BBA VI Sem; [DBMS]; .

Unit 1; Introduction;
# Data;
 Data is a collection of row facts related with the elements,
objects or an entity.
 It includes facts, figures, letters, words charts, symbols, audio,
video or any combinations.
 This process is known as data processing.
 The data collected from the user will be processed to generate
some information.

# Information:-
 Information is the processed data that will give some useful facts
or meaning.
 Information is useful in decision making process.
 Information can be a data for next level of processing.
 In this way a processed data is re-used to generate further
information which is known as information processing.

# Characteristics of information;
As mentioned in definition of information, it must give some
meaning, so information must have some characteristics, they are;
Subjectivity:
 The information must be highly subjectively as there may be
verities of data collected.
 The data of two person or object or elements may be matched
but the information must be specific to the concerned only.
Relevance:
 The information must be relevant that is pertinent and
meaningful to the decision maker.
 Right information for the right person will help in decision
making process.
Timeliness:
 The information must be delivered on time as well.
 Right information on right time will help in decision making.

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Accuracy:
 The information provided to make a decision must be accurate.
 Wrong information may lead to wrong decision which will be
harmful for the organization.
Correct information format:
 The information generated must be in proper format as desire.
 Wrong format of right information may misguide the decision
making process.
Completeness:
 The information provided to make a decision making process
must be complete.
 Uncompleted information may guide you towards the wrong
decision.
Accessibility:
 The information generated must be accessible for the decision
making process.
 The information will be valueless if it is not accessible by the
decision maker in right format at the right time.

# Process of converting data into information;

In data processing various steps are followed to convert the data
into information. These steps include;
Collection;
 Data are collected through the surveys, interviews, sensors,
documents, newspapers or using other various media.
Classification;
 These collected data will be classified into different stages as
required or convince.
Adding, Merging & Sorting;
 The data collected may be uncompleted,
 These data will be combined, merged and arranged in order as
required,

Summarizing;

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 These data will be processed and becomes information, which

can be summarized and represented to get desire result.
Storing and Retrieving;
 The data or information will be stored properly and extracted for
the further use.

# File Processing System;

 Collection of the data, storing them and processing as required is
termed as file processing.
 In traditional approach, less data are collected, stored and
processed which is termed as flat file processing system.
 COBOL, PASCAL, BASIC etc types of application are used to
design the traditional processing system.
 All data related to the department or blocks are stored, accessed
and processed using separate application.

Database Personal Account

Server 1 Application Database Saving Account
Server 3 Application
Database Loan Processing
Server 2 Application

# Limitation of the Flat file processing system;

 Evaluations, analysis and extracting of the data from two or data
base are not possible.
 Data and information stored in a database may be repeated or
stored same data in too many places.
 Data and information will be stored and coded in special format,
these data format cannot be changed. If changed it may give
different meaning.
 Linking data elements between two or more tables is very
difficult and will not give desire result so far.

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 Data stored in a database are not flexible to link between two or
more tables, which will result incomplete data elements as per
required.
 Data elements stored are not very secured as well as consistency,
which may raise problem in constringe handing.
 Could not distribute the data elements to the multiple users as
required.
 Most important disadvantage is the security, due to the
security provision it is not widely used in financial
transactions.

# Database Management system;

 Database management system is a systematic collection and
processing of the data elements collected.
 In a database data elements are organized and systematically
stored in a database server.
 These data will be accessed by the various users through
different applications.
 It provides various types of processing functions such as
inserting, retrieving, updating, deleting the records etc.
 It is used in almost every area of the computer field such as
business, medical, law, education, library and many other
relative areas.
 Specially, database is widely used in financial transactions such
as banking, financial institution, department store, shops etc.

# Some implicit properties of database are;

 A database represents some aspects of the real world, sometimes
called mini world. Changes to the mini world are reflected in the
database.
 A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some
inherent meanings random assortment of data cannot correctly
be referred to as database.

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 A database is designed, built and populated with data for a

specific purpose. It has a indented group of users and some
preconceived applications in which these users are interested.

# History of Database system;

 1950s and early 1960s:
* Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage;
* Tapes provide only sequential access;
* Punched cards for input;
 Late 1960s and 1970s:
* Hard disks allow direct access to data;
* Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use;
* Ted Codd defines the relational data model;
* Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work;
* IBM Research begins System R prototype;
* UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype;
* High-performance (for the era) transaction processing;
 1980s:
* Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
* SQL becomes industrial standard;
* Parallel and distributed database systems;
* Object-oriented database systems;
 1990s:
* Large decision support and data-mining applications;
* Large multi-terabyte data warehouses;
* Emergence of Web commerce;
 2000s:
* XML and X-Query standards;
* Automated database administration;

# Database approach;
In a flat filing system, various types of problems and limitations
are there. These all types of problems can be solved very easily
using the database system. It will store all the data contains in the

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centrally located storage section and accessed through different
applications. Some basic task such as Preparation, Insertion,
updating, retrieval, deletion, backups and restores etc works are
performed very efficiently. The data processing approach is
presented as below;
# Advantages of Modern Database Management System;
 Data redundancy can be removed as several repeated data are
removed and established a link to access these data.
 Data inconsistency will be avoided as the similar data elements
which may give different meaning will be collected separately.
 Sharing of the data between the users is very easily possible.
 I will maintain the standard format of the report as desire by the
user.
 Different level of security level is maintained which will make a
database task highly secure even in network.
 The data values collected in database is accurate and consistent.
(Integrity constringes are satisfied.)
 It provides multiple users environment and interfaces for the
users.
 Easy relationship among the data entity or objects within the
database or other databases.
 Backup and recovery provision makes it highly secure as we can
recover the data loss from backups.
# Disadvantages of Modern Database Management System;
 High investment required initially.
 Overhead expenses for security, backup & recovery process.
 Extra cost of hardware upgrading for extensive applications and
workspace for executing and storage.
 Regular cost for maintenance of the software and hardware.
 An additional cost for converting from traditional method to
integrated method.
 Cost for backup and security.
The most important disadvantages is the cost factor as;

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Exercises;
1) What is Data and Information? List out the characteristics of
information;
2) What are the processes of converting the data into information?
3) What are the limitations of flat file processing system?
4) What is Database Management System?
5) What are the characteristics of DBMS?
6) What are the advantages of modern DBMS?
7) What are the limitations of DBMS?

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Unit 2; Database system, Concept and Architecture;

# Database processing and its methods;

In data processing, DBMS acts as an intermediary between user,
applications program and database. DBMS stores the data in a
database server, these data are accessed through the various
applications as required for the processing. After the processing the
result will be generated through the report to the user as required.
These all process will be followed through the relationship, data
integrity and other related task by the DBMS.
Data stored in the database are accessed in three different ways.
Processing of the data means retrieval of the data and information.
Depends of the various methods the data retrieval tasks are
performed using the following;

# Database Architecture;
 Centralizing DBMS Architecture;
 In centralized DBMS architecture, data contains are stored in a
centrally located server and accessed by various dumb terminals
known as client.
 These clients will access the database through the application
program.
 Each client will get access permission from the DBA and have
to work accordingly.
 Database structure of a single institution with multiple nodes

Magnetic
Storage
Section
Server Application
(Database Server)

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 Client Server DBMS Architecture ;

 In client server architecture, a specialized server will hold the
data and will be access through remote terminals or sub stations
via a network.
 Using different application program the data will be accessed
and fulfilled he requirements of the client.
 Client is an interface to access the data and server is the machine
which will fulfill the request of the client.
 Different types and nature of server might be used for this
purpose such as fileserver, database server, web server, print
server etc.
 The data elements stored in these terminals could be accessed
through the networking or even through the Internet.
 SCT is an example of client server network used by various
banks and financial institution in our country.

Database
Server
Application Server

Database
Database System

Storage
Application

Client Server DBMS Structure

User

 Two Tier and Three Tier client server architecture;

Application

Database

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System
User
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 Data abstraction/ View of data;
A database system is a collection
of data elements in a set of files or
programs that allows the user to store,
access and modify. Major purpose of
the database is to give the access over
the data using an abstract view of over
the data. Since the entire database
users are not computer literate and they are not familiar with the
complexity of the database structure, the users are classified into
various stages, which is termed as level of the user. It is defined as
the abstract view of the data.
There are three levels of data abstraction;
1) Physical Level or Internal Level;
* Physical view is a representation of the entire database;
* It is expressed by internal schemas which contains the
definitions of stored records.
* It defines he methods of representing the data fields and the
access over the data.
* Only one physical view is defined per database.
2) Logical or Conceptual Level;
* Logical level expressed all the database entities and its
relationships.
* It is a representation of entire information contents of the
database in the physical storage.
* It includes the conceptual view of the data elements stored.
* Only one conceptual level is defined per database.
3) View Level or External Level;
* This level is closer with the user as it describes all the logical
record and the relationships.
* It contains the methods of deriving the objects in the database.
The object includes entities, attributes and relationships.
* External views can be defined as per required.

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 Database Schema;
A Schema describes the view at each level. A Schema is an
outline or a plan that describes the records and relationships existing
in the view. The schema also describes the way in which entities at
one level of abstract can be mapped to the next level. The overall
design of the database is called database schema.
A database schema includes;
* Characteristics of data items such as entities and attributes.
* Logical structure and relationship among those data items.
* Format of storage representation.
* Integrity parameters such as physically authorization and backup
politics.
Since each view is defined as schemas, there are three levels of
schemas. At lower level one Physical Schema, at middle level one
Conceptual Schema and at higher level several Sub-Schemas.
Each user group refers to its own sub-schema. The DBMS
transforms a request specified on an external schema into conceptual
schema and then into that request forwarded into the internal schema
for processing over the database. The process of transforming the
request and results between the levels is called mapping.

 Data independence;
* Data Independence is major objectives of the database system
which will be implemented through three levels of schema.
* The change made in one level does not affect the application or
definition at the other level is termed as data independence.
Logical data independence is the ability to modify the logical
schema without causing application program to be rewritten or any
change to the external schema. When data is added or removed, only
the view definition and the mapping need to be changed in the
DBMS that supports logical data independence.
Physical data independence is an ability to modify the internal
schema without causing any changes the external schema and
without causing application program to be re written.

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# Data models;
* The physical or logical structure of the database is termed as
database model.
* It is a conceptual tool to describe the data, data relationships,
data semantics, and data constraints.
* Two major types of data models are used where as it is believed
that evolution of data models are still in progress.
# Object based data model;
* Object based concept is based on the data, data relationship.
* It is gaining wide acceptance for their flexibility structuring
capabilities.
* Various data integrity constraints can be specified explicitly by
using the objects based model.
Entity Relationship and Object Oriented Model are two database
model based on object.
 Entity relationship model;
* The model was published by Peter Chen in 1976.
* It implies the link between object called Entity and Relationship
among these entities.
* Each entity has set of attributes that describes the object.
* A relationship is an association among the entities.

Object Oriented model;

* It is also based on collections of objects like ER model.
* The objects contain values and bodies of codes, which is called
methods.
* An object as an instance of a class, so a class is a type definition
for object.

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* One object can contain another object to an arbitrary deep level

of nested.

# Record based data model;

* The data based structured that provides fixed format of fields or
attributes is termed as record based model.
* The length of the fields or attributes will be fixed.
* It does not have the mechanism of direct representation of codes
in the database.
* Separate language should be associated with the model to
express the queries and updates.
Three mostly accepted record based models are;
 Network model;
* The database model where data records are linked with each
other in one-to-one or one-to-many relationship.
* There are two fundamental data structure in the network model.
(Record types and Set;)
* Record Types are collection of logically related data items.
* A Set express one-to-many relationship between 2 record types.
* It has large no of sets of records, each contains small amount of
information and large no of pointers to other sets of records.
* It is very flexible but very complex data base model.

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 Hierarchical model;
* The database model where data records are in relation with each
other in a hierarchal relationship.
* It was introduced by IBM through its Information Management
System.
* The record type of parents is belongs to the child record types in
this model.
* This model is not very flexible but very easy to maintain.
* It always follows One-to-N types of relationship.

 Relational model;
* It was derived by E.F Codd in 1970 and was considered as
important concept in DBMS.
* It is based on the mathematical notations of a relation, consisting
of rows and column of data.
* The column names are termed as attributed (Fields) and rows are
treated as tuples (Record).
* For each relation there is a set of attributes that uniquely
determines the tuples, this is called key.
* It relieves the user from details of storage structure and access
methods.
* It is based on the relation of the database elements and popular
as RDBMS.

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# Data Dictionary and Database Language;

Data Dictionary is a set of specific table in a special file where
schema descriptions are stored. It contains the metadata about the
structure of the database. Data Dictionary is used very heavily, that’s
why great emphasis should be placed on developing a good design and
efficient implementation of the data dictionary. Using a compiler and
linker, data dictionary will access during the processing of the queries.
In order to provide the various facilities to different types of user, a
DBMS provides one or more specialized programming languages called
Database Languages. This language can be called as Structured Query
Language (SQL) which has been taken as a standard database language.
Database language comes in different forms, which are categorized
based on different level of abstraction facilities provided by DBMS.

* DDL [Data Definition Language];

DDL is used to describe the details of data. The conceptual
schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by this special
language. The database will have a compiler whose function is to
process DDL statements, for this Data Dictionary is consulted
before actual data are read or modified in the database system.
Another language called Storage Definition Language (SDL) is
used to specify the internal schema. In some DBMS, there is only
one language which has both DDL and SDL capabilities.

* DML [Data Manipulating Language];

The language that enables users to access or manipulate the data
is called Data Manipulation Language (DML). By DML we means:
 The retrieval of information stored in a database.
 The insertion of new data into the database.
 The deletion of the data and information in a database.
 The modification of data and information stored in a database.

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Procedural DML and Non Procedural DML are two further
types of DML used in a database.
Procedural DML which requires user to specify what data are
needed and how to get these data.
Non Procedure DML which require a user to specify what data
are needed without specifying how to get it.

# Database Users and Administrator;

Users are the person who uses the system. User may be divided into
those who actually use and control the contents and those who enable
the data base to be developed and the DBMS software to be designed
and implemented. Users are differentiated by the way they expected to
interact with the system. There are four different types of data abase
user.
 Naive user, are interacts with the system by invoking one of the
application program that have been written previously. They
have an authority to use till the predefined application program.

 Application programmer, are the computer programmer who

will write an application programs. They can choose various
application developers during the RAD (Rapid Application
Development). The application developer use to design the input
interface (Forms) and output interface (Report).

 Sophisticated user will interact with the system without writing

a program. They form their requests in a database using a query
language. They submit each query to a query processor, whose
function is to break down DML statements into instructions that
the storage manager understands.
 Specialized user writes specialized database application that
does not fit into the traditional data processing framework.
Among these applications are CAD system, Knowledge based
and Expert System, system that stores data with complex data

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types (Graphics and Audio data) and Environment Modeling

Systems.
# Database Administrator (DBA);
One of the main reasons for using DBMS is to have central control
of both the data and the program that access those data. The person who
has such control over the system is called Database Administrator
(DBA). The DBA has following functions.
 Schema definition: The DBA creates the original database
schema by writing a set of definition that is translated by the
DDL complier to a set of tables that is stored permanently in
data Dictionary.
 Storage structure and access method definition: The DBA
creates appropriate storage structure and access methods by
writing a set of definitions, which is translated by the data
storage and DDL compiler.
 Schema and physical organization modification: The DBA
accomplish the relatively rare modifications either to the
database schema or to the description of the physical storage
organization by writing a set of definitions that is used by either
the DDL compiler or the data storage. DDL compiler to generate
modifications to the appropriate internal system table. (Data
Dictionary).
 Granting of authorization for data access: The granting of
different types of authorization allows the DBA to regulate
which parts of the database various users can access. The
authorization information is kept in special system structure that
is consulted by the database system whenever access to the data
is attempted in the system.
 Integrity constraint specification: The data values stored in
the database must satisfy certain consistency constraints. The

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DBA must specify such constraints explicitly. The integrity
constraints are kept in a special structure that is consulted by the
database system whenever an update takes place in the system.
 Routine maintenance: The DBA is overall responsible for all
sort of database system, so the routine maintenance on the
database system is required. The routine maintenance includes:
* Periodically backup of the database to prevent data loss.
* Ensuring that enough free space is available for operation.
* Monitoring the job scheduling on the database system.
* Over-viewing the activities of the different user.
* Security provision against various problems that may arises.
# Database System Architecture (Environment);
Database system is portioned into modules that deal with each of the
responsibilities of the overall system. The functional components of a
database system can be broadly divided into storage manage and the
query processor components.

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System Structure;
# Storage Manager;
Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system. The storage manager is
responsible for the interaction with the file manager. The raw data
stored on the disk using the file system, which is usually provided by a
conventional OS. The storage manager translates the various DML
statements into low level file system commands. Storage manager is
responsible for storing, retrieving and updating data in the database. The
storage manager component includes;
* Authorization and Integrity Manager, which tests for the
satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of
user to access data.

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* Transaction Manager, which ensure that the database remains
in a consistent (correct state) despite system failure and that
concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.
* File Manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk
storage and the data structure used to represent information
stored on disk,
* Buffer Manager, which is responsible for fetching data storage
into main memory and deciding what data to cache in main
memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of the database
system since it enables the database to handle the data sizes that
are much larger than the size of main memory.

The storage manager implements several data structures as a

part of the physical system implementation:
* Data Files, which stores data files itself.
* Data Dictionary, which stores metadata about the database, in
particular the schema of the database.
* Indices, which provide fast access over the data items that hold
particular values.

 Query Processor;
The query processing components are;
* DDL Interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and records
the definitions in the data dictionary.
* DML Compiler, which translates DML statements in a query
language into an evaluation plan consisting of low level
instructions that query evaluating engine understand.
* Query Evaluation Engine, which executes low level
instructions generated by DML complier.

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# Entity Relationship (E-R) Model;

The ER data model is based on the real world that consists of a set
of basic objects called entities and of relationships among these objects.
It was developed to facilitate database design by allowing the
specification of an enterprise schema, which represents the overall
logical structure of the database. The ER model is one of several
semantics data model: the semantics aspect of the model lies in its
representation of the meaning of the data. The ER model is very useful
in mapping the meaning and interaction of real world enterprise onto a
conceptual schema.
The ER model is well suited to data modeling for use with database.
It is fairly abstract and is easy to discuss and explain. ER models are
readily translated to relations. ER modeling is based on two concepts:
 Entity (Things or objects)
 Relationship (association among the several entities)
 Entity and Entity sets;
An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguishable
from all other objects. An entity has a set of properties and the values
for some set of properties may uniquely identify an entity. An entity is
an abstraction from the complexities of same domain. When we speak
of an entity we normally speak of some aspect of the real of the world
which can be distinguished from other.
A collection of similar entities and its collections called Entity Set.
An entity set shares a properties or attributes. The individual entity that
constitutes an entity set are said to be the Extension of the entity set.
An entity is a representation of sets of Attributes. Attributes are
descriptive properties possessed by each member of an entity set. The
destination of an attributes for an entity set expressed that the database
stores similar information concerning each entity in the entity set.
However each entity may have its own value for each attributes. In an
attributes a set of permitted values are there called domain or value set.

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The attributes, as used in ER model, can be characterized into the
following types.
 Simple and Composite attributes;
The attributes that are divisible into sub parts (such as Name
can divided into First, Middle and Last Name) is termed as
composite attributes. A composite attributes are concatenation of
simple attributes. Most of the attributes are simple or atomic.
 Single valued & Multi valued attributes;
The attributes that are having only one value is termed as
single value attributes. The attributes that have set of values for
the specific entry is termed as multi value attributes. Age is a
single value attributes where as phone no is multi value
attributes as one person can have more than one phone no.

ER diagram with “Single & Composite” attributes

and “Single & Multi value” attributes
 Null attributes;
The attributes that does not have a value is termed as Null
value attribute. If the person is not married then the attributes
spouse’s name or children’s name will not have any value.
 Derived attributes;
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The attributes that are derived from other attributes or

instanced from other attributes is termed as derived attributes.
Parrots, Pigeon and Sparrow shares the properties of Bird, or
these all are derived from the Bird.
* Relationship & Relationship Sets;
A relationship is an association among the two or more entities.
In E-R model one entity is linked with another entity by a
relationship. A relationship set is a set of relationship of same type
that is derived from or an instance of the relationship that is used.
Each relationship instance is a line joining an entity instance.
The degree of relationship type is the number of participating entity
types. The relationship of degree two are called binary relationship.
The degree of three is called ternary relationship.
# Mapping Cardinalities;
Mapping cardinalities, or cardinality ratio, express the number of
entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship
sets. Mapping cardinalities are most useful in describing binary
relationship sets, although occasionally they contribute to the
description of relationship sets that involve more than two entity
sets.
For a binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B, the
mapping cardinality must be one of the following;
 One to one;
An entity A is associated with at most one entity in B and an
entity in B is associated with at most one entity in entity A.
 One to many;
An entity A is associated with any number of entities in B.
An entity in B, however can be associated with at most one
entity in entity A.

 Many to one;

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An entity A is associated with at most one entity in B. An
entity in B, however can be associated with any number of
entities in entity A.
 Many to many;
An entity A is associated with any number of entities in B
and an entity in B is associated with any number of entities in A.

One to One; One to Many; Many to Many;

* Keys fields;
We must have a way to specify the entities within the entity sets
distinguished. Two entities in an entity set are not allowed to have
exactly same values for all the attributes. A key allows us to identify a
set of attributes that suffice to distinguish relationships from each other.
 Super Key is a set of one or more attributes that taken
collectively allow us to identify uniquely an entity in the entity
set. Soc_Sec_No, Symbol_No, Cust_No etc are some key fields
used as super key.
 Candidate Key is an interested keys in an entity set that are
capable to be a super key. These are possible keys for the
primary or super key.
 Primary Key is a candidate key that is chosen by he application
programmer to associate with the entities sets. It is the principal
means of uniquely identifying entities within entity sets.

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 Composite Key is a combination of more than one attributes

used to identify the entity in an entity sets. By combining more
fields a primary is defined, that is termed as composite key.
# Weak Entity and Strong Entity sets;
An entity may not have a sufficient attributes to form a primary
key, such an entity sets are termed as weak entity set. An entity set
that has a primary key is termed as a strong entity set.
A strong entity types can exist on their own without participating
in any relationship. But it is not so with weal entity sets. Each
instance has to participate in a relationship with a strong entity set in
order to exist. This strong entity sets is called owner of the weak
entity set. Weak entity set always has a total participation constraint.

ER diagram of Customers and Loan;

ER diagram of Customer and Account;

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# The Entity Relationship Diagram Notations;
To construct an ER diagram different types of notations are used.
These are;

 Rectangles which represents an Entity Sets.

 Ellipses, which represents an attributes.

 Diamonds which represents a Relationship Sets.

 Lines which represents a link to an Entity or Attributes.

 Double Ellipse which represents Multi-values Attributes.

 Dashed Lines which indicates Derived Attributes.

 Double Lines which indicates total participation

of an entity in a relationship.

 Double Rectangle which represents Weak Entity Sets.

Cardinality Constraints;

 One-to-One;

 One-to-Many;

 Many-to-One ;

 Many to Many;

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Exercises;

1) What is Database? Why data processing is to be computerized?

2) Explain the database architecture used in data processing.
3) Explain about the two tiers and three tiers architecture.
4) What are the levels of views in a database? Explain them
5) What is database schema? Explain about the physical, logical
and sub schema.
6) What does data independence means? Explain with its types.
7) What are the data models? Explain record based models with
figure.
8) Explain about object based models with figure.
9) What are the languages used in database? Explain them
10) What is data dictionary? Explain its uses and importance.
11) Explain about the users of database.
12) Who is DBA? What are the major responsibilities of DBA?
13) Explain the system structure of a database with diagram.
14) What is storage manager? What are the functions of the storage
manager?
15) What is ER model? Explain
16) Write short notes on;
(Entity, Attributes, Relationship, Key Fields)
17) Explain different types of attributes.
Simple and composite attributes;
Single Value and multi valued attributes;
Derived Attribute;
18) Explain about the mapping cardinalities;
19) Explain the strong and weak entity with examples.
20) Prepare an ER diagram of the following;
a) Student’s database; b) Customers Database;
c) Banking system; d) Publication’s database;
e) Employees database; f) Suppliers database;

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Unit 3; Filing and File Structure;
The physical or internal level of organization of a database system is
concerned with the efficient storage of information in the secondary
storage devices. At this level we are no longer concerned with the
application programmer’s views of the database. The physical to
conceptual level mapping must provide the necessary shield to the user.
The basic problem in physical database representation is to select a
suitable file system to store the desired information. The file consists of
record and a record may consist of several fields.
The typical operations that may be performed on the information
stored in the file are as follows.
 Retrieve: To find a record or sets of records having a particular
value in a particular field or where he field values satisfy certain
conditions.
 Insert: Insert a record or set of records at some specific locations.
 Update: Modifies the field values of a record or sets of records.
 Delete: Deletes a particular record or sets of records.
# Overview on Physical Storage Media;
Various types of physical storages devices are used in a database.
For the data storage purpose very huge storage devices are required.
These devices are varying in speed of access, cost, reliability etc. some
common physical storage devices used are;
 Cache memory:
 Cache is a fastest and most
expensive types of memory used in a
computer.
 It will maintain the gaps between
processor and main memory.
 While processing Cache act as a high speed buffer between
CPU and main memory.
 It holds the very active and instantly used data and instructions
temporarily.
 While processing, CPU will search the data contains first in
Cache and then in main memory.
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 Main Memory;
 The storage area, where data and instructions are stored while
working.
 CPU will access the data and instructions stored.
 Semiconductor memories and volatile in nature (Will hold
data contain till electricity is present.)
 Generally small in size and expensive too.
 RAM and ROM are used as main memory in computer.
 Flash Memory;
 A semi conductor type memory which is also called EEPROM.
 The data stored in flash memories could survive power failure.
 Accessing data in flash memory is little bit complicated.
(To read data in takes 10 nano sec and 4-10 micro sec to write.)
 To overwrite the data, it erases the old data then writes new data.
 It became very popular due to its small size and accessibility.
 Magnetic storage memory;
 It stores data in a form of magnetic fields on magnetic coated disk
platter.
 It is termed as direct access storage as the data contains could be
read and written in any order.
 It is non volatile in nature. (Data survives even in power failure.)
 The storage capacity is very huge. (Depends upon no of elements
used to store the data contains.)
 Mostly used as a mass storage devices for the server side storage.
 Optical memory;
 Optical disk used to read/write using optical rays or laser rays.
 CD-ROM, DVD and Blu Rays Disk etc are common optical storage
device.
 It is WORM (Write Once, Read Many) in nature.
 Magnetic tapes;
 A sequential accessing devices where data are stored using a tape
coated with magnetic oxide.

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 Cheaper and much slower accessing device used for backing-up
provision.
 Used as protection from disk failure.
The hierarchies of the storage section are mentioned below;

# Data accessing from storage sections;

According to the data stored or accessed from the storage sections it
could be divided into further types.
 Sequential Access;
 Data will be stored or accessed one after other sequentially.
(If we want to read the data placed on 5 th position, first we have to
access through 1 to 4, then 5th positioned data could be accessed.)
 Slow in accessing speed and not very much convenient as well.
 Mostly used for backup provision.
 Magnetic tapes, punched card, tape drives etc.

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 Index Sequential Access;

 Data will be stored or accessed sequentially based on index
table.
 During the file creation a file handling program routines to
establish an index on the disk.
 Using this index, files or records will be located quickly.
 Accessing speed will be faster than sequential access method.
 Laser disks such as CD, VCD, DVD, Blu-rays Disk etc are
common examples.

 Random Access;
 Data will be stored or accessed directly from the stored
location.
 It is also termed as direct access method.
 It is one of the fastest methods for data accessing.
 Magnetic Disk, Core memories/ Flash memories are common
examples.
 Different types of File Allocation Tables are used to allocate
the storage location even in this method (As similar in Index
sequential Method).

# File organizations;
A file is organized logically as a sequence of records. These records
are mapped onto disk blocks. Files are provided as a basic construct in
operating systems (OS), so we shall assume the existence of an
underlying file system. We need to consider ways of representing logical
data models in terms of files. Although, blocks are of a fixed size
determined by the physical properties of the disk and OS, record sizes
are varied. In RDBMS, tuples of distinct relations may be of different
sizes.
One approach to mapping database to files is to use several files and
to store records of only one fixed length in a given file. An alternative is
to structure files to accommodate variable length records (Fixed length

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is easier to implement). Many of the techniques used for the former can
be applied to the variable length case. Thus we begin by considering a
file of fixed length records.

* Fixed Length Records;

type deposit = record
branch_name : char (22)
account_no : char(10)
balance : real
end

If we assume, each character occupies 1 bytes and real occupies 8

bytes then each record occupied 40 bytes long. A simple approached is
to use the first 40 byes for the first record and next for the second one
and so on. However there are two problems with this simple approach.
1) It is difficult to delete a record from this structure. The space
occupied by the record to be deleted must be filled with some
other data records of the file or we must have a way of marking
deleted records so that they can be ignored.
2) Unless he block size happens to be a multiple of 40 some
records will cross block boundaries. That is part of the record
will be stored in one block and part in another. It would thus
required two blocks accessed to read or write such records.

When a record is deleted, we could move the record that comes after
it into the space formerly occupied by the deleted record, and so on until
every record following the deleted record has been moved ahead. Such
an approach required moving large no of record. It might be easier
simple to move the final record of the file into the space occupied by the
deleted record. It is undesirable to move records to occupy the space
freed by a deleted record, since doing so requires additional block
accesses. Since insertions tend to be more frequent than deletions, it is
acceptable to leave open the space occupied by the deleted record and to
wait for a subsequent insertion before reusing the space. A simple
marker on a deleted record is not sufficient, since it is hard to find this
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available space when an insertion is being done. Thus we need to

introduce an additional structure.
At the beginning of the .le, we allocate a certain number of bytes as
a file header. The header will contain a variety of information about the
file. For now, all we need to store there is the address of the first record
whose contents are deleted. We use this first record to store the address
of the second available record, and so on. Intuitively, we can think of
these stored addresses as pointers, since they point to the location of a
record. The deleted records thus form a linked list, which is often
referred to as a free list.
On insertion of a new record, we use the record pointed to by the
header. We change the header pointer to point to the next available
record. If no space is available, we add the new record to the end of the
file.
Insertion and deletion for .les of .fixed-length records are simple to
implement, because the space made available by a deleted record is
exactly the space needed to insert a record. If we allow records of
variable length in a .le, this match no longer holds. An inserted record
may not .t in the space left free by a deleted record, or it may .fill only
part of that space.

* Variable Length Records;

Variable-length records arise in database systems in several ways:
* Storage of multiple record types in a file
* Record types that allow variable lengths for one or more fields
* Record types that allow repeating fields
Different techniques for implementing variable-length records exist.
For purposes of illustration, we shall use one example to demonstrate
the various implementation techniques. We shall consider a different
representation of the account information stored in the file, in which we
use one variable-length record for each branch name and for all the
account information for that branch. The format of the record is
type account-list = record
branch-name : char (22);

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account-info : array [1 ..8] of
record;
account-number : char(10);
balance : real;
end
end
We define account-info as an array with an arbitrary number of
elements. That is, the type definition does not limit the number of
elements in the array, although any actual record will have a specific
number of elements in its array. There is no limit on how large a record
can be (up to the size of the disk storage).
# Organization of Records in a File;
So far, we have studied how records are represented in a file
structure. An instance of a relation is a set of records. Given a set of
records, the next question is how to organize them in a file. Several of
the possible ways of organizing records in files are:
 Heap File Organization:
Any record can be placed anywhere in the file where there is
space for the record. There is no ordering of records. Typically,
there is a single file for each relation.
 Sequential File Organization:
Records are stored in sequential order, according to the value of a
“search key” of each record.
 Hashing File Organization:
A hash function is computed on some attribute of each record.
The result of the hash function specifies in which block of the file
the record should be placed.
Generally, a separate file is used to store the records of each
relation. However, in a clustering file organization, records of several
different relations are stored in the same file; further, related records of

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the different relations are stored on the same block, so that one I/O
operation fetches related records from all the relations.
There are basically two methods of organizing records in a file.
# Sequential File Organization:
A sequential file is designed for efficient processing of records in
sorted order based on some search-key. A search key is any attribute or
set of attributes; it need not be the primary key, or even a super-key. To
permit fast retrieval of records in search-key order, we chain together
records by pointers. The pointer in each record points to the next record
in search-key order. Furthermore, to minimize the number of block
accesses in sequential file processing, we store records physically in
search-key order, or as close to search-key order as possible insertion or
deletion.
We can manage deletion by using pointer chains, as we saw
previously. For insertion, we apply the following rules:
1) Locate the record in the .le that comes before the record to be
inserted in search-key order.
2) If there is a free record (that is, space left after a deletion) within the
same block as this record, insert the new record there. Otherwise,
insert the new record in an overflow block. In either case, adjust the
pointers so as to chain together the records in search-key order.
# Clustering File Organization:
Many relational-database systems store each relation in a separate
file, so that they can take full advantage of the file system that the
operating system provides. Usually, tuples of a relation can be
represented as fixed-length records. Thus, relations can be mapped to a
simple file structure. This simple implementation of a relational
database system is well suited to low-cost database implementations as
in, for example, embedded systems or portable devices.
In such systems, the size of the database is small, so little is gained
from a sophisticated file structure. Furthermore, in such environments, it

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is essential that the overall size of the object code for the database
system be small. A simple file structure reduces the amount of code
needed to implement the system. This simple approach to relational-
database implementation becomes less satisfactory as the size of the
database increases. We have seen that there are performance advantages
to be gained from careful assignment of records to blocks, and from
careful organization of the blocks themselves. Clearly, a more
complicated file structure may be beneficial, even if we retain the
strategy of storing each relation in a separate file.
Exercise:
1) What are the various operations performed with the information
stored in the file?
2) Define different types of physical storage media used to store
database. OR
Draw a hierarchical structure of the storage media and explain each
of them.
3) What are the data accessing methods followed to access the data
elements from the storage sections?
4) What is a File Organization? Explain them
5) How the files are organized in a file? Explain
6) What is sequential file organization? Explain
7) Explain about the cluster file organization.

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Unit 4; Relational Model;

# Introduction;
A Relational database is a set of database elements collected in a
table. Each of which is assigned a unique name. The table structure is
very similar to the structure of ER database structure. A row in a table
represents a relationship among the set of values. As a table is a
collection of such relationships, there is a close correspondence between
the concept of table and the mathematical concept of relation, from
which the relational data model takes its name. In what follows, we
introduce the concept of relation.
Relationship represents facts describing a set of real world entities.
In a relationship, we represent one entity per row and one attributed per
column. Table name and the column name are used to help in
interpreting the meaning of the values in each roe of relation.

Database example;
Roll No Std_Name D_o_B Faculty Semester
BBA-00156-009 Rabindra 12/21/1989 Management VI Sem
BSc-00176-010 Laxmi 09/11/1990 Science IV Sem
BA-00454-010 Dil Bhadur 01/09/1991 Humanities III Sem
: : : : :
: : : : :

# Different features of Relationship;

 Attributes:
Attributes are the heading assigned to collect the data elements
on the table. Each table will have different attributes (field) that are
used to collect the related values of on the table. For Eg In above
table Roll_No, Std_Name, B_o_B, Fculty, Semester are the
attributes. Two attributes cannot have a same name in a relation.
 Domain;
Domain defines a set of values that are allow in an attributes to
collect. Whatever set of data elements such as numbers, alphabets,

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data in format, logical etc that we collect in an attributes is a
domain. Domain is a data type that we collect in an attributes.
Different attributes may have same domain in an entity.
 Null Value;
The elements that we collect as an attributes cannot be blank or
empty which is termed as null value. We cannot keep the attributes
blank or null.
 Tuple:
Every set of elements in a relation where relative data will be
collected is known as Tuple. It is a collection of data elements of an
object or person. Tuple is also known as Record. No of records is
also called cardinality of the relation. Each attributes of tuples may
have same value but two duplicate tuples are not allowed.
# Database Schema;
Database schema is a logical design of the database that we set
for extracting the data elements from the database.
Database instance is a snapshot of the data in the database at a
given instant in time.
Relation schema is a list of attributes in a specific order
(Logical design). It doesn’t contain any tuples.
The concept of relational schema corresponds to the
programming language notation of type definition. The concept of a
relation instance corresponds to the programming language to the
value of a variable. The value of the variable may change with time
similarly the contents of a relation instance may change with time as
the relation is updated.
STD_Schema = (Roll_No, Std_Name, D_o_B, Faculty, Semester)
We denote that the facts of students in a relation on STD_schema.
Similarly,
EXAM_schema=(Semester, Roll_No, Subject)
TEACHER_schema=(Teacher_Name, Course, Lecture_hrs)

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 Constraints;
A Constraint is a rule that restricts the values that may be present
in the database. There are several constraints that are used to check
the validations of the data in a relational database. They are;
o Entity Integrity Constraints;
o Referential Integrity Constraints;

Entity Integrity Constraints;

The constraint which restricts the values in any individual
tuples in a relation is known as Entity Integrity Constraints.
There are two types of Entity Integrity Constraints.
* Domain Constraints;
Domain constrain specifies that the values of each attributes
must be atomic value from the domain of the respective
attributes. It will make the distinct data collections in an
attributes as well as ensure the test query comparison makes
sense.
* Key constraints;
The key constraint defines how and for what purpose the
attributes are used in the database. It is a part of the primary key
field in the database. Is the field compulsory, duplicate values
are allowed or not, uniquely identifies or not, can be null or not
and so on.

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Referential Integrity;
Referential integrity is defined through foreign key field in a
database. Foreign key is a set of attributes that are linked with the
values with the primary key in a database. It will provide the
requested data elements in the relation that matches same value
with the primary key.

 Key Fields;
We must have a way to specify the entities within the entity sets
distinguished. Two entities in an entity set are not allowed to have
exactly same values for all the attributes. A key allows us to identify
a set of attributes that suffice to distinguish relationships from each
other.
o Super Key is a set of one or more attributes that taken
collectively allow us to identify uniquely an entity in the entity
set. Soc_Sec_No, Symbol_No, Cust_No etc are some key fields
used as super key.

o Candidate Key is an interested keys in an entity set that

are capable to be a super key. These are possible keys for the
primary or super key.

o Primary Key is a candidate key that is chosen by he

application programmer to associate with the entities sets. It is
the principal means of uniquely identifying entities within entity
sets.

o Composite Key is a combination of more than one

attributes used to identify the entity in an entity sets. By
combining more fields a primary is defined, that is termed as
composite key.

o Foreign Key is a set of attributes that are linked with the

values with the primary key in a database. It will provide the

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requested data elements in the relation that matches value with

the primary key.
 Query Language;
A query language is a language in which a user requests
information from the database. These languages are usually on a
level higher than that of a standard programming language. Query
language can be categories as either procedural or non procedural. In
a procedural language, the user instructs the system to perform a
sequence of operations on the database to complete the desired
result. In a non procedural language, the user describes the desire
information without giving a specific procedure to obtain that
information.
Most commercial relational database system offers a query
language that includes elements of both the procedural and non
procedural approaches. SQL (Structural Query Language), QBE
(Query by Example), Quel, Datalog etc are some common query
language.
The relational algebra is procedural language where as the tuple
relational calculus and domain relational calculus are non
procedural. These query language illustrates the fundamental
techniques for extracting the data from the database.
# Relational Algebra;
Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It consists of a set
of operations that one or two relations as input and produce a new
relation as their result. The fundamental operations in the relational
algebra are Select, Project, Union, Set difference, Cartesian product
and Rename. In additional to the fundamental operations, there are
several other operations namely Set Intersection, Natural Join, Divide
and Assignment. These operations will be defined in terms of the
fundamental operations.
Relational algebra operation manipulates relations. This is these
operations use one or two existing relations to create a new relation.
This new relation may then be used as input to a new operation. This

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powerful concept- the creation of new relations from old ones- makes
possible an infinite variety of data manipulation.
The select, project & rename operations are called unary operations,
because they operate on one relational. The other 3 operations operate
on pair of relations and are therefore binary operations.
The relation EMPLOYEE;
EN ENAME ADDRESS SALAR JOB_STATUS AG SpvN DEPTN
O Y E o O
101 Sagar Bhaktapur 3500 Research 28 102 10
fellow
107 Rashmi Kathmand 4200 Office Asst 24 102 20
u
102 Namrata Bhaktapur 5000 Secretary 23 112 30
112 Sachin Kathmand 9000 Administrator 25 107 20
u
109 Supraj Pokhara 3700 Office Asst 30 112 10
115 K. Singh Lalitpur 8500 Professor 45 113 20
111 Sarad Pokhara 12000 Director 35 115 40
113 Bidur Chitwan 4500 Research 28 115 40
fellow
116 Naren Biratnagar 9000 Professor 49 107 10
103 Pooja Pokhara 4500 Office Asst 24 107 Null
The relation PROJECT;
PNO PNAME S_DATE LOCATION PMGR DEPTN
O
M110 MARS 03-DEC-2007 Kathmandu 102 10
J220 JUPITOR 03-JAN-2008 Pokhara 107 30
V208 VENUS 15-OCT 2007 Hetauda 112 40
E005 EARTH 01-FEB 2008 Butwal 252 50
The relation WORK_IN;
ENO PNO P_JOB HOURS
101 M110 Cordinator 3
107 V208 Engineer 4
102 M110 Typist 5
112 E005 Accountant 9
107 M110 Scientist 3
112 V208 Coordinator 8
111 M110 Engineer 2
107 E005 Scientist 4
102 V208 Scientist 9
107 J220 Scientist 2

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The relation DEPARTMENT;

DEPT_NO DNAME LOCATION DMgr MgrSDate
10 Sttore Kathmandu 101 03-DEC-2006
20 Research Bhaktapur 112 07-FEB-2007
30 Sales Lalitpur 102 05-JAN-2008
40 Marketing Pokhara 111 26-DEC-2007
50 Administrator Lalitpur 222 01-APR-2005
* Select Operation; ( σ )
The select operations selects tuples that satisfies a given predicates
(conditions). A symbol Sigma (σ) is used to denote select operation. A
tuple from the source relation is selected (or not) based on whether it
satisfies a specified predicate. A predicate is a truth valued expression
involving tuple component values and their relationships. The
predicates appears as a subscript to σ. The argument relation is given in
parentheses following the σ. All tuples satisfying the predicate are then
collected into the resultant relation. General Syntax of selection is;

Syntax :- Select <predicates> (relation name)

Eg: - σ Address = “Pokhara” (EMPLOYEE)

All the tuples that matched the address Pokhara will be selected.

EN ENAME ADDRESS SALAR JOB_STATUS AG SpvN DEPTN

O Y E o O
109 Supraj Pokhara 3700 Office Asst 30 112 10
111 Sarad Pokhara 12000 Director 35 115 40
103 Pooja Pokhara 4500 Office Asst 24 107 Null

* Project Operation ( π );
Project is the operation of selecting certain attributes from a relation
to form a new relation that satisfies the given predicates. A symbol Pi
(π) is used to denote project operation. The desire columns are simply
specified by name during the projection. With the help of this operation,
any number of columns can be omitted from the table or column of
table can be rearranged that satisfies the given predicates. General
Syntax of projection is;

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Syntax :- Project <list of attributes> (relation name)

Eg: - π EName, Address, Salary, Job_Status (EMPLOYEE)

All the tules of the attributes EName, Address, Salary and

Job_Status will be selected to form a new relation.

ENAME ADDRESS SALARY JOB_STATUS

Sagar Bhaktapur 3500 Research fellow
Rashmi Kathmandu 4200 Office Asst
Namrata Bhaktapur 5000 Secretary
Sachin Kathmandu 9000 Administrator
Supraj Pokhara 3700 Office Asst
K. Singh Lalitpur 8500 Professor
Sarad Pokhara 12000 Director
Bidur Chitwan 4500 Research fellow
Naren Biratnagar 9000 Professor
Pooja Pokhara 4500 Office Asst

* Set Union Operation ( U );

Union is the operation of selecting certain attributes from a multiple
relations. A symbol (U) is used to denote union operation along with
select or project. The attributes from two relations are said to be union
compatible if they same degree n. union compatibility is required so that
the result of the union operation is as relation.

* Intersection Operation ( ∩ );
Intersection is the operation of selecting certain attributes from a
multiple relations that are common to both the relations. A symbol (∩)
is used to denote intersection operation. The relational intersection
operator also required two relations to be union compatible.

* Set Difference Operation ( - );

Difference is the operation of selecting certain attributes from a
multiple relations that are not common in between second relation. A
symbol (-) is used to denote difference operation. It will extract only

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those elements that are not common in compared relation. The relational
difference operator also required two relations to be union compatible.

Let’s suppose the union of the relations R and N. this operation

includes all the tuples of the relation R as well as N.

Relation Relation Union Intersection Difference

R N R U N R ∩ N R - N
X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z
A i u a j v a i u a j v a i u
A j v b k w a j v b k w
B k w b q s a j v d e f
D E f d e f b k w
b k w
b q s
d e f
d e f

* Cartesian Product ( X );
Cartesian product is the operation of selecting the attributes from a
multiple relations that may generate all possible combination of the
multiple relations. A symbol ( X ) is used to denote Cartesian product
operation. It will extract all the possible records similar as the
multiplication of the relations. The relational Cartesian product operator
also required two relations to be union compatible.
The Cartesian product of relations Employee ( E ) and Project ( P )
is denoted E X P, is the set of all product combinations of tuples of two
operation relations. Each resultant tuple consists of all the attributes of E
and P.
The Cartesian Product EMPLOYEE and PROJECT;
ENO ENAME ADDRESS …… DEPTNO PNO …… LOCATION
101 Sagar Bhaktapur 10 M110 Kathmandu

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102 Sagar Bhaktapur 10 J220 Pokhara
103 Sagar Bhaktapur 10 V208 Hetauda
104 Sagar Bhaktapur 10 E005 Butwal
107 Rashmi Kathmandu 20 M110 Kathmandu
108 Rashmi Kathmandu 20 J220 Pokhara
109 Rashmi Kathmandu 20 V208 Hetauda
110 Rashmi Kathmandu 20 E005 Butwal
102 Namrata Bhaktapur 30 M110 Kathmandu
103 Namrata Bhaktapur 30 J220 Pokhara
104 Namrata Bhaktapur 30 V208 Hetauda
105 Namrata Bhaktapur 30 E005 Butwal
112 Sachin Kathmandu 20 M110 Kathmandu
113 Sachin Kathmandu 20 J220 Pokhara
114 Sachin Kathmandu 20 V208 Hetauda
115 Sachin Kathmandu 20 E005 Butwal
109 Supraj Pokhara 10 M110 Kathmandu
110 Supraj Pokhara 10 J220 Pokhara
111 Supraj Pokhara 10 V208 Hetauda
112 Supraj Pokhara 10 E005 Butwal
115 K. Singh Lalitpur 20 M110 Kathmandu
116 K. Singh Lalitpur 20 J220 Pokhara
117 K. Singh Lalitpur 20 V208 Hetauda
118 K. Singh Lalitpur 20 E005 Butwal
111 Sarad Pokhara 40 M110 Kathmandu
112 Sarad Pokhara 40 J220 Pokhara
113 Sarad Pokhara 40 V208 Hetauda
114 Sarad Pokhara 40 E005 Butwal
113 Bidur Chitwan 40 M110 Kathmandu
114 Bidur Chitwan 40 J220 Pokhara
115 Bidur Chitwan 40 V208 Hetauda

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116 Bidur Chitwan 40 E005 Butwal

116 Naren Biratnagar 10 M110 Kathmandu
117 Naren Biratnagar 10 J220 Pokhara
…… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……

* Join Operation ( )
Join is a binary operation that allows the user to combine two
relations in a specific way. Join of two relations is restriction of their
Cartesian product of R and N such that a specific condition meets. Join
is normally defined on an attribute from same domain. From R relation
a attribute (R.a) and from N relation b attribute (N.b) are joined with
specific condition (R.a N.b). The specified condition is called join
predicate of attributes.

There are different types of join operations;

- Natural Join;
- Outer Join;
- Theta Join;

The natural join allows us to combine certain selections and a

Cartesian product into one operation. It is denoted by the symbol (
). It will perform the task based on equality. The natural join forms the
Cartesian product of the relations that meet the specific conditions and
remove the duplicate attributes as well.
The Theta( Ɵ ) join, joins two relations on the basic of some
comparison operator other that equality. Each condition is of the form of
a Ɵ b where a is an attribute of R and b is an attribute of N which have
same domain. Here Ɵ is =, >, <, >=, <= and < >.
The expansion of natural join ( ) that includes all rows from both
relations while selecting. It will not remove any of the duplicate values
from both relations that meet the condition. This is very useful when we
do not want to miss any tuples from the relations while extracting.
Three forms of outer join are commonly used, they are Left outer join,
right outer join and full order outer join.

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In left outer join ( ), the resulting contains all the tuples of the
left operand and in right outer join ( ), the resulting contains all the
tuples of the right operand. Similarly full outer join ( ), the
resulting relation contains all the tuples from both operands.

* Rename operation ( ρ );
While working with multiple relations, two relations may have
common attributes. It is difficult to use similar relations with common
attributes, so we can change the name of such attributes such that two
relations have disjoint set of attributes. A rename operator is denoted
by Greek letter Rho ( ρ ). The expression is as follows;
ρ X (E)
In above example, the result of expression E under new name X;
ρ ( R (a1, a2, …. An), T )
The expression interprets the attributes of relation T is named as R
in new schema.

* Assignment Operation ( ← );
An assigning operator is used to assign the part of relational algebra
to a temporary variable. It is denoted by a left arrow (←) which works
like assignment in a programming language.
Temp1 ← (relational algebra)
The evaluation of an assignment does not result in any relation
being displayed to the user. The expression at the right of the arrow will
be assigned to the relational variable located at the left of the
expression. The result variable may be in subsequent expression.

* Division Operation ( ÷ );
A division operation consists of dividend and a divisor, in which the
dividend contains the divisor several times in the expression. In
relational algebra, the quotient is the answer of the division and we do
not bother about the reminders. Les see the expression R ÷ N;
R N R ÷ N
R. R.b R. N. N.b N.c _.a _.b _.c
a c a

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1 a x 1 a x 1 a x
1 b y 2 a x 1 b y
2 a x 3 a x 2 a x
2 b y 1 b x 2 b y
3 c x 2 b x
3 d y 3 b x
# Kinds of relation;
A relational algebra operation has been extended in several ways. A
simple extension is to allow arithmetic operations as part of projection.
An important extension is to allow aggregate operations such as
computing the sum of the elements of a set, or their average. Another
important extension is the outer join operation, which allow relation
algebra expressions to deal with null values, which model missing
information.
* Generalized Projection;
The generalized projection operation extends the projection
operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the projection
list. The generalized projection operation has the form:
Π F1, F2, … …, Fn (E)
Where E is any arithmetic algebra expression, and each of F1, F2,
… …, Fn is an arithmetic expression involving constants and attributes
in the schema of E. As a special case, the arithmetic expression may be
simply an attributes or a constant.
Π ename, salary + 500 (Employee)
The attribute resulting from the expression salary + 500 does not
have a name. We can apply the rename operation to the result of
generalized projection in order to give it a name. As a notational
convenience, renaming of attributes can be combined with generalized
projection.

* Aggregate Function;
The aggregate functions take a collection of values and return a
single value as a result. For example, the aggregate functions sum takes
a collection of values and returns the sum of the values. Some of the

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commonly used aggregate functions are SUM, AVG, COUNT, MAX,
MIN, DISTINCT etc.
The general form of the aggregate is as follows;
SUM (Salary (PAYROLL))
AVG (Salary (PAYROLL))
COUNT (NAME (EMPLOYEE))
MIN (Salary (PAYROLL))
MAX (Salary (PAYROLL))
The general form of the aggregate operation (Ʋ) is as follows;
G1, G2, … …, Gn Ʋ F1 (A1), F2 (A2), … … Fm(Am) (E)
Where E is any relation-algebra expression, G1, G2, … …Gn
constitute a list of attributes on which to group, each Fi is an aggregate
function, each Ai is an attribute name.
The tuple in the result of expression E are partitioned into group in
such a way that:
1) All tuples in a group have the same values for G1, G2, … … Gn.
2) Tuples in different groups have different values for G1, G2, …
… Gn.
In generalized projection, the result of an aggregatei0on operation
does not have name. We can apply rename operation to the result in
order to give it a name.

* Outer Join;
The outer join operation is an extension of the join operation to deal
with missing information. In both the “theta and natural join”, the tuples
that have similar values will not displayed, which may result the data
lost. To retain all the information of both relations, it is describe to have
a join which keeps the tuples having no corresponding values in both
relations associated with null values. This is the external join or outer
join. The outer join is extended into following;

- Left Outer Join;

- Right Outer Join;
- Full Outer Join;

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In left outer join ( ), the resulting contains all the tuples of the
left operand and in right outer join ( ), the resulting contains all
the tuples of the right operand. Similarly full outer join ( ), the
resulting relation contains all the tuples from both operands.

* Null Value;
Operations and comparisons of null values has to be avoided. Null
values mean values unknown or nonexistent. Any arithmetic operation
involving null values must return null value as result. Any comparison
with null value results in special value called unknown.

How different relational algebra operations deal with null values.

 Select: In selection, any predicate evaluated with null will return
false or unknown.
 Join: Join is a cross product of the two relations. In join, if both
tuples have null values in a common attributes it matches
otherwise the tuples do not match.
 Projection: The projection operation treats null values just like
other values when eliminating duplicates. If two tuples in the
projection results null, they are treated as duplicates. The
decision is bit arbitrary since without knowing the values we
cannot say they are duplicates.
 Union, Intersection, Difference, Generalized Projection,
Aggregate: The treatment is same as in projection regarding the
duplicates.
 Outer join: Just like join operation, except on tuples that do not
occur in the join result. Such tuples may be added to the result
padded with null.

# Modification on database;
We express database modifications by using the assignment
operations. We make assignments to actual data relation by using same
notation as in assignment.
* Deletion;

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We can delete only whole tuples, we cannot delete values on only
particular attributes, in relational algebra a deletion is expressed by
R←R–E
In above example R is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.
While resulting, an algebraic query E is been removed from R relation.
* Insertion;
To insert data into a relation, we either specify a tuple to be inserted
or write a query whose result (a set of tuples) will be inserted. Both the
attributes must belong to same domain. In relational algebra an insertion
operation is expressed by;
R←RUE
In above example R is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.
A resulting tuples from relational algebraic query E is been inserted into
relation R. Both the attributes of the relation and algebraic query must
belong to same domain.

* Updating;
In a relation, when we have to change a value of a particular
attributes, we have to update the tuple or attributes. We can use
generalized projection operator to do this task. Various predicates
(conditions) can be applied while updating the values of the tuples.
Temp1 ← Π ename, eadd, salary + salary * 0.10, Job_Status
(σ dept = Account (employee))
In above example salary will be increased by 10% of all the
employees whose dept is Account.
Temp2 ← Π ename, eadd, salary + salary * 0.10, Job_Status
(σ dept = Account (employee)) U
Π ename, eadd, salary + salary * 0.05, Job_Status
(σ Age >= 45 (employee))
In above example the salary will be increased by 10% if dept is
account and salary increased by 5% those whose age is greater than 45.

# Views;

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In all of our examples we operated on logical model. For security

reason or for personalized collection it may not be described to show the
entire relation to a user. Certain data may be hidden from certain users.
Any relation that is not part of the logical model, but is made visible
to a user as a virtual relation, is called view. It is possible to support a
large no of views on top of any given set of actual relations.
* View Definition;
We define a view using the create view statement;

CREATE VIEW emp1 as

Π eid, ename, eadd, salary, Job_Status (employee)
A view “emp1” is defined containing employee;

CREATE VIEW emp2 as

Π eid, ename, eadd, salary, Job_Status (employee
project payroll)
A view “emp2” is defined containing employee, project and payroll)

Exercise
1) What is relation? Explain with the components related with the
relation?
2) What is database schema? Differentiate between relation schema
and relation instance.
3) What is constraint? Differentiate between Entity Integrity
Constraints and Referential Integrity Constraints.
4) What is key field? Explain various types of keys used to in
relationship.
5) What is relational algebra? List out the operations used in a
relational algebra.
6) Give an expression in the relational algebra for the following
queries.
a. Select all names from the relation employee.
b. Select Name, Address, Phone, Dept from the relation Employee.

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c. Select Name, Address, Phone, Dept who works in account
department.
d. Select Name, Address, Phone, Dept who works in account
department and earns more than 25000.

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Unit 5; Integrity Constraints;

# Introduction;
As a security is major features of the database, we must make sure
that the change done by the user is authorized and may not have any
types of error even accidently. To ensure the security an integrity
constraint is very much useful.
Integrity constraints provides a means of ensuring that changes
made to the database by authorized users do not result in a loss of data
consistency. Thus integrity constraints guards against accidental damage
of the database.
In general, an integrity constraint can be an arbitrary predicates
pertaining to the database. However arbitrary predicates may be costly
to test. Thus, we usually limit ourselves to integrity constraints that can
be tested with minimal overhead.

# Types of Integrity Constraints;

In database several types of constraints could be defined to check
the error. Most common out of them are;

* Domain Constraints;
Domain constrain specifies that the values of each attributes
must be atomic value from the domain of the respective attributes. It
will make the distinct data collections in an attributes as well as
ensure the test query comparison makes sense. Data is said to be
domain integrity when the value of a column is derived from the
domain.
Domain constraints are the most elementary form of integrity
constraint. They are tested easily by the system wherever a new data
items is entered into the database. It is possible to have several
attributes with similar domain. For eg, the attributes Emp_Name,
Std_Name, Cust_Name might have same domain.

CREATE DOMAIN Salary numeric (9,2)

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constraints Salary-null-test check (value not null)

In above example a domain Salary is declared to be number with

total 9 digits out of which 2 digit after decimal. Similarly the check
clause will restrict the domain as not null or the attributed is
compulsory and cannot be null.

CREATE DOMAIN Department char(15)

constraints Department-value-test
check(value in (“Account”, “Management”,
“Administration”, “Technical”, “Contractual”))

Here, in this example, a domain Department is declared to be

maximum 15 characters. The value in clause will set the values of
the attributes.

* Entity Integrity Constraints;

The constraints that will restrict the attributes to be identify uniquely
such that two tuples cannot have same values or the values cannot be
null. It is useful even for sorting and searching the values of the
attributes quickly. A Primary key is used for entity integrity, which
makes an attributes not null as well unique to identify the tuples. Thus
the rule for entity integrity constraints asserts that no attributes
participating in the primary key of the relation is permitted to accept
null values and it must be unique.

* Referential Integrity;
In a relational model, data elements data are stored in different
relations and they are linked together while extracting accordingly. For
eg In a PERSONAL relation all the detail of the student will be stored,
and in a PARENTS relation detail of the parents are stored. If we have
to find the detail of the parents, we will link these two relations through
a unique and common attribute (PAR_ID) among them. The attribute
PAR_ID is set as a primary key in a PARENTS table where as it is

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termed as Foreign key in PERSONAL relation. Now we will search the

detail of the parents with relation to

Here the foreign key is supposed to have relevant values of the

primary key or a null value. Other values beside these two are not
allowed. If the tuple does not have any relevant values to the parent
primary key field, it is termed as orphan record.

* Referential Integrity Constraints in SQL;

Foreign keys can be specified as part of the SQL CREATE TABLE
statement by using the FOREIGN KEY clause. A foreign key or a
Referential Integrity Constraint can be specified in a relation as follows;
create table account
(acc_no char(10),
Branch_name char(15),
balance integer,
primary key (acc_no),
foreign key (branch_name) references branch,
check (balance >= 0))
A relation is created named ACCOUNT with Acc_No,
Branch_Name and Balance attributes. Acc_no is set as a primary key
and foreign key is defined as branch_name with reference to BRANCH
relation.

 Check Constraints;
Check constraint is used to verify the satisfaction of the value
entered. The value entered in an attributes must have a value within
the specified range or that satisfied the specific condition. The
syntax of check constraints is

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[Constraint <name>] CHECK (<condition>)
For e.g:
CREATE TABLE employee
(………,
E_ID Integer CONSTRAINT chk_empid
CHECK (E_ID IS NOT NULL and E_ID<10000),
Dept Char(3) CONSTRAINT Chk_dept
CHECK (value in (“ACC”, “ADM”, “MAN”, “DIR”,
“TEC”, “HLP” )),
… … … );
Here in above example, an attributes will have a specific value
range less than 1000 and the field should consist null value. Other
attribute has a value of ACC, (Accountant), ADM (Administration),
MAN (Manager), DIR (Director), TEC (Technical) and HEP
(Helper). Beside these values other values are not allowed.

Assertions;
An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish
the database always to satisfy. Domain constrains and referential
integrity constraints are special forms of assertions. However, there
are many constraints that we cannot express by using only these
special forms. Some examples of such constraints are;
* Every loan has at least one customer who maintains an account
with a minimum balance of 1000.
* The sum of all loan amounts for each branch must be less than
the sum of all account balance at the branch.
An assertion in SQL takes the form
CREATE ASSERTION <assertion name> CHECK <predicate>

create assertion sum-constraint check

(not exists (select * from branch
where (select sum(amount) from loan
where loan.branch-name = branch.branch-name)
>= (select sum(balance) from account
where account.branch-name = branch.branch-name)))
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create assertion balance-constraint check

(not exists (select * from loan
where not exists ( select * from borrower, depositor, account
where loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number
and borrower.customer-name = depositor.customer-name
and depositor.account-number = account.account-number
and account.balance >= 1000)))

When an assertion is created that the system executes

automatically as a side effect of a modification to the database is
allowed only if it does not cause that assertion to be violated.

 Triggers;
A trigger is a statement that the system executes automatically as
a side effect of a modification to the database. To design a trigger
mechanism, we must meet two requirements.
* Specify when a trigger is to be executed. This is broken up into
an event that cause the trigger to be checked and a condition that
must be satisfied for the trigger execution.
* Specify the action to be taken when the trigger executes.
Once we enter into a trigger into a database, the database system
takes on the responsibility of executing it whenever the specified
event occurs and the corresponding condition is satisfied.
Triggers are useful mechanism for altering humans or for
starting certain task automatically when certain conditions are met.
An example of use of trigger, suppose a warehouse wishes to
maintain a minimum inventory of each items; when an inventory
level of an item falls below the minimum level, an order should be
placed automatically. This is how the business rule can be
implemented by trigger. On an update of the inventory level of an
item, the trigger should compare the level with minimum inventory
level for the item and if the level is at or below the minimum, a new
order is added to an orders relation.

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# Security and integrity violation;

Database integrity is more related with the security of the database.
The data stored in a database are supposed to be protected from
unauthorized access and destructions or alteration. The data alteration
may be caused by intentional or accidental.
 Intentional data loss may caused by the following;
 Unauthorized reading of data (theft of information);
 Unauthorized modification of data;
 Unauthorized destruction of data;
 Accidental data loss may be caused from;
 Crashes during transaction process.
 Usual data loss during the distribution of data over several
computers.
 Usual data loss during the updating the database.
 Logical errors that may occur during the assumption that
transaction preserve the data base consistency constraints.
It is easier to protect against accidental loss of data that to protect
against intentional data loss in the database. Intentional data loss
protection may be costly as well as high alertness over the un-
authorized access is also required. Database security usually refers to
protect against intentional data loss, whereas integrity refers to the
avoidance of accidental loss of data on the database.
The dividing line between security and integrity is not always clear.
The security generally refers to both of these. To protect the database,
we must take security measure at several levels;

 Database system:
Some database-system users may be authorized to access
only a limited portion of the database. Other users may be
allowed to issue queries, but may be forbidden to modify the
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data. It is the responsibility of the database system to ensure that

these authorization restrictions are not violated.
 Operating System:
No matter how secure the database system is, weakness in
operating-system security may serve as a means of unauthorized
access to the database. Due to the less security restriction by the
OS many problems may occur on the database system.
 Network:
Since almost all database systems allow remote access
through terminals or networks, software-level security within the
network software is as important as physical security, both on
the Internet and in private networks. Granting authority over the
network may protect various problems related to the security.
 Physical:
Sites with computer systems must be physically secured
against armed or surreptitious entry by intruders.
 Human:
Users must be authorized carefully to reduce the chance of
any user giving access to an intruder in exchange for a bribe or
other favors.
Security at all these levels must be maintained if database security is
to be ensured. A weakness at a low level of security (physical or human)
allows circumvention of strict high-level (database) security measures.
Security within the operating system is implemented at several
levels, ranging from passwords for access to the system to the isolation
of concurrent processes running within the system. The file system also
provides some degree of protection. The bibliographical notes reference
coverage of these topics in operating-system texts. Finally, network-
level security has gained widespread recognition as the Internet has
evolved from an academic research platform to the basis of international

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electronic commerce. The bibliographic notes list textbook coverage of
the basic principles of network security. We shall present our discussion
of security in terms of the relational-data model, although the concepts
of the security are equally applicable to all data models.

# Access control and Authorization;

The authorization over the database may be granted based on
various requirements. We may assign a user several forms of
authorization on parts of the database. These various authorizations are;
 Read authorization allows reading, but not modification, of data.
 Insert authorization allows insertion of new data, but not
modification of existing data.
 Update authorization allows modification, but not deletion, of
data.
 Delete authorization allows deletion of data.
We may assign the user all, none, or a combination of these types of
authorization. In addition to these forms of authorization for access to
data, we may grant a user authorization to modify the database schema:
 Index authorization allows the creation and deletion of indices.
 Resource authorization allows the creation of new relations.
 Alteration authorization allows the addition or deletion of
attributes in a relation.
 Drop authorization allows the deletion of relations.
The drop and delete authorization differ in that delete authorization
allows deletion of tuples only. If a user deletes all tuples of a relation,
the relation still exists, but it is empty. If a relation is dropped, it no
longer exists.
We regulate the ability to create new relations through resource
authorization. A user with resource authorization who creates a new
relation is given all privileges on that relation automatically.

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Index authorization may appear unnecessary, since the creation or

deletion of an index does not alter data in relations. Rather, indices are a
structure for performance enhancements. However, indices also
consume space, and all database modifications are required to update
indices. If index authorization were granted to all users, those who
performed updates would be tempted to delete indices, whereas those
who issued queries would be tempted to create numerous indices. To
allow the database administrator to regulate the use of system
resources, it is necessary to treat index creation as a privilege.
The ultimate form of authority is that given to the database
administrator. The database administrator may authorize new users,
restructure the database, and so on. This form of authorization is
analogous to that of a super user or operator for an operating system.

# Security and Views;

View is a means of providing a user with a personalized model of
the database. A view can hide data that a user does not need to see. The
ability of views to hide data serves both to simplify usage of the system
and to enhance security. Views simplify system usage because they
restrict the user’s attention to the data of interest. Although a user may
be denied direct access to a relation, that user may be allowed to access
part of that relation through a view.
A combination of relational-level security and view-level security
limits a user’s access to precisely the data that the user needs. Creation
of a view does not require resource authorization. A user who creates a
view does not necessarily receive all privileges on that view. One
receives only those privileges that provide no additional authorization
beyond those that she already had. For example, a user cannot be given
update authorization on a view without having update authorization on
the relations used to define the view. If a user creates a view on which

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no authorization can be granted, the system will deny the view creation
request.

# Encryption and Decryption;

The various provisions that a database system may make for
authorization may still not provide sufficient protection for highly
sensitive data. In such cases, data may be stored in encrypted form. It is
not possible for encrypted data to be read unless the reader knows how
to decipher (decrypt) them. Encryption also forms the basis of good
schemes for authenticating users to a database.

# Encryption Techniques
There are a vast number of techniques for the encryption of data.
Simple encryption techniques may not provide adequate security, since
it may be easy for an unauthorized user to break the code. As an
example of a weak encryption technique, consider the substitution of
each character with the next character in the alphabet. Thus,
Perryridge
becomes
Qfsszsjehf
If an unauthorized user sees only “Qfsszsjehf,” she probably has
insufficient information to break the code. However, if the intruder sees
a large number of encrypted branch names, she could use statistical data
regarding the relative frequency of characters to guess what substitution
is being made (for example, E is the most common letter in English text,
followed by T, A, O, N, I and so on).
A good encryption technique has the following properties:
 It is relatively simple for authorized users to encrypt and decrypt
data.
 It depends not on the secrecy of the algorithm, but rather on a
parameter of the algorithm called the encryption key.
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 Its encryption key is extremely difficult for an intruder to determine.

# Authentication;
Authentication refers to the task of verifying the identity of a
person/software connecting to a database. The simplest form of
authentication consists of a secret password which must be presented
when a connection is opened to a database.
Password-based authentication is used widely by operating systems
as well as databases. However, the use of passwords has some
drawbacks, especially over a network. If an eavesdropper is able to
“sniff” the data being sent over the network, she may be able to find the
password as it is being sent across the network. Once the eavesdropper
has a user name and password, she can connect to the database,
pretending to be the legitimate user.

Unit 6; Introduction to SQL;

Most of the database system requires a query language to interact

with the data stored on the databank. SQL is a most common query
language which is very powerful and flexible to manipulate the data
stored in the database. SQL uses a combination of relational algebra and
relational calculus constructs. SQL is refers as a “query language,” it
can do much more than just query a database. It is also used to define
the structure of the data, modify data in the database, and specify

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security constraints. Individual implementations of SQL may differ in
details, or may support only a subset of the full language.

# Development of the SQL as a query Language;

* IBM developed the original version of SQL at its San Jose Research
Laboratory.
* IBM implemented the language, originally called Sequel, as part of
the System R project in the early 1970s.
* Its name has changed to SQL (Structured Query Language) later and
has clearly established itself as the standard relational-database
language.
* In 1986, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published an
SQL standard, called SQL-86.
* IBM published its own corporate SQL standard, the Systems
Application Architecture Database Interface (SAA-SQL) in 1987.
* ANSI published an extended standard for SQL, SQL-89, in 1989.
The next version of the standard was SQL-92 standard, and the most
recent version is SQL 1999.
* The SQL:1999 standard is a superset of the SQL-92 standard.
* Many database systems support some of the new constructs in
SQL:1999, although currently no database system supports all the
new constructs.

# The SQL language has several parts:

 Data-definition language (DDL) The SQL DDL provides
commands for defining relation schemas, deleting relations, and
modifying relation schemas.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML). The SQL DML includes
a query language based on both the relational algebra and the
tuple relational calculus. It includes also commands to insert
tuples into, delete tuples from, and modify tuples in the
database.
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 View definition. The SQL DDL includes commands for

defining views.
 Transaction Control. SQL includes commands for specifying
the beginning and ending of transactions.
 Embedded SQL and dynamic SQL. Embedded and dynamic
SQL de.ne how SQL statements can be embedded within
general-purpose programming languages, such as C, C++, Java,
PL/I, Cobol, Pascal, and Fortran.
 Integrity. The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying
integrity constraints that the data stored in the database must
satisfy. Updates that violate integrity constraints are disallowed.
 Authorization. The SQL DDL includes commands for
specifying access rights to relations and views.

# Basic Structure of the SQL:

 To create a table;
Syntax:- CREATE TABLE <table_name>
( col_name <data type> (<size>) <Constraints>,
… … … … …
[Table Constraint]
);
(Create a Table employee with the following attributes)
Employee’s Id No,
Employee’s Name,
Employee’s Address,
Employee’s Department,
Involved Project No
Basic Salary
Join date,
);
Eg:- CREATE TABLE employee
( emp_no number (4) NOT NULL,
e_name varchar2 (30),
e_add varchar2 (30),

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dept varchar2 (20),
proj_no number (4) NOT NULL,
b_sal number (10,2),
joindate date,
Primary Key (emp_no),
Check (e_add in (“Kathmandu”, “Lalitpur”,
“Bhaktapur”, “Kirtipur” ) ) );

(Create a Table employee with the following attributes)

Employee’s Id No Primary Key,
Employee’s Name,
Employee’s Address, (KTM, LTP, BKT, KIR)
Employee’s Department, (Man, Ast Man, Adm, Tech, Acc)
Involved Project No NOT NULL,
Basic Salary NOT NULL,
Join date,
);

Eg:- CREATE TABLE employee

( emp_no number (4) NOT NULL,
e_name varchar2 (30),
e_add varchar2 (30),
dept varchar2 (20),
proj_no number (4) NOT NULL,
b_sal number (10,2),
joindate date,
Primary Key (emp_no),
Check (e_add in (“Kathmandu”, “Lalitpur”,
“Bhaktapur”, “Kirtipur” ) ) );

 To insert a data values;

Syntax:- INSERT INTO <table_name>
( column_1, column_2, … … …, column_n)
VALUES (data_1, data_1, … … … data_n)
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);
Eg:- INSERT INTO employee
(emp_no, e_name, e_add, dept, proj_no, b_sal)
VALUES (101, ‘Ramesh’, “Kathmandu’, ‘Acc’,
5001, 12034);

 To select data records;

Syntax:- SELECT <col_name1, col_name2, … … …, col_nameX>
FROM <table_name> WHERE (<conditions>);
Eg:- SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee;
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (emp_no = 105);

# Removing Duplicate (DISTINCT);

SELECT DISTINCT(dept)FROM employee;

# Combining conditions using Boolean Operators;

* AND (Both predicate must be correct to get correct result);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (b_sal >= 5000 AND b_sal < 10000);

* OR (any one predicate should be correct to get correct result);

SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (e_add=‘Kathmandu” OR e_add=“Lalitpur”);
# Range specification (IN and BETWEEN);
* IN (values as specified);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE e_add IN(“Kathmandu”, “Lalitpur”, “Bhaktapur”);

* BETWEEN (values as specified within range);

SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE b_sal BETWEEN 5000 AND 10000;

# Arranging Tuples;

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* ORDER BY (Arranging in Ascending or Descending Order);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
ORDER BY b_sal;
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
ORDER BY b_sal (DESC);

* GROUP BY (Listing using Group);

SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
GROUP BY (dept);

* HAVING (specifies the condition);

SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
HAVING (b_sal>8000);

# Aggregate Function (Mathematical aggregate functions);

* To find SUM of the values of the Field;
SELECT SUM(b_sal) FROM employee
WHERE (dept= “Account”);

* To find average of the values;

SELECT AVG(b_sal) FROM employee
WHERE (e_add= “Kathmandu”);

* To find Minimum values of the Field;

SELECT MIN(b_sal) FROM employee;

* To find Maximum values of the Field;

SELECT MAX(b_sal) FROM employee;

* To count no of tuples extracted;

SELECT COUNT(emp_id) FROM employee;

# String Function (Functions that supports Alphanumeric);

* To select LIKE (similar) values;
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
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WHERE (e_name LIKE ‘Sa%’);

SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (e_name LIKE ‘%am%’);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (e_name LIKE ‘%sh’);

# NULL and NOT NULL values;

SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (proj=NULL);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (proj=(NOT)NULL);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (proj IS NULL);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee
WHERE (proj IS (NOT)NULL);

# Selecting data from two different table;

Syntax:- SELECT <table1.column1, table2.column1>
FROM <table1>, <table2>;
Eg:- SELECT staff.emp_no, proj.proj_no
FROM staff, proj;
SELECT s1.emp_no, s1.e_name, p1.add, p1.proj_no
FROM staff s1, proj p1;
SELECT s1.emp_no, s1.e_name, p1.add, p1.payment
FROM staff s1, proj p1
WHERE (s1.proj_no=p1.proj_no);

 To update data records;

Syntax:- UPDATE <table_name>
SET (col_name = values)
WHERE <predicates>;
Eg:- UPDATE employee
SET (b_sal = b_sal + bsal * 40 / 100);
WHERE dept=”Karnali”;

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UPDATE marks
SET (eng = 32)
WHERE (eng >= 27 and eng < 32);

 To delete data records;

Syntax:- DELETE FROM <table_name>
WHERE <predicates>;
Eg:- DELETE FROM employee
WHERE dept=”Karnali”;

 To delete Table (Drop Table);

* To delete the table;
Syntax:- DROP TABLE <table name>;
Eg:- DROP TABLE employee;

* To delete all records of the table (Make a table empty);

Syntax:- TRUNCATE TABLE <table name>;
Eg:- TRUNCATE TABLE employee;

 To modify the table (ALTER);

* To add field on the table;
Syntax:- ALTER TABLE <table name>
ADD (<col_name> <datatype> (<size>);
Eg:- ALTER TABLE employee
ADD mobile number (10);

* To Modify or Change the field on the table;

Syntax:- ALTER TABLE <table name>
MODIFY (<col_name> <datatype> (<size>);
Eg:- ALTER TABLE employee
MODIFY mobile varchar2 (10);

* To Delete the one field on the table;

Syntax:- ALTER TABLE <table name>
DROP COLUMN <col_name>;
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Eg:- ALTER TABLE employee

DROP COLUMN telno;

* To Delete multiple fields on the table;

Syntax:- ALTER TABLE <table name>
DROP (<column1, column2, … … >);
Eg:- ALTER TABLE employee
DROP (e_add, telno, mobile);

# Set operation;
In SQL various types of SET operators are also used. Some of
them are;
* UNION operator;
Syntax:- <Query1> UNION <Query2>
Eg:- SELECT * FROM employee;
UNION
SELECT * FROM employee1;

* UNION ALL operator;

Syntax:- <Query1> UNION ALL <Query2>
Eg:- SELECT * FROM employee;
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM employee1;

* INTERSECT operator;
Syntax:- <Query1> INTERSECT <Query2>
Eg:- SELECT * FROM employee;
INTERSECT
SELECT * FROM employee1;

* MINUS operator;
Syntax:- <Query1> MINUS <Query2>
Eg:- SELECT * FROM employee;
MINUS

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SELECT * FROM employee1;

# Sub Queries;
Syntax:- SELECT <col_name1, col_name2, … … …, col_nameX>
FROM <table_name>
WHERE (<SUB QUERY>);
Eg:- SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee;
WHERE
(SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE DEPT= “Kathmandu”);
SELECT emp_no, e_name, e_add FROM employee;
WHERE
(SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE DEPT=
(SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE (emp_id<110)));

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Unit 7; Query Processing;

# Introduction to query processing;

# Equivalence of expressions;

# Query optimization;

# Query decomposition;

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Unit 8; Object Oriented Model;
# Introduction;
# Design of object oriented model;

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Unit 9; Application of Database System in Organization;

# Submission of the database system report of any one
commercial organization,
(Such as Financial, Accounting, Payroll, Inventory, Ticketing,
Banking, Online banking etc)

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