance ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram full structural formula
(show ALL electrons)
hydrogen chloride Legend:  electron of H and x electron of Cl
Molecular formula:

…………………

H Cl

hydrogen sulfide Legend:  electron of H and x electron of S

Molecular formula:

…………………

H H

2. Identify if each of the substances has ionic or covalent bonds or neither by ticking in the corresponding
boxes.

ionic covalent
neither
bonds bonds
(a) carbon dioxide, CO2
(b) methane, CH4
(c) sodium chloride, NaCl
(d) water, H2O
(e) magnesium bromide, MgBr2
(f) calcium chloride, CaCl2
(g) neon, Ne
(h) magnesium oxide, MgO
(i) oxygen, O2
(j) potassium hydroxide, KOH
 3. How many electrons in one molecule of ethene, C2H4 are not involved in bonding?

A 0
B 2
C 4
D 8

4. Which diagram below is likely to resemble N2?

A B C D

7 Structure and Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

7.1 Structure and bonding

In general, the structure of an ionic compound can be represented in Fig. 1.12.

3-dimensional representation 2-dimensional representation

of a part of a lattice

Fig. 1.12 3-Dimensional and 2-Dimensional representation of ionic compound structure

Type of Giant ionic crystal lattice structure

structure
‘Giant’: an endlessly repeating structure. (In this context, giant doesn’t
mean large, it means that there are so many ions that one can’t state
how many there are)

‘Lattice’: a regular and highly ordered pattern

 Type of Ionic bond – strong electrostatic forces of attraction between
bonding oppositely charged ions

Electrostatic forces of attraction arise from the interaction between

adjacent ions.

Description In sodium chloride (NaCl), every Na+ ion is bonded to 6 other Cl– ions,
and every Cl– ion is bonded to 6 other Na+ ions. (Fig. 1.12). In nature,
the ions are arranged in such a way to maximise the interaction of
oppositely charged ions.

7.2.1 Physical properties of ionic compounds

The structure and bonding give rise to the following properties of ionic compounds.

(a) Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.

Reason: They have giant ionic crystal lattice structures. A lot of energy is
needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions.

(b) They do not conduct electricity in the solid state.

However, most are good conductors of electricity in the molten and aqueous
states.

Reason: In the solid state, the ions are held in their fixed positions by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction. Ions are not mobile (i.e. cannot move freely) to
conduct electricity. (recall the characteristics of particles described by Kinetic
Particle Theory)

When molten or aqueous, the electrostatic forces of attraction are overcome. As

with all particles in the liquid state, the ions are mobile (i.e. can move freely) and
thus can conduct electricity.

Note: molten state: liquid state; aqueous state: dissolved in water

For a substance to conduct electricity, there must be mobile charge carriers (ions
or electrons) present.
8 Structure and Physical Properties of Simple Covalent Substances
8.1 Structure and Bonding

A typical simple covalent substance is made up of simple discrete (individually separate)

molecules:

Fig. 1.13 Diagram showing bonding in a sample of carbon dioxide

Type of structure Simple molecular structure

Bonding Within each molecule, the atoms are held together by strong
covalent bonds.

Between discrete molecules of carbon dioxide are held together

by weak intermolecular forces of attraction.

Description Within each molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2), a carbon atom

shares electrons with 2 other oxygen atoms via double covalent
bonds.

8.2 Physical properties of simple covalent substances

The structure and bonding give rise to the following properties of simple covalent
substances.

(a) They have low melting and boiling points.

Reason: They have simple molecular structures. Little energy is needed to

overcome the weak intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules.

Note: The covalent bonds within the molecules are NOT broken during
melting/boiling.
(b) They generally do not conduct electricity in all states.

Reason: They typically exist as neutral molecules, they do not have any mobile
charge carriers (ions or electrons) to conduct electricity.

Exceptions: Acids e.g. HCl are good conductors of electricity due to their mobile
ions in solution.

Note: Other physical properties of ionic compounds/simple covalent substances will be covered
in Level 3 Chemistry.

 Get it right!
Misconception: Covalent substances have low melting and boiling points because the
covalent bonds are weak.

Fact: The covalent bonds formed between the atoms in the molecules are strong, but the
intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules are weak.

During melting/boiling, only the weak intermolecular forces of attraction between the
molecules are overcome, which requires little heat energy. The covalent bonds between
the atoms in the molecules are not broken.

Fig. 1.14 Bonding in simple covalent molecules

 9 Summary on chemical bonding

IONIC BOND COVALENT BOND

It is the strong electrostatic forces of It is the electrostatic forces of attraction
attraction between the positively charged between the shared electrons and the two
ion (cation) and negatively charged ion positively charged nuclei of the atoms.
(anion).
Generally, occurs between atoms of metals Generally, occurs between atoms of non-
and atoms of non-metals metals
Involves gain and loss of electrons Involves sharing of electrons
(transfer of electrons)
Forms oppositely charged ions Forms molecules

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
IONIC COMPOUNDS SIMPLE COVALENT SUBSTANCES
Examples: sodium chloride (NaCl), Examples: water (H2O), carbon dioxide
magnesium oxide (MgO) (CO2), ammonia (NH3), oxygen (O2),
nitrogen (N2)

Ionic compounds have HIGH melting and Simple covalent/molecular substances

boiling points. have LOW melting and boiling points.

Reason: They have a giant ionic crystal Reason: They have a simple molecular
lattice structure. A lot of energy is needed to structure. Little energy is needed to
overcome the strong electrostatic forces of overcome the weak intermolecular forces of
attraction between the oppositely charged attraction between the molecules.
ions.
Ionic compounds do NOT conduct Covalent substances generally do not
electricity in the solid state but are good conduct electricity at any states.
conductors in the molten and aqueous
states.

Reason: In the solid state, the ions are held Reason: They have no mobile charge
in their fixed positions by strong carriers (ions or electrons) to conduct
electrostatic forces of attraction. The ions are electricity.
not mobile to conduct electricity.
In the molten or aqueous state, the
electrostatic forces of attraction are
overcome. The ions are mobile to conduct
electricity.

 Try it out #5! 

1. Which correctly describes the compound formed between sodium and chlorine?

Electrons are transferred from chlorine Strong electrostatic forces of

A
atoms to sodium atoms attraction exist between ions
Electrons are transferred from sodium Strong electrostatic forces of
B
atoms to chlorine atoms attraction exist between ions
Electrons are shared between sodium and Strong covalent bonds exist between
C
chlorine atoms atoms
Electrons are shared between sodium and Strong covalent bonds exist between
D
chlorine atoms ions

2. Explain the following statements in terms of structure and bonding.

a) Magnesium fluoride has a high melting point and boiling point. [2]

b) Magnesium fluoride can conduct electricity in the aqueous state but not in the solid state. [2]

c) Carbon dioxide is a gas at room temperature. [2]

d) Carbon dioxide does not conduct electricity at any states. [1]