GENERAL PEDAGOGY

Pedagogy
Curriculum
Scheme of Work
Lesson Plan
21st Century Skills.

Classroom Management
Lesson Delivery
Instructional Resources

Classroom Assessment

BASED ON THE GENERAL PEDAGOGY CONTENT

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 CHAPTER ONE

PEDAGOGY

Pedagogy, pronounced “peh-duh-gow-jee,” is a term that refers to the method of how teachers
teach, in theory and in practice. Pedagogy is formed by an educator’s teaching beliefs and concerns
the interplay between culture and different ways to learn. In order to help students build on prior
learning, meaningful classroom relationships must exist. There are several small pedagogical
adjustments that educators can make to improve student engagement and persistence.

What is the history of pedagogy? Pedagogy describes the art and science of teaching students.
The term comes from the Greek word ‘paidagogos,’ a combination of ‘paidos’ (child) and ‘agogos’
(leader). The advent of writing circa 3000 B.C. led to a form of education that was more self-
reflective and concerned with skills and knowledge building. It was also around this time that Plato
supported an instructional system that made use of the Socratic Method that uses questions to help
students derive meaning. Henry Giroux, scholar, cultural critic and one of the pioneers of public
pedagogy and cultural studies, writes that, “pedagogy is not about training, it is about critically
educating people to be self-reflective, capable of critically addressing their relationship with others
and with the larger world.”

Andragogy: Andragogy, on the other hand, is an approach to teaching and learning that is
specifically designed for adults. It is based on the idea that adults are self-directed learners who
have a wealth of life experience and knowledge that they can draw upon. Andragogy emphasizes
the importance of creating a collaborative learning environment where the learners are active
participants in the learning process.
In an andragogical approach, the learners take responsibility for their own learning, setting goals,
and designing their own learning plans. The teacher acts as a facilitator, providing guidance and
support as needed. Andragogy is effective for teaching complex concepts, encouraging critical
thinking and problem-solving skills, and helping learners apply their knowledge to real-world
situations.
To summarize, the main difference between pedagogy and andragogy is that pedagogy is a teacher-
centered approach to learning, while andragogy is a learner-centered approach to learning that is
specifically designed for adults.

1. Differentiate between the concepts of pedagogy and andragogy.

PEDAGOGY ANDRAGOGY
CHILDREN’S LEARNING ADULTS LEARNING

DEPENDENCE The learner is a dependent Adults are independent. They strive for
personality. Teacher determines autonomy and self-direction in
learning.

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 what, how, and when anything is
learned.
RESOURCES The learner has few resources — Adults use their own and other’s
FOR the teacher devises transmission experience.
LEARNING techniques to store knowledge in
the learner’s head.
REASONS FOR Learn in order to advance to the Adults learn when they experience a
LEARNING next stage. need to know or to perform more
effectively.
FOCUS OF Learning is subject centered, Adult learning is task or problem
LEARNING focused on the prescribed centered.
curriculum and planned
sequences according to the logic
of the subject matter.
MOTIVATION Motivation comes from external Motivation stems from internal sources
sources — usually parents, — the increased self-esteem,
teachers, and a sense of confidence and recognition that come
competition. from successful performance.
ROLE OF THE Designs the learning process, Enabler or facilitator, climate of
TEACHER imposes material, is assumed to collaboration, respect and openness
know best.

What are the different types of pedagogy?

There are several pedagogical approaches to engage students and meet their needs. The five most
common ones are as follows.

Social pedagogy: Education is seen as crucial to supporting social development as well as a

student’s wellbeing and psychological safety. An example of social pedagogy involves asking
students to examine common social issues such as food insecurity and its disproportionate toll on
certain demographic groups.

Constructivist pedagogy: Students form their own knowledge through direct experiences versus
passively ingesting material. An example of constructivist pedagogy would be asking students to
complete a simulation dissecting a mouse—versus asking students to read about this procedure in
their textbook.

Critical pedagogy: Students engage with course material through a social justice lens, critically
deconstructing normative perspectives and examining power structures. An example of critical
pedagogy would be analyzing song lyrics that speak to societal themes such as wealth and
corporate success.

Culturally responsive pedagogy: Educators celebrate and acknowledge the diverse cultural
backgrounds of their students through relevant class activities. An example of culturally responsive
pedagogy would be including scholars of all ethnicities on an assigned reading list.

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The Socratic Method: Students are taught through continuous questioning and discussion. The
Socratic Method prioritizes collaboration and self-discovery as a means of learning and building
social skills. An example of this pedagogy would involve getting finance students comfortable
with the basics of compound interest to prepare them for their lives beyond academic

Factors to consider in selecting a pedagogy/method for teaching at the secondary (JHS &
SHS) school level.

1. The Learners’ Profile

In choosing a method of teaching, a teacher must take into account the age, prior knowledge, style
of learning and the nature of learners i.e. example the slow learners or fast learners. If the number
of slow learners in the class is higher than that of fast learners it will force a teacher to use such a
method that is easier for the slow learners to understand the lesson or subject maters.

2. Class Size
Our courses or classes will vary in size and the numbers in a particular teaching session will change
from very small to very large. Quite clearly class size plays an important part in selecting a method
because some are unsuitable when the group is excessively large or small. For example, discussion
method may be effective for a small group but not for too large a group.

3. The Learning Objectives

The specification of learning objectives is important in selecting an appropriate teaching method,
for these serve as targets for our teaching. In our schools, we are mainly concerned with knowledge
or the cognitive domain for which brainstorming, discussion, lecture method etc. are suitable,
while demonstration, project etc. will serve better for practical skills.

4. Local Constraints
One should also consider any local constraints when selecting a method. The two most important
factors are the time and facilities available, including resource materials and textbooks. Quite
clearly if an essential requirement for a particular method is not available, for example, a piece of
equipment for a demonstration, then that method cannot be used. Similarly, if there was
insufficient time to undertake a field trip, then some other method such as a video recording would
have to be used.

5. Autonomy of Students
The degree of student autonomy is increasingly featuring in the selection of methods but this tends
to be the case in more developed countries, where students often are more independent and have a
wider choice in how they study university courses. In Africa, perhaps, this should not concern us
too much at present but it is something to bear in mind for the future, particularly if we wish to
become more learner-oriented.

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6. Lecturers’ Preferences and Dislikes
This is mentioned because there is evidence that lecturers’ likes and dislikes, together with their
experience, have a bearing on the method they use. This is partly related to their philosophy, style
and value system but also to their past experiences and their confidence in using new and often
less controllable methods. Here we are not going to deal with this in depth but only wish to indicate
that there is a need for the dissemination of new information to lecturers, together with periodic
updating workshops on teaching methods.

7. Examination Set Up
This also limits the method to be applied in teaching a subject. For example the teachers always
look for the examinations format and teach the students in a way that make them becoming able
to answer such examination that are facing them.

Various methods (E.g. Discussion, Fieldwork, Lecture etc.) can be applied in

the classroom.

Explain how the various methods are applied in the classroom

Various teaching methods can be applied in the classroom to support learning and engagement.
Here are some examples of how these methods can be applied:
Lecture-Based Learning: This method involves the teacher delivering information through
lectures and presentations. In the classroom, the teacher can use visual aids such as PowerPoint
presentations, charts, and graphs to support the lecture. It is important to engage students in active
learning by using questions, examples, and real-life applications to keep them engaged.
Problem-Based Learning: In this method, students work collaboratively to solve real-world
problems. The teacher can provide a scenario or problem and guide students through the problem-
solving process. Students can work in groups, using brainstorming and critical thinking skills to
develop solutions. The teacher can provide feedback and facilitate discussions to promote deeper
understanding.
Project-Based Learning: In this method, students work on a project over an extended period of
time. The teacher can provide guidance and support throughout the project, helping students to
develop research, planning, and problem-solving skills. Students can work individually or in
groups, and the teacher can provide feedback and evaluation throughout the process.
Flipped Classroom: In this method, students learn content outside of the classroom and then come
to class to work on problem-solving and other activities. The teacher can provide online resources
such as videos, readings, and quizzes for students to use outside of class. In class, the teacher can
provide support and guidance for students as they work on problems and activities.

Inquiry-Based Learning: In this method, students explore a topic or problem and develop their
own questions to investigate. The teacher can provide guidance and support for the inquiry process,

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helping students to develop research and critical thinking skills. The teacher can also facilitate
discussions and provide feedback on student work.
Collaborative Learning: In this method, students work together on tasks, projects, or
assignments. The teacher can provide guidance and support for group work, helping students to
develop teamwork and communication skills. The teacher can also facilitate discussions and
provide feedback on group work.
Field Trips: Field trips are educational outings that allow students to explore and learn in real-
world settings outside the classroom. These trips can be used to support learning in various
subjects, including science, history, and geography. The teacher can plan and organize the trip,
ensuring that it aligns with the learning objectives and provides a safe and meaningful experience
for students. During the trip, the teacher can guide students through observations, discussions, and
hands-on activities to promote learning and engagement. After the trip, the teacher can facilitate
follow-up discussions and assignments to reinforce and extend learning. Field trips can provide a
unique and engaging learning experience for students and can support their understanding of
complex concepts in a real-world context.
These are just a few examples of how various teaching methods can be applied in the classroom.
It is important to choose the appropriate method for the learning objectives, student needs, and
classroom context. Teachers can also combine multiple methods to create a more comprehensive
and engaging learning experience.

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 CHAPTER TWO
CURRICULUM
Meaning of Curriculum
The word curriculum is derived from Latin word ‘currere’.
Currere—means ‘Race Course’.

A curriculum is a planned course of study. It is an outline of what should be taught and learned in
an educational institution such as a school, or college. It is used to organize and teach a particular
course.

Definition of Curriculum
According to Kerr, “Curriculum is all the learning which is planned and guided by the school,
whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside of school”.
According to Good, “Curriculum is a general over-all plan of the content or specific materials of
instruction that the school should offer the student by way of qualifying him for graduation or
certification or for entrance into a professional or vocational field”.

Characteristics of Curriculum
Let’s discuss some points which cover the characteristics/features of curriculum.
These are as follows:

1. Meet the needs of students

Educational experts design the curriculum keeping children in mind. What is the benefit of the
curriculum if it fails to meet the needs of children? Therefore it should be designed according to
the needs of children so that they can get maximum benefits from it.

2. Flexible and adaptive

Curriculum should be flexible. It should not be rigid, otherwise it will create problems in its
adaptation. Irrelevant material and content should not be a part of it; otherwise, we can’t call it a
good curriculum. Stakeholders such as teachers, parents, or headmasters can play an important
role to maintain the flexibility of curriculum.

3. Well organized
Curriculum should be well organized. The content of curriculum should be organized in such a
way that it connects students’ prior knowledge with the new knowledge. There should be a proper
link between theory and practical knowledge.
All the subjects or topics should have clearly defined objectives

4. Provide opportunities for students

A good curriculum provides enough opportunities for students to explore their talent and
creativity. The all-round development of children takes place when they are exposed to new
challenging environment.

Appropriate activities should be included in the curriculum to fulfil the Special learning needs of
gifted, backward, and disabled learners.

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5. Motivate students
Curriculum as a tool motivates students to learn more and perform various activities. It motivates
students by making the process of learning more enjoyable and interesting. It helps students focus
more on their mastery goals.

6. Follow pedagogical approach

Curriculum follows a pedagogical approach. Various pedagogical approaches such as Activity
based learning, Team teaching, inquiry based learning, Cooperative and collaborative learning
are used by teachers to teach students. These approaches help teachers choose desirable
instructional strategies.
The curriculum is the backbone of any school or university. It is designed to provide a set of
skills and knowledge that will equip students with the necessary tools for success in their future
careers.

7. Demands of society
Society plays an important role in determining what is relevant for the students. Therefore,
curriculum should reflect the needs and demands of society.

Those subjects should be included in the curriculum which provide value to society and
appreciate its cultural heritage.

8. Extend skills and knowledge

A good curriculum extends students’ skills and knowledge by
Promoting higher order thinking skills
Developing curiosity
Removing their misconceptions

9. Quality and Up-to-date content

Curriculum should provide quality and up-to-date content to students which reflect their personal
interests. Content should be properly analyzed and research based. There must be scope for
adding new and relevant information to the curriculum.

10. Should be diversified

A uniform curriculum will not work in today’s education system. Therefore, curriculum should
be diversified. Diversified curriculum provides a wide range of opportunities to students,
especially those from backward class, and prepares them for the future.

Some other characteristics

11. It should be designed by keeping in mind the aims and objectives of education.

12. It should follow psychological principles.

13. It should promote the interaction between teachers and students.

14. It should promote integrated learning.

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Advantages of Curriculum
1. A curriculum assists training organizations to determine what the students need to know, it
sets the standard of training.
2. The curriculum defines what students should know and be able to do by the end of training.
3. The curriculum / syllabus supports trainers and teachers alike in providing high-quality
learning experiences for all students.
4. The curriculum / syllabus is expected to be up-to-date and provide an insight into how the
professions being trained for are in-line with the current practices and future trends.
5. The syllabus provides an instrument for effective learning and teaching strategies that could
be additionally supported by research and practice.
6. The syllabus initiates discussions concerning curriculum integration within and across
different subjects.
7. The curriculum defines the standard to be set for evaluating student / trainee performance.
8. The curriculum provides “outsiders” (private sector, government agencies) within an insight
into the contents and training approach.
9. Curricula and syllabus do not necessarily have a legal character and they are not binding, they
are indicative.

Limitations
1. The curricula does not contain a detailed lesson plan, this is usually included only in the subject
syllabus.
2. The curricula does not cover everything a student needs to know.
3. Once they are developed and approved they are usually difficult to modify and revise due to
the effort required to do so.
4. Slow changes in the curricula often means that the curricula is not always up-to-date and in
line with current trends and practices.

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 CHAPTER THREE
SCHEME OF WORK

A scheme of work is plans which ensures that the content of the syllabus provided for a certain
period of time, say a semester, and is taught within that period. This entails breaking the topics
down into smaller units and assigning a duration of time within which unit will be covered. The
units are arranged in such a way that those that provide pre-requisite learning are placed before
subsequent ones.
The content that we can put in the structure includes:
1. The week during which the information is to be taught. This is usually identified by the
date on which the week will end.
2. What is to be taught (topics and sub-topics)?
3. Reference books
4. Teaching/learning materials
5. Remarks

SUBJECT …………….. CLASS ………… TERM ………….. YEAR ………

Week Week- Topic/Unit Reference Teaching/Learning Remarks
ending Material
1 22nd - Unit 1 English Card board, Sample
26th Informal Language essays
Oct. 2007 Letters Syllabus for JSS Page
21

WEEKLY FORECAST (SCHEME OF WORK)

COMPONENTS OF SCHEME OF WORK

The components of scheme of work are divided into two parts:

1. Introductory part
2. Matrix part

The introductory part

This part contain the following:
Ministry: This part show the ministry of Ed.
Year: This part show the year in which the scheme of work will be implemented
Name of school: Show where the teacher is working
Name of the teacher: show the teacher who planned and who is going to use the scheme of work.
Term: Show the term in which the scheme of work will be implemented.
Subject: Show the name of specific subject.
Class: Show the name of the specific class.

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The matrix part
This part contain 13 components:
Competence
Specific objectives
Month
Week
Main topic
Sub topic
Period
Teaching activities
Learning activities
Teaching/learning materials
Reference book
Assessment
Remarks

Description of matrix components.

Competence: Is a statement which specifies the ability that is expected to be exhibited by
learners after they have gone through the topic(s) for a given class.
It derived from the syllabus.
One competence can be built by a combination of subtopics and specific objectives.
Objectives: These are statements which specify the behavior to be showed by the learners. These
statements are derived from the topic in the syllabus.
Month: Is a column that indicate the month in which the topic will be taught.
Week: Is a column that indicates the week in which topic or subtopic will be taught.
Main topic: This column indicates the topics which will be taught in that particular month.
Sub topic: This specifies the area/ subtopic of the topic to be covered.
Periods: A column that indicates number of periods budgeted for a particular topic or subtopic.
Teaching activities: A column that indicates a list of operational activities which will carried
out by the teacher in the process of teaching a particular topic or subtopic.
Learning activities: A column that indicates activities which the learner will perform in the
process of learning a particular topic or subtopic.
Teaching/learning resources or materials: A column that indicates a list of teaching aids that
will be used to facilitate teaching and learning a particular topic or sub topic.
References: A column which indicates a list of textbooks, supplementary books or any other
resources that will be used in teaching and learning a particular topic/subtopic.

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IMPORTANT ISSUES OF THE SCHEME OF WORK
1. The topic and teaching support issues that follow it are for a week, but it could be extended
to two or three weeks. The sequence in which the topics are written should be done by
the teacher. It is generally advisable to treat easy topics earlier.
2. The duration meant for each topic should also be carefully considered. You should be
flexible in allocating the time. For instance, games and sports, cultural engagements, etc.,
could disrupt the original time.
3. Ensure that materials selected should be available and if possible capable of being
improvised.
4. Submit your scheme to your head teacher for vetting. You should equally let a colleague
teacher look at it before you probably give it to your head.

IMPORTANCE OF PREPARING SCHEME OF WORK

The scheme of work:
1. Helps the teacher to know in advance the amount of work that has to be done each term,
week and day.
2. Enables a substitute teacher to know where to continue in the absence of the class teacher.
3. Serves as the record of work for the period.
4. Puts the syllabus into a working perspective.
5. Guides the teacher to read or research for specific information or knowledge.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
LESSON PLAN

MPORTANCE OF LESSON PLANNING

1. Lesson plan enables the teacher to sequence what is to be taught. Writing the lesson plan will
give you the opportunity to determine which activity should come first, which should follow.
2. Lesson plan enables the teacher to identify and gather materials required for teaching.
3. The teacher becomes confidence in presenting the lesson. The teacher can only be confidence
when he/she knows what to teach.
4. It makes the teacher to research, read and consult some sources of information. This can make
the lesson more interesting.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING LESSONS/INSTRUCTION

These are factors we should take note of in selection our topics, lesson content and activities;

1. Relate your topics to the goals of education for the nation or your community. For
instance, if you are to teach your pupils about traditional festivals, you may not first fall on any
textbook at all. Teach from the known to the unknown. Teach them about the traditional festival
in their locality before mentioning those that exist elsewhere.

2. Examine the nature of the topic and its place in the syllabus and scheme of work.
Furthermore, the place of the topic in the syllabus will help you know what concepts or skills
have already been taught. You will also need to know what is to be taught in later topic so as to
prepare them adequately for this. Information on the nature of the topic will help you to write
better lesson notes.

3. The objectives you have written for the topic should guide you on how to deliver. The
way you present your lesson obviously depends upon what your objectives are. Therefore, all the
learning activities in your lesson plan should be those that will assist you to achieve your
objectives. For this reason, you must always look back at your objectives to write your lesson
plan.

4. The learning environment. The activities you plan to do will depend on the material
available in a particular learning environment. For instance, the materials you will use in teaching
a particular topic in a particular topic in a particular locality may differ from another. This factor
should be considered in writing your lesson plan. Conditions of the classroom form part of the
learning environment. If for example a classroom has inadequate furniture you can decide to take
some lesson outdoors.

FEATURES OF A GOOD LESSON PLAN

A good lesson plan should have;

1. General information or background variable; this includes the date for the lesson, the
subject, references with pages of books from which you made the references, the class, average
age of pupils, number on roll, day, time and duration of the lesson. These variables provide

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 information that helps you to decide on the appropriateness of lesson delivery, content and
strategies.

2. Lesson Topic; the topic is the subject matter you are to cover in a lesson.
Your topics should be short and concise. For example, parts of flowering plant (science) or
adjectives (English).

3. Objectives; your objectives must state the value of the lesson to your learners.
In other words, the objectives must state what skills, knowledge and attitude your learners are
expected to acquire. Your lesson may have more than one objective depending on the time
available. The teacher must remember to use performance verbs like list, state, write, discuss,
name and identify in stating his/her objectives.

4. Relevant Previous Knowledge (RPK); the RPK consist of knowledge skills, ideas and
experience that your pupils have already acquired. This is the basis upon which you are going to
build your new lesson. The RP must not necessarily come from a previous lesson. It could be
some general knowledge they have acquired from daily experience.

5. Teaching Learning Material (TLM)

Indicates the teaching learning materials to be used in the lesson

6. Teacher/Learner Activities; this refers to the things we are expected to do as a teacher in the
course of a lesson. It includes the methods of teaching, use of TLM's, at the right time and in the
right manner as well as other classroom interactions. These interactions may involve you and
your pupils or among pupils themselves.

7. Core points; core points are the skills, attitude, knowledge, ideas and other behavioral
outcomes you want to develop in your pupils. They may simply be the subject matter content
you expect your pupils to be conversant with. Your core point must be related to the objectives
you have stated.

8. Evaluation; in the course of your teaching, it expected to ask questions, give exercise in the
course of your lesson, and after the lesson. These could be written or oral quizzes to pupils?
These constitute the evaluation of the lesson. They form the basis for the remarks after the lesson.
Evaluation helps you to determine whether you have achieved your stated objectives or not.

9. Remarks; remarks are written after delivery of the lesson to indicate the level of success
achieved and difficulties faced.

Appropriate learning outcomes

Learning outcomes are descriptions of the specific knowledge, skills, or expertise that the learner
will get from a learning activity, such as a training session, seminar, course, or program.

Learning outcomes are measurable achievements that the learner will be able to understand after
the learning is complete, which helps learners understand the importance of the information and
what they will gain from their engagement with the learning activity.

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Types of learning outcomes

1. Intellectual skills
With this type of learning outcome, the learner will understand concepts, rules or procedures. Put
simply, this is understanding how to do something.

2. Cognitive strategy
In this type of learning outcome, the learner uses personal strategies to think, organize, learn and
behave.

3. Verbal information
This type of learning outcome is when the learner is able to definitively state what they have
learned from an organized body of knowledge.

4. Motor skills
This category is concerned with the physical ability to perform actions, achieving fluidity,
smoothness or proper timing through practice.

5. Attitude
This is the internal state that reflects in the learner’s behavior. It is complex to quantify but can be
shown in the learner’s response to people or situations.

Indicators for a lesson.

COGNITIVE learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills:

comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing data, applying knowledge, choosing
among alternatives in problem-solving, and creation of new products or ideas.

AFFECTIVE learning is demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness, interest,

attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with others, and
ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are appropriate to the test
situation and the field of study.

PSYCHOMOTOR learning is demonstrated by physical skills: coordination, dexterity,

manipulation, grace, strength, speed; actions which demonstrate the fine motor skills such as use
of precision instruments or tools, or actions which evidence gross motor skills such as the use of
the body in dance or athletic performance.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
ST
21 CENTURY SKILLS.

The 21st century skills are a set of abilities that students need to develop in order to succeed in the
information age. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills lists three types:
Learning Skills Learning skills (the four C’s) teaches students about the mental processes required
to adapt and improve upon a modern work environment.
The four C’s are by far the most popular 21st Century skills. These skills are also called learning
skills.
More educators know about these skills because they’re universal needs for any career. They also
vary in terms of importance, depending on an individual’s career aspirations.

The 4 C's of 21st Century Learning Skills are:

• Critical thinking: Finding solutions to problems
• Creativity: Thinking outside the box
• Collaboration: Working with others
• Communication: Talking to others

Literacy Skills: Literacy skills (IMT) focuses on how students can discern facts, publishing
outlets, and the technology behind them. There’s a strong focus on determining trustworthy
sources and factual information to separate it from the misinformation that floods the Internet.
Literacy skills are the next category of 21st Century skills.
They’re sometimes called IMT skills, and they’re each concerned with a different element in
digital comprehension.

The three 21st Century literacy skills are:

• Information literacy: Understanding facts, figures, statistics, and data
• Media literacy: Understanding the methods and outlets in which information is published
• Technology literacy: Understanding the machines that make the Information Age possible

Life Skills: Life skills (FLIPS) take a look at intangible elements of a student’s everyday life.
These intangibles focus on both personal and professional qualities.
Life skills is the final category. Also called FLIPS, these skills all pertain to someone’s personal
life, but they also bleed into professional settings.

The five 21st Century life skills are:

• Flexibility: Deviating from plans as needed
• Leadership: Motivating a team to accomplish a goal
• Initiative: Starting projects, strategies, and plans on one’s own
• Productivity: Maintaining efficiency in an age of distractions

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 • Social skills: Meeting and networking with others for mutual benefit

Altogether, these categories cover all 12 21st Century skills that contribute to a student’s future
career.

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 CHAPTER SIX
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management may be defined as the process of organizing and controlling the physical
and social environment in the classroom to achieve educational goals. It may also be defined as
the efficient control and efficient use of available resources in the classroom to promote learning.

The physical environment includes tangible objects or physical entities like the teacher’s table
and chair, pupils’ tables and chairs or desks, the chalkboard, duster, textbooks, audiovisual aids,
wall charts and pictures, cupboards and cabinets, and the teacher and pupils. The teacher and
pupils in a classroom constitute a social unit and the types of interactions between the teacher
and pupils constitute the social environment.

Class management includes all the strategies that the teacher uses to bring harmony into the
teaching and learning environment.

The teacher as a manager of his class performs some management functions. These include
planning what to teach, how and when to teach. This is done by preparing a lesson plan. The
teacher also budgets for the material and human resources he will need in the teaching learning
environment. He is also expected to organize by arranging, assembling and using the physical
and human resources to achieve stated objectives. He also controls by directing the teaching-
learning process from beginning to end until the set objectives are attained. Finally the teacher
performs the management function of problem solving by ensuring that the class environment is
free of conflict and conducive for learning as well as helping individuals to deal with their
personal, academic and social problems.

To perform these functions the teacher must have competence in subject matter knowledge
(content) and in action system knowledge (methodology). In addition to these he must have a
positive, consistent and firm personality that will empower him to exercise the influence on his
class to achieve his set objectives.

Elements of Effective Classroom Management

Classroom management systems include routine ways of managing instructional and behavioural
interactions in the classroom. Six key elements of effective classroom management are:
➢ Planning
➢ Establishing usable rules
➢ Getting off on a good start
➢ Monitoring the classroom environment
➢ Keeping records efficiently
➢ Creating strategies for managing interruptions.

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IMPORTANCE OF MANAGING THE CLASSROOM

1. Good classroom management helps to promote discipline in the classroom to enhance

teaching and learning.
2. It ensures harmony during the teaching and learning environment.
3. It again ensures healthy conditions under which classroom activities can be carried out
effectively.
4. It again promotes the development of good behaviour and accepted patterns of life among
peers.
5. Classroom management encourages the development of leadership skills among pupils.
6. Good classroom management again helps to monitor pupils’ progress in the classroom.

MOTIVATION
Motivation comes from the Latin word “movere” which means “to move”. Motivation can
therefore be explained as moving oneself and others to work towards the attainment of set
individual as well as organizational goals. Slavin (1991) defined motivation as the influence of
needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behaviour.

Lefton (1994) defined it as any condition, usually internal, that appears by inference to initiate,
activate or maintain an organism’s goal-directed behaviour.
Motivation as it relates to the classroom can be seen as a process of arousing and sustaining the
interest of pupils in class activities.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
These are theories that explain the process of motivation. They include historical explanations,
the behaviourist approach, the humanistic approach, and cognitive theories.

Historical Explanations
These are earlier theories that were generated to explain the concept of motivation. They include:
The Instinct Theory which says that complex, unlearned patterns of behaviour common to an
entire species account for behaviour.
The Arousal Theory proposed biological explanations. Theorists of this orientation propounded
that increasing arousal is defined by psychological changes such as we experience in respiration
and heart rate. This is normally accompanied by increasing alertness or wakefulness and ranges
from very low state for example sleep and boredom to very high state such as panic and anxiety.
People try to maintain an optimal level of arousal for maximally effective behaviour.

Behaviourist Approach
These theorists stress the importance of positive and negative extrinsic reinforcers. These are
external influences that are brought to bear on the individual to arouse and sustain his interest in
an activity. One important reinforcer is praise. The effectiveness of praise depends to a large

19
 extent on the kind of interpretation the pupil gives to the situation. Praise should therefore be
used systematically, deliberately, and intelligently.

Humanistic Approach
These theorists on motivation emphasize intrinsic or internal motives such as those relating to
autonomy, competence, and self-actualization. Consequently, educators who ascribe to this
orientation are especially concerned with the personal development of students and the
enhancement of positive self-concepts. Abraham Maslow’s humanistic theory presents a
hierarchical arrangement of need systems, with physiological needs at the lowest level known as
basic needs. At the highest level is the need for self-actualization, also known as Meta needs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Cognitive Approach
Cognitive theorists on motivation describe humans as active, exploring, evaluating organisms
capable of delaying gratification and of explaining the outcomes of their won behaviours. Albert
Bandura, one of the cognitive theorists proposed that the idea of self-efficacy that is personal
effectiveness is important for determining which behaviours will be undertaken. He added that
children are least likely to attempt activities when they expect failure and the amount of effort
that will be put in an activity will be greater if success is anticipated. Judgments of self-efficacy
are affected by the following:
✓ Enactive influences - successful outcomes increase positive judgment
✓ Vicarious influences - comparisons with others
✓ Persuasory influences - persuasion by others
✓ Emotive influences - high arousal can increase or decrease judgments of Self-
efficacy

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Weiner is another cognitivist who propounded the attribution theory. This theory says that
individuals tend to attribute their success or failures to internal or external causes. Internal causes
refer to one’s ability and effort while external causes refer to difficulty or luck. Those who make
attribution to internal causes are said to have internal locus of control, while those who make
external attributions are said to have external locus of control.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION
The two types of motivation are Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.

1. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION:
This is a type of motivation that comes from within an individual. It is a self-imposed motivation.
The intrinsic motivation is the type where the learner is moved from within to perform a task
without any external influence. It is influenced by self-interest and excitement.

2. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION:
The extrinsic motivation is externally imposed. It is a type of influence that comes from outside
to induce learning. What triggers the extrinsic motivation is the use of rewards, praises, grades,
promotions and interest teachers show in pupils’ achievements. When one performs an act
because someone has influenced him/her to do it, than that person has been motivated
extrinsically.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
1. Motivation puts learners on their toes as rewards and praises make them alert.
2. It encourages students to contribute during instructions.
3. Motivation gives students the courage to think more on a topic.
4. It again enables the teacher to secure the attention of the class.
5. It again creates interest and excitement that is necessary for classroom learning.

STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING LEARNERS

1. Teachers should plan their work to meet the different levels of aspirations among the
pupils. Make provision for different materials, activities and projects for pupils of
different abilities and aspirations.
2. Provoke the pupils’ curiosity at the set-induction stage. For instance, the teacher can pose
a problem or give a pre-test.
3. Encourage self-competition (intrinsic motivation) rather than making individuals
compete against each other. Use group co-operation and team competition.
4. Use appropriate teaching learning materials and practical experiences in the teaching and
learning process.
5. Use games, dramatization and role-play to get pupils involved and to participate in
lessons.
6. The use of praises, marks, rewards, gifts etc. especially for average, slow learners and
those who lack self-assurance.

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 7. Respect the needs and nature of students. Recognize differences in the abilities of students
and set standards for performance that are congruent with what students can accomplish.
Reward effort; nevertheless maintain standards for good work.
8. Take pupils on fieldwork or fieldtrips to change classroom atmosphere.
9. Set goals that are realistic and achievable because when tasks become too difficult for
students, it may discourage them.
10. Provide regular feedback to pupils to inspire them to put in more effort in their learning.
11. Show attitudes of acceptance of pupils so that they will feel loved and have a sense of
belonging.

ORGANISING ROUTINE ACTIVITIES

CLASSROOM ROUTINE ACTIVITIES:

A routine refers to a fixed and regular way of doing things. Classroom routine activities therefore
refer to the sequence of activities and events which occur regularly in the classroom. As these
activities are repeated regularly, they become a matter of exactly what activities are to take place
and at what time.

KINDS OF ROUTINE ACTIVITIES IN THE CLASSROOM

Some of the routine activities in the classroom include the following:

1. Asking politely for a thing or favour.
2. Greeting of teacher by pupils as he or she enters the classroom.
3. Asking permission before leaving the class.
4. Getting up and responding to greetings when a visitor enters the classroom.
5. Raising up one’s hand before answering or asking a question in class.
6. Maintaining silence and attention whiles the teacher teaches.
7. Orderly distribution and collection of exercise books and other teaching materials.
8. Seating arrangements.
9. Checking the roll
10. Use and cleaning of the chalkboard by teacher and pupils.

ASSIGNING ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE CLASSROOM

To ensure that pupils obey rules and regulations in the classroom the teacher has to give various
roles and responsibilities to some pupils. Among these roles given to pupils are;
✓ Class prefect
✓ Cupboard monitor
✓ Sanitary prefect
In giving out the roles to students the teacher needs to consider the gender aspect as well as the
individual differences. This will ensure fair or balanced assigning of roles. There is no strict role
that only boys or girls can perform.

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ENCOURAGING PUPILS TO FOLLOW CLASSROOM ROUTINES
To encourage pupils to follow routine activities in the classroom, the teacher has to motivate
pupils using both tangible (materials) and intangible (non materials) rewards. Tangible rewards
include gifts such as chalk, books, pencils and pens, good terminal reports, etc. Intangible
rewards include good remarks, applauses, praises, etc.

CLASSROOM SEATING AND ARRANGEMENT

Classroom furniture always has some influence on the learning atmosphere to some extent, but
the choice is sometimes outside the control of the teacher as they are often fixed or too heavy to
move.

In situations where the chairs and tables/desks are freestanding, they can be rearranged to have a
flexible seating pattern to full advantage of the lesson. In other situations where they are fixed or
where they are too heavy to move, the teacher may be left no choice than to stick to the original
arrangement.

SOME CLASSROOM SEATING ARRANGEMENTS

A. SIMPLE ROWS / SEATING IN ROWS: this is the most common seating arrangement
used in Ghanaian schools. Desks / tables are arranged in rows and columns with spaces
between them and the teacher’s seat in front facing the class. See diagram below:

23
 B. HORSE SHOE OR SEMI-CIRCULAR ARRANGEMENT:
This is sometimes described as circular seating, but it is in the form of a semi-circle with pupils
facing the teacher in the middle. It allows for face to face contact and is suitable for a small class.
See diagram below:

Teacher

ADVANTAGES:

1) It makes the classroom relaxed and friendly.

2) A few T.L.M can be effectively used.
3) It makes it easy for children to show ideas (collaborative learning).
4) It enables the teacher to establish eye contact with the pupil to exercise control of the
class.
5) Suitable for lessons like story telling.

DISADVANTAGES

1) It makes it easy for pupils to copy from each other.

2) Classroom atmosphere becomes informal and degenerate into disorder. 3)
Movement is hindered to some extent.

GROUPS AROUND DESKS

This is where pupils are seated around desks located separately from each other. The
number of pupils per desk depends on the required size of groups and the number of pupils in the
class. See diagram below:

24
 ADVANTAGES
1) Grouping is easy.
2) Create forum for collaborative and participatory learning.
3) A few T.L.M. are utilized.
4) Very useful for practical works like science.
5) Creates opportunity for children to develop leadership and other social skills.

DISAVANTAGES
1) Movement is difficult for the teacher and pupils.
2) It creates fertile grounds for fidgeting and disorder.
3) Children tend to copy from each other instead of learning. 4) Class control is not easy.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SEATING PUPILS

1. Friendships and familiarity
2. Pupils’ interest
3. Visual problems
4. Auditory problems
5. The level of the class

OTHER FACTORS:
a. Height problems.
b. The nature of the furniture.
c. The size of the classroom and the number of pupils.

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d. The nature of the activity to be performed.

MANAGING INSTRUCTIONAL TIME

The instructional time is also known as the contact hour. It is the time frame for interaction
between the teachers and the students to do an activity. The instructional time is only the period
the teacher meets the class to give them an instruction. Any meeting out of this period even
though is part of the actual curriculum of the school is not part of the instructional time, for e.g.
interaction during break, dining period, games etc. do not form part of the instructional time.

MISUSE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME

Instructional time is misused in several ways. Among them are;

1. Late starting of classes. This can be caused by a natural occurrence like heavy downpour or
sickness. It can also be artificial like laziness, traffic or intentional. Whichever way that it
occurs it affects the instructional time.
2. Early closing of school. This may be caused by some factors like closing early to attend a
programme or laziness on the part of the school authority.
3. Teacher absenteeism. Any time a teacher does not come to school; it affects instructional
time.
4. Selection in subjects on the time table when teachers intentionally neglect some subjects at
the expense of others, it leads to waste of instructional time.
5. Holidays. Most of the time there are so many public holidays that force school authorities to
close down schools. It affects the instructional time.
6. Spending part of the time to organize sporting and cultural activities, for e.g. some days
are lost to sporting and cultural activities in the course of the term. These affect instructional
time.
7. Organizing staff meeting during instructional hours.
Hence any incident that prevents the teacher for meeting a class for instruction accounts for
mismanagement of instructional time.

EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME

• Bells or drums should be used to signal the beginning and end of a lesson.
• Teachers as well as the pupils should work with the bell or drum.
• Lesson notes should be prepared to cover all the subjects on the time table.
• Adhere to the lesson and the duration you prepared in your teaching.
• Holidays should be reduced by policy makers and the government.
• Pupils should not be allowed to play beyond the official duration given.
• Co-curricular activities should be held outside the normal instructional time.

Aside the above, Crowl, Kamisky and Podell (1997) have given the following suggestions on
how to maximise the use of instructional time.
1. Keep students motivated

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 2. Keep instruction on students’ levels. Instructions that students find to be either too easy
or too difficult will make them loose interest.
3. Keep students active. Lessons should be composed of activities that are meaningful and
promote the achievement of instructional objectives.
4. Be organized and prepared; anticipate problems.
5. Delegate responsibilities when appropriate. Call responsible students to help with
administrative functions that are within their range of capabilities so that you can
concentrate on essential matters and teaching.
6. Turn on your ‘radar’ and watch for students whose attention is drifting.

ORDER AND DISCIPLINE IN THE CLASSROOM

Order is submission or compliance to rules and regulations for fear of punishment, fear of losing
a favour or in anticipation for some favour. When a student obeys school rules and regulation for
fear that he/she would be punished, the student is said to be respecting order. Similarly if a truant
feels he/she would be discriminated against in the distribution of prizes to well behaved students,
and therefore changes, he is said to be following or being submissive to order.

Any change in behaviour that is motivated by needs, fear or discrimination, fear of

punishment, etc., is said to be the result of order. Order is therefore externally imposed. The
use of force and forms of punishment may work to some extent, at least for some time; such
disciplinary methods are based on fear.

Discipline is defined as readiness or ability to respect authority and observe conventional or

established laws of the society or of any other organization. Discipline means self-control,
restraint, respect for self and respect for others. It therefore requires sacrifices, perseverance,
tolerance and recognition of human dignity.

Discipline is directed by inward decision and therefore involves self-control. A disciplined

person knows what is right and takes the right cause of action not for fear of punishment or in
anticipation for a reward because he knows that is good to behave as such.

Disciplined people willingly learn the norms, principles and ways of life of people in the society.
The purpose of school discipline is therefore to produce a well cultivated youth who will not only
respect themselves and the larger society but will also respect school authorities, school rules
and regulations. For set goals or objectives to be achieved discipline and orderliness are vital.

The teacher should therefore possess the needed qualities to control the class to maintain law and
order. Green (1962) identified: talking, disobedience, carelessness, defiance of authority,
throwing objects, etc., as the common misbehaviour that occurs among students.

Charles (1983) identified three kinds of misbehaviour that are likely to occur in the classroom
and in which teachers frown upon. These are:

27
 1. Behaviours that affect their senses of morality.
2. Behaviour that is defiant and aggressive.
3. Behaviour that disrupts class work.

CAUSES OF INDISCIPLINE IN THE CLASSROOM/SCHOOL

There are generally 2 categories of factors that create disorders and indiscipline namely external
and internal factors. The external factors are social in kind and those that the teacher might
not be responsible for causing or decreasing them. Examples are parental rejection, poverty,
low socio-economic status, viewing violent and pornographic films, frustration, inadequate
scholastic aptitude and achievement.

The next factor comes from the way the school is organized. Under this factor are categorization
of pupils into high, average and low ability groups, large class size, inadequate personal attention
and crowding (de-personalization), lack of teacher authority (the head alone wields power), lack
of delegation by school heads, large class size making it impossible for teachers to help learners
with special attention needs, poor school-community relations.
In their book ‘Educational Psychology’, Gage and Berliner (1984) categorized problems that
bring about disorder and indiscipline into two namely “too much misbehaviour of undesirable
kind” and “too little behaviour of desirable kind”. The categories simply imply that, when pupils’
behaviour is often undesirable it creates indiscipline in schools just as when pupils’ good
behaviour is very little creates discipline problems.

CATEGORY ONE PROBLEM (Too much……. Of undesirable kind)

1. Physical aggression
2. Verbal aggression
3. Inappropriate movement in the classroom
4. Creating or making unnecessary noise
5. Challenging authority
6. Disobedience to authority
7. Making destructive criticisms or unjustifiable complaints
8. Teasing and ridiculing
9. Frequent lateness/ absenteeism

CATEGORY TWO PROBLEM (making too little……. Of desirable kind)

1. Attentiveness in class
2. Showing interest in class work, etc.
3. Appropriate interactions with classmates
4. Regular and punctual attendance to class
5. Independent work by pupils
6. Obedience to rules and regulations
7. Exhibiting the spirit of brotherliness

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OTHER CAUSES OF CLASSROOM INDISCIPLINE
1. Ineffective teaching
2. Inappropriate staff behaviour
3. Authoritarian and pure lazier-faire administrative method
4. Harsh school rules
5. Influence of home and society
6. Harshness of school prefects
7. Harshness of continuing students on junior students
8. Poor academic results
9. Unsatisfactory school curricular
10. Poor examination results
11. Lack of enforcement of school rules and regulations
12. Poor communication between the school administrator, staff and pupils.
13. Poor quantity/quality food

SYMPTOMS OF INDISCIPLINE
There are signs which when seen in the school indicate that there is indiscipline in the school.
Among these signs are:
1. Students’ demonstration (peaceful/violent)
2. General unrest
3. Mass disobedience
4. Deliberate breaches of school rules
5. Drug use
6. Alcoholism
7. Delinquencies
8. Drunkenness
9. Stealing
10. Truancy
11. Absenteeism
12. Persistent lateness
13. Bullying or laziness

HOW TO MAINTAIN DISCIPLINE

If the indiscipline stems from poor school organization the following could be used to salvage
the situation.
1. Strong administration
2. Good leadership
3. High expectations of school achievement
4. Orderly school setting
5. Emphasis on basic skills
6. Frequent monitoring of pupils’ progress

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HOW A HEADTEACHER AND STAFF CAN ENHANCE DISCIPLINE
Discipline could be enhanced by the head teacher and his staff through some of the following
ways among others:
1. Preparing good lesson plans and submitting them earlier for vetting by the school
administrator ( headmaster)
2. Regularly and punctually attending school
3. Formulating and effectively enforcing good school rules and regulations.
4. Being honest in the use of school funds and finances.
5. Avoiding favouritism in the dealing with staff and pupils.
6. Encouraging parents and guardians active participation in the running of the school.
7. Giving respect for parents and showing great concern about their problems by offering them
the desired assistance towards solving the problems.
8. Avoiding having amorous love with the pupils of the school.
9. Putting in place a permanent discipline committee with the members of a sound moral
behaviour and have the ability to manage conflict situation at any level in the school.
10. Impressing on the staff the need to set good examples for the pupils to emulate.
11. By impressing on the staff to work as a team and towards goals set, as well as behaving
desirably in and outside the classroom.
12. By solving conflicts in a positive and constructive approach.
13. Following rules, regulations and procedures laid down by Ghana Education Service.
(Employers).
14. Maintaining constant communication with staff and pupils using the prefectoral and
committee systems.

WAYS OF PREVENTING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS

1. Keep students occupied with activities that will keep them busy, they will therefore not get
time under normal circumstances to misbehave.
2. Teacher should ensure a smooth lesson delivery during instruction.
3. The teaching and learning materials used should meet pupils’ needs and interest.
4. Appropriate use of motivation is an important factor as teachers should periodically motivate
and admonish students to pay attention.
5. The teacher should be smart and know whatever goes on within the classroom.

HOW TO PREVENT UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS IN THE SCHOOL

AS IDENTIFIED BY KOUMI (1970)

WITHITNESS: the tendency to know whatever goes on in the classroom. The teacher with high
wittiness has an “owl” eye i.e. sees everywhere, hence able detect the least undesirable behaviour
put up at any corner of the classroom.

SMOOTHNESS: the ability to continue executing any activity of the school or classroom
without distracting the attention of the pupils’ i.e. undisturbed flow of activities.

30
HANDLE OVERLAPINGNESS: ability to handle 2 or more similar problems without getting
confused and without losing touch of the fact that the situations can bring additional and more
serious problems if left unchecked.

MAINTAIN MOMENTUM: ability to sustain interest in everything one does i.e. no slow
down, keeping to the pace.

GROUP ALERT: ability to get pupils or students actively involved in what is being taught.

HOW TO EXTINGUISH UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS IN THE SCHOOL

AS IDENTIFIED BY O’LEARY (1977)

WITH HOLDING ATTENTION: deliberately ignoring the misbehaviour of pupils and

continuing to focus attention to the pupil who is behaving desirably.

NEGATIVELY REINFORCING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOUR: openly ask students or

pupils to ignore the behaviour of the classmates.

MEANINGFUL OCCUPATION OF STUDENTS: keep pupils on interesting tasks so that

they would rather focus attention on what is being taught instead of attending to fellow
classmates’ misbehaviour.

PROMPT HANDLING OF SOME MISBEHAVIOUR: since silence means concern, if

undesirable behaviours are not openly criticized, they may persist. Open defiance, obscenity,
hostility, bullying, directed at the teacher or the head teacher cannot be ignored. Taking prompt
and immediate action is desired.

HOW TO STRENGHTEN DESIRABLE BEHAVIOUR

➢ ENCOURAGEMENT: encourage desirable behaviours from other pupils. When
someone puts up an undesirable behaviour e.g. when a pupil answers a question without
being called to answer a question, his answer is ignored and another pupil who puts up
the hand is called to respond to the same question. When the offending student answers a
question after putting up hand and being called, he should be praised to strengthen this
desirable behaviour.
➢ USE OF PUNISHMENT: punishment is used when other strategies had failed to yield
the desired results. The punishment should however be necessary and justifiable.

FORMS OF PUNISHMENT
1. Soft reprimand – rebuke.
2. Reprimand linked with praise to prompt desirable behaviours.
3. Social isolation – ostracize.
4. Deduction of points from section.
5. Banning to take part in interesting activities e.g. soccer, ludo, netball.

31
 6. Negative attention – harsh words, facial expression, tone of voice and gestures indicating
that the learner was not behaving desirably.
7. Corporal punishment. It should be noted however that corporal punishment such as
spanking, physical assault (using hands), detaining, imprisonment, denying pupils access
to meals and water for a long time is very wrong and morally unpardonable, especially
during the teaching and learning process.

HOW TO DEAL WITH “TOO LITTLE OF DESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS”

From the view point of psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, shyness, withdrawal,
daydreaming and inattentiveness are more serious misbehaviours than absenteeism, truancy,
lateness, etc. as they affect negatively the teaching and learning process making the teacher waste
his energy. The teacher should refer such acts to the specialist when they appear excessively.
Among the strategies to adopt to check such behaviours are:
1. ELICITING: call children’s attention more frequently to partake in the task on
hand.
2. MODELLING: use people who were active during learning process and have
become high achievers or successful in their life endeavours as examples to the
pupils.
3. REINFORCEMENT: immediately praise or commend the pupils showing the
slightest desirable behaviour.
4. SHAPING: the teacher after commending, praising or appreciating the
contribution (good behaviour) of the pupil, ask for more of such acts from the
pupil and other pupils.
5. CONTRACTING: this is sometimes called performance contract. The teacher
promise an award of marks, pencils, chalk, pens or exercise books to the pupils if
he or she is able to put up a desirable behaviour.
NOTE that promise failed means breach of contract and it will result in undesirable
behaviours.

HOW TO HANDLE DISRUPTIVE PUPILS

1. Have a good occulence and kinesis. This deals with eyes and body movement that will makes
the teacher alert to identify particular students who misbehave and address that misbehaviour
almost immediately. For lower primary class, if they are not corrected immediately they may
not understand why probably they are punished.

2. The teacher should maintain the momentum of teaching. Be consistent and sustain interest
of learners throughout the lesson. There should not be climaxes and downward trends during
instruction.

3. Smoothness is another way of handling disruptive pupils. Whatever you teach pupils should
flow with no distractions when it becomes necessary to change activities. If during instruction
anything happens that will distract attention, allow students time to look at that thing, it
should not be happening while they may be receiving instruction.

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 4. Group alerting: this is the ability to manage students in a way that keep students involved,
attentive and alert. This could be done by maintaining suspense as to what kind of questions
would be presented next. Inattentive pupils could sometimes be called upon to answer
questions.

5. Rewarding and praising attentive students: we emphasize here that good behaviour
exhibited by students should not go unrewarded. Rewards like clapping, praises and if
possible marks should be used to handle disruptive students. Good behaviours should be
rewarded but bad behaviours should be condemned to bring about the desired behaviour.

In dealing with tardiness (perpetual late comers) the following are suggested:
1. Reward students for arriving on time.
2. Help students to analyses skills or steps required to arrive on time e.g. determine
time to leave for home.
3. Place a sign-in sheet at the door so that students can record their names. The class
register should be marked early and at closing, the roll should also be taken.
4. Schedule activities that students enjoy at the start of the class period.
5. Set up contract with students.
6. Encourage parents to give watches to their children.
7. Assign peer tutors.

Verbal outbursts refer to cases where students talk out in class and disrupt the orderly flow of
classroom activities. The following measures are suggested as means of handling verbal outburst:
a. Establish clearly stated classroom rules regarding students’ verbal interactions.
Let students be very clear about circumstances under which they are allowed to
talk.
b. Reinforce students who are good models for others to emulate.
c. Set up a points system for dealing with talking out.

In some instances, disruptive pupils may move about the classroom at inappropriate times.
The following can be adopted to deal with the problem:
i. Discuss class rules to the full understanding of students. ii.
Record the amount of time the student is out of his seat.
iii. Have students record their own in-seat behaviour.
iv. Provide frequent reinforcement for appropriate behaviour.
Some students may have difficulty getting along with others and this may be characterized by
aggressive behaviours or withdrawals. To improve social relationships the following measures
may be used:
1. Use role-play to help students practice non-aggressive responses.
2. Teach students acceptable responses to verbal or physical attacks.
3. Reinforce students who substitute appropriate non-aggressive responses for the
aggressive behaviour they previously exhibited.
4. Use reinforcers to encourage social interactions of withdrawn students.
5. Pair withdrawn students with a helpful peer

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
LESSON DELIVERY

QUESTIONING
What is a Question?
A question is a problem which needs to be discussed. In an examination, a question is a problem
which is set in order to test our knowledge or ability. According to Koomson et al (2000; 207) a
question may be interrogative statement or command. E.g. “Tell me what you see in this
book.”(Command)
“We will describe what you see in the book” (command)
“What do see in this book?” (Interrogative)
All the above sentences are expecting responses.
In the context of teaching however, question may be defined as a teacher utterance which has the
objective of eliciting an oral response from the learners. I.e. is an oral response statement or
gesture intended to evoke a student response?

The reasons for questioning

It enables the teacher:
1. Know what is in the mind of the learners.
2. Make the pupils express what they have understood in the lesson.
3. Make the learners think.
4. Remind learner about important issues or points which they may not deem important.
5. Remind learners of what they know.
6. To find out if learners can use their knowledge
7. To make the introverts express themselves in class, i.e. it prompts pupils to take part in
the lesson.
8. To draw learners attention to the main points in the lesson.
9. To check and correct inattention, i.e. it keeps the learners alert
10. To find out how effective his teaching has been, i.e. to assess the achievement of the
lesson objective(s).

KINDS OF QUESTIONS AND PURPOSE

FACTS QUESTIONS:
They are meant to draw up thought. They call for quick responses. E.g. to test whether learners
remember names, dates, etc.

DRILL QUESTIONS:
To sharpen children’s memories. They aid memorization. They are also known as warm-up
questions.

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THOUGHT QUESTIONS
They are meant to encourage originality in answering. Thought questions lead to general
discussions by the class. They are used to stimulate questions from the learners themselves.
Thought questions require reasoning or judgment on a problem.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
The questions make learners form different points of view. The teacher does not explain what he
expects from the learners.

EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS:
These questions are asked to introduce a lesson. It seeks to remind learners of what they have
been taught before. (Review of P.K) they are check – up test. The aim is to stir up learners’
eagerness to know more. It also let the teacher know the knowledge of the learners and what to
build on.

EDUCATION QUESTIONS:
They are meant to let the learner compare, imagine, or infer so it enable the learners build upon
their ideas as the teacher wants. The questions are therefore call for real mental effort of the
learners.

AID-TO- MEMORY QUESTIONS:

These questions are meant to let learners remember things they often forget. They are used only
when pupils go against rules, advice or instructions.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS AND PURPOSE

RHETORICAL/FUENCY: They test how fluent learners are. Learners are expected to answer
in full.

PROMPTING QUESTIONS: The wordings of such questions suggest their answers. They
prompt pupils to make them answer questions. E.g. Godfred is a good spokesman, isn’t he?
Teachers resort to these questions on realizing that learners find his lesson difficult to understand.

CONVERGENT: They are questions that limit answers to single or small number if responses.
The learner has already heard the answer before or has previously read or heard and is only to
recall the facts. E.g. “What does the term etc. mean? What is the name of your class teacher?
Convergent questions are also called direct or closed response.

DIVERGENT QUESTIONS: These questions are opened for several responses i.e. it has no
single answer but it can have wrong answers. The questions do not require specific answers. The
questions do not require specific answers to be right or wrong. Divergent questions are also
known as indirect questions.

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They are aimed at encouraging speculation and creativity among learners. They also make
learners think critically.
E.g. the question ‘who is the most important person in Ghana?” will call for several answers.

PROBING QUESTIONS: They are questions that immediately follow a student’s response to
a question. Probing questions are also called investigation questions.
Probing questions are used to elicit clarification because they induce learners to show more of
what they know thereby revealing exactly what they understand.

They are also used to solicit new information. Thus they make respondents follow up their
responses with small extension of their responses.

HIGHER ORDER QUESTIONS: these questions make pupils think and analyses issues.

FOCUSING QUESTIONS: They are also known as recapitulatory questions. They are asked
at the end of each stage of the lesson and at the end of the lesson. They help the teacher to find
out whether learners have assimilated what has been taught. It helps the learners to get in mind
the important facts. They provide summary of each stage of the lesson.

LOWER ORDER QUESTIONS: These questions demand simple responses like Yes/No;
True/False.

WHEN TO QUESTION DURING TEACHING AND LEARNING

(A) AT THE BEGINNING OF LESSON i.e. introduction of a lesson.
1. To test children’s precious knowledge.
2. To call children to attention to begin a lesson.
3. To arouse the curiosity of the learners.

(B) DURING THE LESSON.

1. To encourage learner involvement in the lesson.
2. To find out how far the learners have understood the lesson up to a point.
3. To correct misconceptions of learners.
4. To call learners to attention.

(C) AT THE END OF THE LESSON

5. To evaluate the lesson taught.
6. To stress the most important points.
7. To find out the difficulty areas of the learners.

HOW TO MAKE QUESTIONS EFFECTIVE

1. Questions must be clear and straightforward meaning and wording.
2. Questions should dwell on important details.

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3. Questions should be put in a logical order.
4. Questions should be put for all learners in the classroom not specific learners.
5. Questions may be carefully written down beforehand.

HOW TO QUESTION
How to ask question during the teaching and learning process is a skill to be acquired by all
teachers. Among other techniques teachers can adopt when asking questions in class are as
follows;
1. Avoid chorus responses from learners.
Defects of chorus responses
a. Some individuals may noticeably not take part. It therefore suppresses individual
self-expression.
b. It decreases individual thought. Individuals may not think of the question to be
answered.
c. It does not permit the teacher to monitor feedback from individual learners.

2. Teachers should follow a simple five-part questioning procedure to draw the mind of all
the learners to the question.

THE FIVE PART QUESTIONING PROCEDURE

1. Ask question before naming a pupil to answer the question.
2. Pause (“wait times”). This will make every learner have time to think about the question.
While waiting, watch the learners for non-verbal feedback to determine how long to
pause; at least three seconds.
3. Call on one learner at a time and by name.
4. Listen to the answer.
5. Emphasize the correct answer.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

What are instructional materials?

Any item that can be seen or heard, touched or cannot be touched, eaten or not eaten, liquid or
solid, that can enhance learners’ understanding of what is taught in or outside the classroom, are
described as instructional materials. Instructional materials are also known in contemporary
times as instructional media.

What is the best form of instructional materials?

The best form of instructional materials are those that provide the learners opportunity to use as
many senses as possible since every person learns through the five senses namely sight, hearing,
smelling, touching and tasting.

THE RELEVANCE/IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING/ LEARNING MATERIALS (TLM)

IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS
They make the learners focus attention on the lesson being taught.
Teaching and learning materials promote easy understanding of what is taught.
It saves instructional time instead of oral description and explanation which takes much of the
time for teaching.
They also provide the opportunity for learners to get involved in the teaching and learning
process.
As learners talk about the materials and use them, they contribute to the learners’ communication
ability.
Teaching and learning materials are aids to memory.
The use of teaching and learning materials promote self learning ability in learners.
They provide previous knowledge on which future learning could be based.
They help to promote transfer of learning.
Misbehaviour of pupils, boredom and tiredness associated with classroom learning are reduced.

TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

In terms of classification the first category is classified into 3 namely Primary, Secondary and
Tertiary instructional aids.

CATEGORY ONE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

PRIMARY AIDS: These are instructional materials that are real/actual natural objects found in
their natural habitats e.g. cattle grazing on the field, fish in a river or pond, aeroplanes in the
airport, ships in the harbour, etc.

SECONDARY AIDS: These are models of real objects e.g. models of cubes and cuboids used
in mathematics and models of houses, cars, aeroplanes, gun, snake and animals.

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TERTIARY AIDS: These are used as two dimensional illustrations. They are mainly artificial
materials and equipment used in teaching. E.g. films, maps, globes, photographs, charts,
cardboard drawings, chalkboard illustrations, radio talk shows, etc.

CATEGORY TWO OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

The materials that mostly come under this category are the visual, audio and audio-visual aids.

VISUAL MATERIALS: They are presented to be watched by learners. Materials that come
under this category are three dimensional materials, printed materials, chalkboards, flannel
boards, bulletin boards, pictures from newspapers, magazines, etc. and graphic materials.

AUDIO AIDS: These are teaching materials that produce only sound. The sound from these
materials is what aids teaching and learning. They appeal to only the hearing senses.

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS: These are the teaching materials that produce both sounds and
pictures. Examples of audio-visual teaching materials are films and video tapes.

MEASURES TO ENSURE BENEFIT FROM THE USE OF TEACHING/LEARNING

MATERIALS
self preparation:
prepare the environment:
prepare the pupils:
proper use of the materials:

STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN USING TLMs

Ensure that the aid can be seen or heard by all if it is a poster, tape etc.
When materials are not adequate in terms of quantity, the learners must be put into groups.
Be specific as to what you want the learners to do with the materials.
Don’t confuse the learners by presenting too many visual aids at a time.
Face the class when using visual materials.
Make your visual materials attractive in respect of colours and labelling.
Present the materials at the point in the lesson which is most appropriate.
Pre-try the materials before use to avoid failures and embarrassments.
Always choose an aid that suits your topic.
Don’t use any aid which is likely to embarrass, offend or annoy somebody or some group.

PREPARATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS SKILLS THAT THE TEACHER

NEEDS
Using matchstick figures to produce simple chalkboard and other pictorial illustrations.
The art of improvisation; how to identify things possible to be improvised for use in the
classroom in the absence of the real objects.
The preparation of “papier marche” for making models such as highlands and lowlands.
The preparation of cardboard drawings, charts, etc

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PREPARATION OF CARDBOARD DIAGRAMS – STEPS TO FOLLOW
Practice drawing or sketching on an old newspaper so as to correct all mistakes before
transferring same onto the cardboard to save your cardboard and as well as save cost.
All illustrations on the cardboard should have an appropriate and a meaningful heading (title).
If labelled, the label must be very clearly and boldly written.
The labelling should be done in a neat handwriting.
Use different colours to produce the material but the colours must not be too many.

CHALKBOARD USE
The writing should be bold and legible.
The letters used in writing words the on the chalkboard should have uniform style.
Any information on the chalkboard should be neatly arranged.
Spaces should be uniform between words and between lines.
Start the lesson with a clean chalkboard and leave the board clean after the lesson.
Practice writing on the bard at your free time.
Use duster and not your hand in cleaning the board.
Move to the back of the class from time to time to make sure that all of them can see from their
seating position.

CHALKBOARD ILLUSTRATIONS
Should be simple in outline.
Should not be complicated in providing details.
Should be clearly visible for those sitting at the back to see.

WRITING ON THE CHALKBOARD

Writing on the board should be accurate.
There should be correct spelling of words.
Examples on the board should be correct and good.
There should be precise and logical summary.

POSITION OF CHALKBOARD IN THE CLASSROOM

Should be placed where every pupil will see clearly from it.
Where teachers will not block pupils view.
Kept away from reflection of the sun.

WHY SOME TEACHERS DO NOT USE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Lack of knowledge about suitable and useful instructional materials.
The cost involved in acquiring the materials.
The belief that TLM (the material) should be ready made and supplied by GES.
Circuit Supervisors do not insist on the use of the materials (TLMs).
Scarcity and unavailability of the materials.

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SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM OF NON USE OF TLMs BY TEACHERS
GES should provide wide range of them for teachers to use when necessary.
Inspecting officers and basic school heads should monitor the use of materials by teachers during
teaching.
Workshop on the presentation and use of TLMs should be organised by the GES for teachers.
Specialised materials for use in schools should be provided by the GES.
Knowledge and effective use of instructional materials should form part of the requirement for
the promotion and inspection for Best Teachers’ Awards.

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 CHAPTER NINE

THE RATIONAL FOR CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

The rationale for classroom assessment is rooted in its various purposes and benefits in promoting
effective teaching and learning. Here are some key rationales for conducting classroom
assessments:

1. Inform Instruction: Classroom assessments provide valuable information about students'

knowledge, skills, and understanding, allowing teachers to tailor instruction to meet their
individual needs. By identifying areas of strength and areas requiring improvement,
assessments help teachers make informed decisions about instructional strategies, pacing,
and content delivery.

2. Support Learning Progress: Assessments serve as tools for monitoring and tracking
students' progress over time. They provide feedback on students' learning growth and help
identify areas where additional support or intervention may be needed. Regular
assessments can motivate students to set goals, monitor their own progress, and take
ownership of their learning.

3. Check Understanding: Assessments allow teachers to gauge students' understanding of key

concepts, skills, and content. They provide opportunities for students to demonstrate what
they have learned and help teachers identify any misconceptions or gaps in understanding.
This information enables teachers to adjust instruction and provide targeted feedback.

4. Guide Instructional Decision-Making: Classroom assessments inform instructional

decision-making at both the individual student and whole-class levels. Teachers can use
assessment results to differentiate instruction, modify teaching strategies, and provide
appropriate support or enrichment based on students' specific needs.

5. Promote Reflection and Self-Assessment: Assessments encourage students to reflect on

their own learning progress and assess their own understanding. Through self-assessment,
students develop metacognitive skills, become more aware of their strengths and
weaknesses, and take responsibility for their learning. This promotes a sense of agency and
lifelong learning skills.

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 6. Promote Fairness and Equity: Well-designed assessments help ensure fairness and equity
in the classroom. They provide multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate their
knowledge and skills using different assessment methods, accommodating diverse learning
styles and preferences. Assessments that are aligned with clear criteria and standards
promote transparency and reduce biases.

7. Enhance Communication: Classroom assessments facilitate communication between

teachers, students, and parents or guardians. Assessment results can be shared to inform
parents about their child's progress and strengths, enabling them to support their child's
learning at home. Clear communication about assessment expectations and criteria
promotes a shared understanding of learning goals.

8. Monitor Curriculum Effectiveness: Assessments help teachers evaluate the effectiveness

of the curriculum and instructional approaches. By analyzing assessment data, teachers can
identify areas of strength and areas that may need adjustment or improvement. This allows
for ongoing curriculum review and refinement to ensure alignment with learning
objectives.

Overall, the rationale for classroom assessment is to support effective teaching and learning by
providing meaningful feedback, promoting student growth, guiding instruction, fostering
reflection, and ensuring fairness and equity in the learning environment.
FORMS OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Classroom assessment takes various forms to gather information about students' knowledge, skills,
and understanding. Here are some common forms of classroom assessment:

1. Formative Assessment: This type of assessment is ongoing and occurs during the learning
process. It aims to monitor students' understanding and provide immediate feedback to
inform instruction. Examples include classroom discussions, questioning techniques, exit
tickets, quizzes, observations, and informal checks for understanding.

2. Summative Assessment: Summative assessments are typically administered at the end of

a unit, chapter, or course to evaluate students' overall learning outcomes. They are used to
assign grades or determine students' mastery of specific content. Examples include final
exams, standardized tests, unit tests, projects, or research papers.

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3. Diagnostic Assessment: Diagnostic assessments are conducted at the beginning of a unit
or course to assess students' prior knowledge, skills, and understanding. They help identify
students' strengths, weaknesses, and any misconceptions. Examples include pre-tests,
concept maps, pre-assessments, or diagnostic interviews.

4. Performance Assessment: Performance assessments focus on students' ability to apply their

knowledge and skills to real-world tasks or projects. They assess higher-order thinking
skills, problem-solving abilities, and application of knowledge in authentic contexts.
Examples include presentations, portfolios, simulations, debates, or experiments.

5. Self-Assessment and Peer Assessment: Self-assessment involves students reflecting on

their own learning progress, setting goals, and evaluating their own work against given
criteria. Peer assessment involves students providing feedback and evaluating each other's
work using established criteria. Both forms of assessment promote metacognition, self-
regulation, and peer collaboration skills.

6. Oral Assessments: Oral assessments involve students demonstrating their understanding

or skills through spoken communication. This can include individual or group
presentations, debates, oral exams, interviews, or classroom discussions. Oral assessments
assess communication skills, critical thinking, and verbal expression.

7. Written Assessments: Written assessments involve students demonstrating their

understanding or skills through written responses. This includes essays, short answer
questions, research papers, journal entries, or written exams. Written assessments assess
written communication skills, organization, and critical thinking abilities.

8. Authentic Assessments: Authentic assessments focus on real-world, relevant tasks that

simulate or mirror actual situations. They assess students' abilities to apply knowledge and
skills in practical contexts. Examples include case studies, real-world problem-solving
tasks, role-plays, or simulations.

9. Assessment of Learning: This type of assessment is often associated with summative

assessments and is used to evaluate students' learning outcomes at the end of a unit, course,
or academic period. The primary purpose is to measure and document what students have
learned. Examples include final exams, standardized tests, end-of-unit assessments, and

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 grading assignments. Assessment of learning provides a snapshot of students' performance
and determines their level of achievement against predetermined criteria.
10. Assessment for Learning: Assessment for learning, also known as formative assessment,
focuses on providing ongoing feedback to students during the learning process. Its primary
purpose is to support and enhance learning by identifying students' strengths and areas for
improvement. Assessment for learning informs instructional decisions, helps students self-
assess and set learning goals, and guides teachers in adapting their teaching strategies.
Examples include classroom discussions, quizzes, pretests, feedback on assignments, and
check-ins for understanding. Assessment for learning fosters student engagement,
reflection, and metacognitive skills.

11. Assessment as Learning: Assessment as learning is an approach that involves students

taking an active role in their own assessment process. It emphasizes self-regulation,
metacognition, and the development of lifelong learning skills. Assessment as learning
integrates the assessment process into the learning experience itself. Students engage in
self-assessment, reflect on their own progress, set goals, and make judgments about their
own learning. They take ownership of their learning and monitor their progress. Examples
of assessment as learning include self-reflection exercises, portfolio assessments, learning
journals, and peer feedback activities. Assessment as learning promotes student agency,
self-directed learning, and a deeper understanding of one's own learning process

It's important to note that these forms of assessment can be used in combination or tailored to suit
specific learning objectives and contexts. The selection of assessment methods should align with
the intended outcomes and provide a comprehensive view of students' learning progress.

WRITING EFFECTIVE/EFFETIVE TEST ITEMS

When creating test items, it is important to design questions that effectively assess students'
knowledge, understanding, and application of the content. Here are some guidelines for creating
appropriate and effective test items:

I. Clearly State the Objective: Each test item should align with a specific learning objective
or skill that you want to assess. Clearly state the objective at the beginning of the question
or include it in the instructions to provide context for the students.

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II. Use Clear and Concise Language: Ensure that the wording of the test items is clear and
easy to understand. Avoid using complex or ambiguous language that may confuse
students. Keep the questions concise, focusing on the essential information.
III. Avoid Biased or Leading Language: Ensure that the test items are neutral and do not
contain any biased or leading language that may influence students' responses. Use
objective wording that does not favor any particular perspective.

IV. Incorporate Higher-Order Thinking Skills: Include test items that require students to apply
higherorder thinking skills, such as analysis, evaluation, or synthesis. These items go
beyond simple recall and encourage critical thinking and problem-solving abilities.

V. Balance Difficulty Level: Create a balance of easy, moderate, and challenging test items
to assess students' varying levels of knowledge and understanding. This helps differentiate
between students who have a solid grasp of the content and those who may need additional
support.

VI. Provide Clear and Specific Instructions: Clearly instruct students on how to respond to
each test item. Specify if they need to select multiple answers, provide written
explanations, solve problems, or choose the best response. Avoid vague instructions that
may confuse students.

VII. Include a Variety of Question Formats: Incorporate different question formats to

assess various skills and engage students. Examples include multiple-choice, true/false,
matching, fill-inthe-blank, short-answer, essay, or problem-solving questions. Each format
should be appropriate for the content being assessed.

VIII. Avoid Clues or Irrelevant Information: Ensure that the test items do not contain
unnecessary clues or irrelevant information that may guide students to the correct answer.
Keep the focus on assessing the targeted learning objective.

IX. Review for Accuracy and Consistency: Before finalizing the test items, review them for
accuracy, relevance, and consistency with the learning objectives. Ensure that the answer
choices are plausible and that there is only one correct answer, unless specifically intended
for multiple correct answers.

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 X. Pilot Test and Revise: Consider piloting the test items with a small group of students to
gather feedback on their clarity and difficulty level. Based on the feedback, revise and
refine the items as necessary before administering the test to the entire class.
Remember, the goal is to create test items that effectively measure students' understanding and
skills while providing a fair and valid assessment. By following these guidelines, you can create
appropriate and effective test items that align with your instructional objectives.

IDENTIFING THE VARIOUS WAYS OF SCORING A TEST

There are several ways to score a test, depending on the type of assessment and the desired
outcomes. Here are some common methods of scoring tests:

1. Correct/Incorrect Scoring: This method assigns a value of 1 for each correct answer and 0
for each incorrect answer. It is commonly used for multiple-choice or true/false questions.
The total score is the sum of correct answers.

2. Partial Credit Scoring: Partial credit scoring is used when there are partially correct or
partially incorrect responses. It involves assigning different values or weights to different
parts of the response. This method is commonly used for open-ended or essay questions
where the answer may involve multiple components or require a specific approach.

3. Rubric-Based Scoring: Rubrics provide a scoring guide that outlines specific criteria and
performance levels for each question or task. Each criterion is assigned a score or rating
based on the degree of achievement. Rubrics are particularly useful for subjective
assessments, such as essays, projects, or performance-based tasks. They provide
transparency and consistency in scoring.

4. Analytic Scoring: Analytic scoring involves assessing different aspects or components of

a response separately and assigning scores to each component. It allows for a more detailed
analysis of students' strengths and weaknesses. This method is commonly used in complex
assessments, such as research papers or extended responses.

5. Holistic Scoring: Holistic scoring involves evaluating the overall quality or performance
of a response based on a predetermined set of criteria or standards. It provides a single

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 score that represents the overall impression of the response. This method is often used for
subjective assessments, such as creative writing or presentations.

6. Norm-Referenced Scoring: Norm-referenced scoring compares students' performance to a

norm or reference group. The scores are based on the distribution of scores within the
group, allowing for ranking and comparison. Norm-referenced scoring is commonly used
in standardized tests where the results are compared to a larger population.

7. Criterion-Referenced Scoring: Criterion-referenced scoring focuses on students'

performance against predetermined criteria or standards rather than comparing to other
students. It assesses whether students have achieved specific learning objectives or mastery
levels. Criterion-referenced scoring is often used in classroom assessments aligned with
specific learning outcomes.

8. Computerized Scoring: Computerized scoring involves using automated systems or

software to score objective assessments, such as multiple-choice or fill-in-the-blank
questions. The computer software analyzes the responses and assigns scores based on
predetermined algorithms or rules.

When selecting a scoring method, consider the nature of the assessment, the intended learning
outcomes, and the practicality of implementation. It's important to use consistent and reliable
scoring methods to ensure fairness and validity in the assessment process.

ANALYZING AND USING TEST SCORES TO MAKE A MEANINGFUL JUDGEMENT

Analyzing and using test scores effectively involves interpreting the results in a meaningful way
to make informed judgments about student performance. Here are some steps to help you analyze
and use test scores:

✓ Review the Test Objectives and Criteria: Begin by revisiting the test objectives and criteria
that were established before administering the test. Understand the learning outcomes or
skills being assessed and the performance criteria or standards that were set. This will
provide a framework for interpreting the scores.

✓ Examine the Distribution of Scores: Look at the distribution of scores to understand the
range and variability of student performance. Identify any patterns or trends that emerge,

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 such as clusters of high or low scores. This information can provide insights into the overall
performance of the group and help identify areas of strength or areas that require further
attention.

✓ Identify Individual Performance: Assess individual student scores and compare them to
the established criteria or standards. Identify students who have achieved mastery or
exceeded expectations, as well as those who may be struggling or below the expected level.
This information can help guide instructional decisions and support individualized learning
needs.

✓ Analyze Item-Level Performance: Analyze the performance on specific test items or

question types. Identify items that were answered correctly by most students, indicating
areas of strength, as well as items with low success rates, indicating areas that may require
further instruction or clarification. This analysis can inform future instructional focus and
adjustments.

✓ Consider Context and External Factors: Take into account the broader context and external
factors that may have influenced test scores. Consider students' prior knowledge,
classroom environment, instructional practices, and any external factors that may have
impacted their performance. This contextual information provides a more comprehensive
understanding of the test scores.

✓ Use Scores to Inform Instruction: Utilize the test scores to inform instructional decisions.
Identify areas where re-teaching or additional support is needed based on students'
performance. Adjust instructional strategies, pacing, or content to address the identified
needs. Use the scores as a diagnostic tool to guide targeted interventions and provide timely
feedback to students.

✓ Communicate Results to Stakeholders: Share the test results with students, parents, or
guardians to provide feedback on their performance. Clearly communicate the strengths,
areas for improvement, and next steps for each student. Use the scores as a basis for
conversations about progress, goal setting, and collaborative efforts to support student
learning.

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✓ Monitor Progress Over Time: Continuously monitor students' progress over time by
comparing test scores from different assessments. Look for growth or improvement in
performance and identify any persistent areas of challenge. Use this longitudinal analysis
to track individual and group progress and make informed decisions about ongoing
instruction.

✓ Remember that test scores are just one piece of information and should be considered
alongside other evidence of student learning. Effective analysis and use of test scores
involve considering the broader context, individual student needs, and ongoing assessment
data to inform instructional decisions and support student growth.

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